Fundamental Concepts SW 11

STATISTICS:
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS
LEO ART DIOSEP E. BORRES, LPT, MA

Chair, Math and Sciences Department
Copyright © 2015 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 1
QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS:
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS
Outline
1-1 The Meaning of Statistics
1-2 Descriptive and Inferential Statistics
1-3 Variable and Types of Data
1-4 Types of Statistical Studies
1-5 Sampling Techniques
1-6 Survey: A Method of Data Collection
Copyright © 2015 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Learning Objectives
1 Demonstrate knowledge of statistical terms.
2 Demonstrate understanding of goals and application
of statistics.
3 Differentiate between the two branches of statistics.
4 Differentiate between population and sample.
5 Identify types of data.
6 Identify the measurement level for each variable.
Learning Objectives
7 Differentiate between observational study and
experimental study.
8 Differentiate between independent variable and
dependent variable.
9 Differentiate between probability sampling and non-
probability.
10 Identify and describe the types of probability and
non-probability sampling.
11 Explain the importance of survey in data collection.
➢ Statistics
• the science of conducting studies to
collect, organize, summarize, analyze,
and draw conclusions from data
(Bluman, 2009).
Bluman Chapter 1 5
➢ Statistics
• a collection of methods for planning
experiments, obtaining data, and then
organizing, summarizing, presenting,
analyzing, interpreting, and drawing
conclusions based on the data (Addison
& Wesly, 2004).
Bluman Chapter 1 6
➢ Statistics
• Involves the collection, interpretation,
measurement, enumerations or estimation
analysis, and presentation of natural or
social phenomena (Ahmad, 2012).
• Through application of various tools and
technique, the raw data becomes
meaningful and generates the information
for decision-making purpose.
Bluman Chapter 1 7
➢ Application
• Statistical methods can be applied to a
variety of social situations.
• In today's data-driven world, statistics is
used to make policy decisions, study
social and behavioral changes, and
answer important cultural questions.
Bluman Chapter 1 8
➢ Application
• Statistics holds a central position in almost
every field of research like Industry,
Commerce, Trade, Physics, Chemistry,
Economics, Mathematics, Biology, Botany,
Psychology, Astronomy, management of
decision making.
Bluman Chapter 1 9
➢ Application
• Statistics plays a vital role in every fields of
human activity and has important role in
determining the existing position of per
capita income, unemployment, population
growth rate, housing, schooling medical
facilities etc. in a country, by which the
decision making and development plans of
the government becomes concentric
(Ahmid, 2012).
Bluman Chapter 1 10
As society became
more complex, there
developed more
demand for accurate
summary statements
and inferences made
in numerical form.
➢ Goals
• To be able to read and understand the
various statistical studies performed in
your fields.
• To conduct research in your field, since
statistical procedures are basic to
research.
• To become better consumers and citizens
Bluman Chapter 1 12
1-2 Descriptive and Inferential
Statistics
➢ Descriptive statistics
• consists of the collection, organization,
summarization, and presentation of data.
• uses the data to provide descriptions of
the sample or population, either through
numerical calculations or graphs or
tables.
Bluman Chapter 1 13
Statistics
Bluman Chapter 1 14
Statistics
➢ Inferential statistics
• consists of generalizing from samples to
populations, performing estimations and
hypothesis tests, determining relationships
among variables, and making predictions.
Bluman Chapter 1 16
Statistics
➢ Inferential statistics
• takes data from a sample and makes
inferences about the larger population from
which the sample was drawn.
• uses probability, i.e., the chance of an
event occurring
Bluman Chapter 1 17
Bluman Chapter 1
Statistics
➢ Distinction between Population and
Sample
• A population consists of all subjects
(human or otherwise) that are being
studied.
• A sample is a group of subjects selected
from a population.
Bluman Chapter 1 19
Statistics
Sample
• Most of the time, due to the expense, time,
size of population, medical concerns, etc.,
it is not possible to use the entire
population for a statistical study; therefore,
researchers use samples.
Bluman Chapter 1 20
Statistics
Sample
• If the subjects of a sample are properly
selected, most of the time they should
possess the same or similar characteristics
as the subjects in the population.
Bluman Chapter 1 21
➢ Variable
• a characteristic or attribute that can
assume different values.
• logical set of attributes, characteristics,
numbers or quantities that can be
measured or counted
Bluman Chapter 1 22
➢ Data
• The values that a variable can assume
• observations (such as measurements,
genders, survey responses) that have
been collected.
• Variables can be classified as qualitative
or quantitative.
Bluman Chapter 1 23
➢ Qualitative Variables
• variables that can be placed into distinct
categories, according to some characteristic
or attribute
• Examples: gender, race/ethnicity
Bluman Chapter 1 24
➢ Quantitative Variables
• numbers representing counts or
measurements.
• numerical data can be ordered or ranked
• Examples: age, height
Bluman Chapter 1 25
➢ Quantitative Variables
• Quantitative variables can be further
classified into two groups: discrete and
continuous.
Bluman Chapter 1 26
➢ Discrete Variables
• can assume values that can be counted
• Data are obtained by counting.
• Examples: number of children in the family
Bluman Chapter 1 27
➢ Continuous Variables
• can assume an infinite number of values
between any two specific values.
• Data are obtained by measuring. They often
include fractions and decimals.
• Examples: Temperature
Bluman Chapter 1 28
1-2 Variables and Types of Data
Data
Qualitative Quantitative
Categorical Numerical,
Can be ranked
Discrete Continuous
Countable Can be decimals
5, 29, 8000, etc. 2.59, 312.1, etc.
Bluman Chapter 1 29
➢ Levels of Measurements
• Another way to classify data is to use
levels of measurement. Four of these
levels are discussed in the following
slides.
Bluman Chapter 1 30
➢ Nominal Level of Measurement

• characterized by data that consist of
names, labels, or categories only.
• The data cannot be arranged in an
ordering scheme (such as low to high)
• Examples: eye color, blood type,
nationality
Bluman Chapter 1 31
➢ Ordinal Level of Measurement

• involves data that may be arranged in
some order, but differences between
data values either cannot be determined
or are meaningless
• Examples: birth order, social class
Bluman Chapter 1 32
➢ Interval Level of Measurement

• ranks data, and precise differences
between units of measure do exist;
however, there is no meaningful zero.
• Examples: IQ, Temperature
Bluman Chapter 1 33
➢ Ratio Level of Measurement
• possesses all the characteristics of
interval measurement, and there exists a
true zero.
• True ratios exist when the same variable
is measured on two different members of
the population.
• Examples: height, weight
Bluman Chapter 1 34
➢ Observational and Experimental
Studies
• There are several different ways to classify
statistical studies.
• This lesson explains two types of studies:
observational studies and experimental
studies.
Bluman Chapter 1 35
➢ Observational Studies
• the researcher merely observes what is
happening or what has happened in the past
and tries to draw conclusions based on these
observations.
• No research intervention is introduced in the
study.
Bluman Chapter 1 36
➢ Experimental Studies
• primary approach used to investigate causal
(cause-effect) relationships
• the researcher manipulates one of the
variables and tries to determine how the
manipulation affects other variables.
• In a true experimental study, the subjects
should be assigned to groups randomly.
• Also, the treatments (variable of interest)
should be assigned to the groups at random.
Bluman Chapter 1 37
➢ Quasi-experimental Studies
• Sometimes when random assignment is not
possible, researchers use intact groups.
• When these groups are used, the study is
said to be a quasi-experimental study.
• The treatments, though, should be assigned
at random.
• These types of studies are done quite often in
education where already intact groups are
available in the form of existing classrooms.
Bluman Chapter 1 38
➢ Independent and Dependent Variable
• Statistical studies usually include one or more
independent variables and one dependent
variable.
Bluman Chapter 1 39
➢ Independent Variable
• Explanatory variable that is being manipulated
by the researcher.
• “cause” or “treatment” variable.
Bluman Chapter 1 40
➢ Dependent Variable
• “effect” or outcome of manipulating the
independent variable.
• the variable that is studied to see if it has
changed significantly due to the manipulation
of the independent variable.
Bluman Chapter 1 41
➢ Dependent Variable
• If the differences in the dependent or
outcome variable are large and other factors
are equal, these differences can be attributed
to the manipulation of the independent
variable.
Bluman Chapter 1 42
➢ Population
• Researchers commonly examine
variables of and collect data from
populations in their studies.
• A population is a group of individual
units with some commonality.
Bluman Chapter 1 43
➢ Target Population
• The entire group of people or objects to
which the researcher wishes to
generalize the study findings.
• Example: All teenage mothers
Bluman Chapter 1 44
➢ Accessible Population
• the portion of the population to which
the researcher has reasonable access
• May be a subset of the target
population.
• May be limited to region, state, city,
county, or institution.
• Example: All teenage mothers in the
province of Capiz
Bluman Chapter 1 45
• A researcher may want to study the
characteristics of teenage mothers in
the province of Capiz. This would be the
population being analyzed in the study.
• However, it would be impossible to
collect information from all teenage
mothers in the province of Capiz.
Bluman Chapter 1 46
➢ Sampling
• process of selecting units (e.g., people,
organizations) from a population of interest
o Sample Size - The number (n) of
observations taken from a population
through which statistical inferences for the
whole population are made.
o part of the population chosen for a survey
or experiment.
Bluman Chapter 1 47
➢ Sampling
• The group from which the data is drawn is a
representative sample of the population and
becomes the participants of the study.
• Eventually, the results of the study can be
generalized to the population as a whole.
Bluman Chapter 1 48
➢ Sampling
Bluman Chapter 1 49
➢ Why do we need to sample?
• It would be impracticable for you to survey the
entire population.
• Your budget constraints prevent you from
surveying the entire population.
• Your time constraints prevent you from
surveying the entire population.
• You have collected all the data but need the
results quickly.
Bluman Chapter 1 50
➢ Two Types of Sampling
• Probability Sampling
• Non-probability sampling
Bluman Chapter 1 51
➢ Two Types of Sampling
• The difference between the two is whether or
not the sampling selection involves
randomization.
• Randomization occurs when all members of
the population have an equal opportunity of
being selected for the study.
Bluman Chapter 1 52
➢ Probability Sampling
• members of the population are selected in
such a way that each individual member has
an equal chance of being selected
Bluman Chapter 1 53
➢ Probability Sampling
Bluman Chapter 1 54
➢ Simple Random Sampling
• Simplest form of random sampling where
every member has an equal chance of being
selected as a respondent of the study
• Use a table of random numbers, a computer
random number generator, or a mechanical
device to select the sample.
o Example 1: Lottery method
o Example 2: Random Generator in Excel or
computer software and applications
Bluman Chapter 1 55
➢ Systematic Sampling
• probability sampling method where the
elements are chosen from a target
population by selecting a random starting
point and selecting other members after a
fixed “sampling interval”.
• Researchers obtain systematic samples by
numbering each subject of the population and
then selecting every kth subject.
Bluman Chapter 1 56
• Researchers obtain systematic samples by
numbering each subject of the population,
selecting a random starting point, and then
selecting every kth subject (sampling
interval).
• Sampling interval is calculated by dividing the
entire population size by the desired sample
size.
Bluman Chapter 1 57
• For example, suppose there were 2000
subjects in the population and a sample of 50
subjects were needed. Since 2000 ÷ 50 = 40,
then k = 40. Hence, every 40th subject would
be selected.
• However, the first subject (numbered
between 1 and 40) would be selected at
random.
Bluman Chapter 1 58
• Suppose subject 12 were the first subject
selected; then the sample would consist of
the subjects whose numbers were 12, 52, 92,
etc., until 50 subjects were obtained.
Bluman Chapter 1 59
➢ Stratified Random Sampling
• Involves dividing your population into
homogeneous subgroups and then taking a
simple random sample in each subgroup.
• Population is divided into subgroups (strata)
and members are randomly selected from
each group.
Bluman Chapter 1 60
➢ Stratified Random Sampling Process
• Determine sample size using Slovin’s
Formula
• Use stratified random sample formula:
Bluman Chapter 1 61
➢ Cluster Sampling
• divides the population into clusters, clusters
are randomly selected and all members of
the cluster selected are sampled.
Bluman Chapter 1 62
➢ Multistage Sampling
• divides large populations into stages to make
the sampling process more practical.
• A combination of stratified sampling or cluster
sampling and simple random sampling is
usually used.
Bluman Chapter 1 63
➢ Multistage Sampling
Bluman Chapter 1 64
➢ Non-probability Sampling
• Does not rely on the use of randomization
techniques to select members.
• This is typically done in studies where
randomization is not possible in order to
obtain a representative sample.
Bluman Chapter 1 65
• Bias is a main concern since not all members
of the population have an equal chance of
being selected as participant of the study.
o This issue may be fixed by using
appropriate statistical analysis tools.
Bluman Chapter 1 66
Bluman Chapter 1 67
➢ Convenience Sampling
• members or units are selected based on
availability.
• Also known as “accidental sampling”
Bluman Chapter 1 68
➢ Voluntary Response Sampling
• made up of people who self-select into the
survey.
• Often, these folks have a strong interest in
the main topic of the survey.
Bluman Chapter 1 69
➢ Purposive Sampling
• members of a particular group are selected
based on characteristics of a population and
the purpose of the study
• It is like convenience sampling but you have
inclusion/exclusion criteria.
• For example, the participants should be
fisherfolks living in Basiao, Ivisan, Capiz.
Those who do not fit the criteria will be
rejected as participants.
Bluman Chapter 1 70
➢ Purposive Sampling
Bluman Chapter 1 71
➢ Quota Sampling
• members are sampled until exact proportions
of certain types of data are obtained or until
sufficient data in different categories is
collected.
• There is a freedom to choose any respondent
as long as the quota is met.
Bluman Chapter 1 72
➢ Quota Sampling
Bluman Chapter 1 73
➢ Snowball Sampling
• members are sampled and then asked to
help identify other members to sample and
this process continues until enough samples
are collected
Bluman Chapter 1 74
Bluman Chapter 1 75
1-6 Survey
➢ Data Collection
• the process of gathering and measuring
information on variables of interest, in an
established systematic fashion that enables
one to answer stated research questions, test
hypotheses, and evaluate outcomes.
• One of the most common methods of data
collection is through the use of surveys.
Bluman Chapter 1 76
1-6 Survey
➢ Data Collection
• Census - the collection of data from every
member of the population.
• Sampling - the collection of data from sample
population
Bluman Chapter 1 77
1-6 Survey
➢ Data Collection
• the process of gathering and measuring
information on variables of interest, in an
established systematic fashion that enables
one to answer stated research questions, test
hypotheses, and evaluate outcomes.
Bluman Chapter 1 78
1-6 Survey
➢ Survey
• One of the most common methods of data
collection is through the use of surveys.
• A survey is conducted when a sample of
individuals is asked to respond to questions
about a particular subject.
Bluman Chapter 1 79
1-6 Survey
➢ Two Types of Survey
• Interviewer-administered surveys require a
person to ask the questions. The interview
can be conducted face to face in an office, on
a street, or in the mall, or via telephone.
• Self-administered surveys can be done by
mail or in a group setting such as a
classroom.
Bluman Chapter 1 80
1-6 Survey
➢ Survey
• The big advantage of survey research is that
it has the potential to provide us with a lot of
information obtained from quite a large
sample of individuals.
Bluman Chapter 1 81
1-6 Survey
➢ Survey
• The difficulties involved in survey research
are mainly threefold:
o ensuring that the questions are clear and
not misleading;
o getting respondents to answer questions
thoughtfully and honestly;
o getting a sufficient number of the
questionnaires completed and returned to
enable making meaningful analyses.
Bluman Chapter 1 82
1-6 Survey
➢ Conducting a Sample Survey
• Step 1. Decide what information is needed.
• Step 2. Determine how the data will be collected
(phone interview, mail survey, etc.).
• Step 3. Select the information-gathering
instrument or design the questionnaire if one is
not available.
• Step 4. Set up a sampling list, if possible.
• Step 5 Select the best method for obtaining the
sample (random, systematic, stratified, cluster,
or other).
Bluman Chapter 1 83
1-6 Survey
➢ Conducting a Sample Survey
• Step 5. Select the best method for obtaining the
sample (random, systematic, stratified, cluster,
or other).
• Step 6. Conduct the survey and collect the data.
• Step 7. Tabulate the data.
• Step 8. Conduct the statistical analysis.
• Step 9. Report the results.
Bluman Chapter 1 84
Thank you for listening!
Bluman Chapter 1

Fundamental Concepts SW 11

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STATISTICS:

LEO ART DIOSEP E. BORRES, LPT, MA

➢ Nominal Level of Measurement

➢ Ordinal Level of Measurement

➢ Interval Level of Measurement

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