Ecology

(BIO C322)

Community Ecology
Habitat and Niche

• Habitat = The place where an organism

lives.

• Ecological niche = Physical space +

Organism’s functional role in the community.
 Ecological Niche

• Includes the physical space occupied by

an organism (Habitat niche),

• trophic position (Trophic niche),

• and position in environmental gradient of

temperature, moisture, etc
(Multidimensional or Hypervolume niche).
Example:
Both water backswimmer (Notonecta sp.)
and water boatman (Corixa sp.)
occupy same habitat
(shallow vegetation-choked areas of ponds/lakes);

Water Backswimmer Water Boatman

• However, they occupy different trophic
niches:

• The former feeds on small living

organisms whereas,

• the latter on decaying vegetation.

Organisms in niche 1 tolerate higher pH & temp,
whereas those in niche 2 lower pH and temp.

pH and temperature → Niche dimensions.

The rectangular area(s) → Niche space(s).
• Within a species, competition is often
reduced when different life stages occupy
different niches.

• Example: Tadpole (herbivore), adult frog

(carnivore).
• Charles Darwin’s ‘On the Origin of Species’:

• “As species of the same genus have usually,

though by no means invariably, some similarity
in habits and constitution, and always in
structure,
• the struggle will generally be more severe
between species of the same genus, when they
come into competition with each other, than
between species of distinct genera.”

• This is the concept of Niche Overlap.

Niche Overlap
Darwin’s Finches

Galapagos Islands
• Darwin studied 14 distinct species of finches
(Geospiza sp.) occurring on Galapagos islands.

• Existing species derived from generalized finch-

like birds, evolving into different species
occupying different niches.
• Six ground-feeders (heavy beaks to crush
heavy-coated seeds),

• Eight insect-feeders, perching on tree

branches (beak structure different).

• Competition reduced due to

niche diversification or niche shift.

• Also, change in morphological features.

e.g. beak morphology in the above case.
 Fundamental & Realized Niches

• Fundamental Niche = Hypervolume that a

population can fill in absence of competitors.

• Sometimes in competition, if similar

requirements are there along niche dimensions,
their niches will overlap.
• Realized Niche = When the species
constrained by competition & other biotic
limiting factors.

• If the niche of one species completely

overlaps that of another,

• then one species will be eliminated

according to the competitive exclusion
principle.
Gause Principle - Competitive Exclusion Principle

• When there is a common environmental

requirement between two closely related
species, one species outcompetes the other.

• Closely related organisms having similar

habits often do not occur in the same places.

• If at same places, they use different

resources or are active at different times.
• This is called ecological separation of
closely related or similar species.
 Gause’s Study on Paramecium

• Cultures of Paramecium caudatum and

P. aurelia studied.
• In separate cultures, sigmoid growth curves.
• When cultured together, P. aurelia alone
survived after 16 days.

• WHY?
• P. aurelia had a more rapid growth rate
(higher ‘r’ value), and thus outcompeted
P. caudatum for the limited amount of
food.
• If the niches overlap partially, coexistence is
possible in different ways.

• Either one species occupies its own

fundamental niche, second species occupies a
smaller realized niche.

• Or both species occupy smaller realized niches.

• Both these ways help to reduce interspecific

competition.
 Guilds
• Guild = Group of species that exploits the same
class of environmental resources in similar way.

• Example: In the case of Darwin’s finches, two

guilds – one ground feeders (seeds) and
another insect feeders (tree branches).
Example: Different species of nectar-feeding
insects constitute a guild.
 Ecological Equivalents
• Ecological equivalents = Species that occupy
similar niches in different geographical regions.

• Example: Grassland ecosystem develops

wherever there is a grassland climate, but the
species of grass and grazers may be different.
•Example: The kangaroos of the Australian grassland
are ecological equivalents of the bison of the
North American grassland.

Kangaroo Bison
 Types of Interactions in Community
• Combinations of neutral (0), positive (+) &
negative (-).

• Neutralism (00): Neither population is

affected by association with the other.

• Competition, Direct interference type (--):

Both populations actively inhibit each other
(fighting/defending territory).
• Competition, Resource use type (--):
Indirect inhibition, common resource in
short supply.

• Amensalism (-0): Population 1 inhibited, 2

not affected.

• Commensalism (+0): Population 1, the

commensal, benefits; 2, the host, not
affected.
• Parasitism (+-): Population 1, the parasite,
generally smaller than the host (2).

• Predation (+-): Population 1, the predator,

generally larger than the prey (2).
• Protocooperation or facultative
cooperation (++): Interaction favourable to
both, not obligatory.

• Mutualism or symbiosis (++): Obligatory

interaction; neither can survive without the
other.