Environmental Technology & Innovation 22 (2021) 101522

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Environmental Technology & Innovation

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/eti

Environmental sensitivity of flash flood hazard based on

surface water model and GIS techniques in Wadi El Azariq,
Sinai, Egypt
∗
Maged El Osta a,b , , Mohamed El Sabri c , Milad Masoud a,c
a
Water Research Center, King Abdulaziz University, P.O. Box 80208, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia
b
Geology Department, Faculty of Science, Damanhour University, Egypt
c
Hydrology Department, Desert Research Center, Matariya, Cairo, Egypt

article info a b s t r a c t

Article history: Wadi El Azariq basin constitutes the administrative division of the province in the
Received 23 February 2021 northeastern part of the Sinai Peninsula, Egypt. This wadi represents one of the most
Received in revised form 18 March 2021 promising areas for different activities due to its hydrological and location importance.
Accepted 23 March 2021
This study aims to implement a new methodology for flash flood assessment and
Available online 26 March 2021
modeling in this strategic region through the integration between physiographic fea-
Keywords: tures, surface water models (WMS and HEC-HMS), as well as Geographic Information
Hydrology System (GIS). Thirty-eight morphometric elements were analyzed qualitatively and
Environmental sensitivity quantitatively using topographic maps and recent satellite images. These parameters
Physiographic features were inter-linked to yield nine important factors for assessment of the flash flood
Flood hazard
hazardous, which were determined and grouped in both high and low degrees. Also,
Surface water models
hydrographs for Wadi El Azariq basin were constructed with different recurrence stages
Geographic information system
of extremely (maximum) daily rainfall using the last phase carried out in the modeling
procedure. The obtained result proved that the total surface runoff ranges from 4.1×106
m3 to 13.8×106 m3 at recurrence stages of 5 years and 100 years respectively based on
the maximum daily rainfall events. This study draws specifics about the flash flood-
prone areas, planning rainwater harvesting and flood management approaches of Wadi
El Azariq basin. Besides, areas of inundation and groundwater potentiality were also
determined as the surface runoff potentiality.
© 2021 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

Regarding Tasdighi et al. (2018), surface water models are progressively implemented to evaluate hydrologic feedbacks
of watersheds in related to variations in land-use, climate changeability, and other variations of structure features. Also,
the surface water and flash flood hazardous are of serious environmental, economic and political challenges especially
for arid and semi-arid countries (Tooth, 2000). Gheith and Sultan (2002) reported that flash floods and its transported
sediments in arid lands have slight attention as environmental issues, owing to the relatively uncommon happening of
surface runoff and deficiency of measurements. Scarcity of precipitation and discharge information represents the main
issue for hydrological evaluation especially in arid catchments (McMahon, 1979). Consequently, Sinai Peninsula is a pattern
for semi-dry areas where the amounts of surface runoff and flooding are largely infrequent because of the lack of accessible

∗ Corresponding author at: King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia.

E-mail address: melosta@kau.edu.sa (M. El Osta).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eti.2021.101522
2352-1864/© 2021 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
M. El Osta, M. El Sabri and M. Masoud Environmental Technology & Innovation 22 (2021) 101522

finance, and security issue accompanying with a sampling of these extremely heavy events. As a result of the paucity of
measured hydrologic data, GIS techniques are very significant for hydrologic modeling and are progressively being applied
to evaluate the hydrologic behavior of basins to confirm some essential effective factors of water resources management.
However, scarcity of the hydrologic data is the main task to evaluate flash flood risk in arid regions. The study by
Singh et al. (2015), concluded that the inundation map and return interval are appreciated constraints for flood risk
management. Regarding Bloeschl (2005), watershed modeling, which based on restricted data results in inaccessible
hydrologic parameters for runoff molding which is used for calibrating of measured data is difficult, and therefore needs to
be attained through further methods. Through the latter part of the twentieth century, studies on natural hazards proved
that the measured data of rainfall and runoff are considered serious hydrologic parameters for mapping and inundating
of flash floods of arid drainage systems. Despite the shortage of measured hydrological data exists in the concerned area,
topographic and geomorphic characteristics of the Wadi became necessary apparent for inundating of flash floods (Şen
et al., 2012). Zerger and Smith (2003) also performed the combination of GIS, topographic and geomorphic elements of
the basin to evaluate flash flood hazardous, due to the improved accessibility of spatial databases and geo-informatics
software. Further, recently studied carried out by Merzi and Aktas (2000), He et al. (2003), Guzzetti and Tonelli (2004),
Sanyal and Lu (2006), Fernadez and Lutz (2010) have been cited concerning to the flash flood hazardous assessment based
on basin morphometric parameters and GIS. Literature is supplied with studies in which the physical characteristics of
the hydrographic basin are estimated using old methods such as (Horton, 1932, 1945; Strahler, 1964; Rudriaih et al.,
2008; Nageswararao et al., 2010). Agreeing to Gardiner (1990), these characteristics have been widely used to forecast
and explain the extreme discharge of floods, as well as to estimate the rate of erosions. For instance, basin Physiographic
features are not only involved in vast studies of climate, geological and geomorphological settings but also the hydrological
setting such as relations between rainfall and runoff and hydrograph generation (Aryadike and Phil-Eze, 1989). Earlier
studies to assess the hazardous flash flood in related to quality and quantity of the drainage basins are initiated to define
the relationships among basin constraints and the effect of the flood (Patton, 1988). Many regular procedures such as
field visits, monitoring, topographical and geological maps, and GIS implements are also provided information about
the abstraction of water divides and basin streams especially in an arid environment (Maidment, 2002; Masoud, 2015).
Concerning Singh (2014), Kedarnath flash flood in the Indian Himalaya was responsible for tragedy and disaster where
the terrible event of the flash flood that happened in June 2013 considers one of the serious stages of modification for
some geomorphological units.
Certainly, population growth in Egypt nowadays (2 million/year) may lead to more people being migrate to new
promising areas such as Sinai Peninsula. The studied area (Wadi El Azariq basin) constitutes the executive partition of
the province in its northeastern part. This Wadi representing one of the most promising areas for the different sectors
because of its location and hydrological significance. Almost on a recent basis, an increase in agricultural reclamation,
roads, buildings and general infrastructure in this strategic Wadi may become vulnerable to more damage potential, due
to the effects of flood risks. Therefore, a different method is required; one that could not only to define the hazards of flash
flood and the concerns faced by society, but also to evaluate the amount of runoff for the main hydrographic sub-basins of
Wadi El Azariq (based upon hydrologic models WMS, and HEC-HMS, as well as the GIS techniques). The whole objective
of this research is to offer a suitable governing scenario for managing the flooding and to preserve this planned area from
damage to infrastructure and settlements. Findings would be useful through the infiltration of rainfall and surface runoff
waters through Wadi beds for aquifer’s recharge and similar areas of inundation and groundwater potentiality will also
be determined as the surface runoff potentiality. To achieve this objective, surface water model and GIS techniques have
been integrated for evaluating the excessive risk and critical vulnerability according the following research sections; the
methodology and data source stand in the next Section 2, the results and discussion are introduced in Section 3 and we
summarize the main topics and conclude the article in Section 4.

2. The methodology and data source

2.1. Site description and background

Due to the high increasing rate of population in Egypt (2 million/year) and about 90% of the people are living around
the Nile River and Delta, the Egyptian government tries to put a new strategy for the main target of 25% land habitation
by the year 2050, through exploiting of different natural resources in the whole country (Kim and Sultan, 2002). For
instance, the Sinai Peninsula coming up as one of the very interesting site for sustainable development plans in Egypt,
because of its strategic depth for Egyptian security. In the northeastern portion of the Sinai Peninsula, Wadi El Azariq
basin is selected for this research because of its strategic location and important hydrological conditions. The studied
Wadi has an area of about 2278 km 2 with a length equal to 101 km and bounded by 33o 56‘ & 34o 46‘E (longitudes)
and 30o 31‘ & 31o 13‘N (latitudes) as shown in Fig. 1. Geomorphologically, the landforms have reflected the result of the
tectonic movement in the whole area. Latterly, the climatic and geological actions adapted them and finally led to the
current two main hydrogeomorphologic landforms. The first is a watershed area (highlands) which plays an important
role in receiving heavy precipitation, while the second is the water collectors (lowlands) which represented the essential
geomorphological aspects, where the width of the Wadi is about 41 km. Generally, these two units are generally flat by a
slight slope from southern to the northern direction. Furthermore, the sand dunes collect in both eastward and westward
direction by raise ranging between 41 and 50 m with a gradual increasing towards the west direction to El-Arish city.
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M. El Osta, M. El Sabri and M. Masoud Environmental Technology & Innovation 22 (2021) 101522

Fig. 1. Location map of Wadi El Azariq, Northeast Sinai, Egypt.

Fig. 2. Simplified geological map of Wadi El Azariq basin (CONOCO, 1989 and http://portal.onegeology.org/OnegeologyGlobal/).

The geological setting of the surveying area is summarized in Fig. 2. Essentially, the exposed rock units have a wide
range of time from the Holocene to Cretaceous. The Holocene deposits (Wadi filling) are comprised of sandstone, silt and
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M. El Osta, M. El Sabri and M. Masoud Environmental Technology & Innovation 22 (2021) 101522

Fig. 3. Field photos show the development of flash floods that occurs in Wadi El Azariq (March, 2014).

by thickness ranging between 5 and 29 m and covering the main channel of Wadi El-Azariq and its streams. Furthermore,
the Pleistocene deposits covering the majority portion of eastern zone of the Sinai Peninsula as Wadi deposits composed
of sand, silt, clay, and gravels. These deposits covering the Delta of the studied Wadi with a thickness changing from 48 to
145 m, besides Calcareous sandstone (Kurkar formation) which represents the lower portion of Quaternary deposits and
extends from El Arish to Rafah zone. On the other hand, Miocene deposits are composed of clay overlaid by Quaternary
deposits, while the Eocene deposits are composed of gypsum, sandy clay, marl, and marly limestone. Lately, the Cretaceous
deposits are composed of limestone to the south and east of the Wadi under of study.
Nearly on an annual basis, Wadi El-Azariq basin receives a significant quantity of rainfall and reveals conditions
that vary between arid (mountainous parts) semi-arid (lower parts) of Wadi. Owing to the restricted progress of this
region, rainfall gages until now had not established entire this study Wadi. The nearby climatological station is at El
Gudeirat region, which is away from the upstream of the study catchment about 12–15 km, and from the downstream is
about 72 km (Fig. 1). Mostly, activities in this strategic Wadi are significantly controlled by local climate variability and
groundwater potentiality. Regarding the climatic station obtained from the Egyptian Ministry of Water Resources and
Irrigation (EMWRI), the average depth of rainfall varies between 61 and 101 mm annually where that usually precipitates
through the spring and fall seasons towards the north direction, where both the direct infiltration of rainfall and runoff
play an important role in recharging the groundwater aquifer’s. Hence, this strategic Wadi is prone to frequent floods as
shown in Fig. 3, and the general framework of this study is going to investigate and develop the extreme rainfall events
to assess the hazardous of flash floods in the area of study. Constructing upon research and theory, this research precedes
a summarized history of hydrogeological information, the rate of groundwater recharge, and exploration of the most
prolific source of groundwater supply for planning purposes and development. It achieves by drawing essentials about
the planning rain-water gathering, prone areas of flash flood and flood management methods in this strategic area.

2.2. Morphometric characteristics of Wadi El Azariq

Generally, the hydrographic basins are largely controlled by climate conditions (arid, humid or tropical), the physiog-
raphy and the land-use of the basin (Dingman, 1978). Also, the erosion and sedimentation of the hydrographic basins are
influenced by the climate. The studying of morphometric parameters is highly significant and useful to evaluate the risk
of the flash floods. In this response, Singh and Awasthi (2011a,b) indicated that morphometric parameters are mainly
directing the hydrologic behaviors of the basin throughout the continued extremely rainfall event that produces flash
floods. In this study, about thirty-eight parameters described Wadi El Azariq basin are qualitatively and quantitatively
analyzed using topographic maps (scale 1: 100,000) and according to numerous studies such as Horton (1945), Strahler
(1957) and Melton (1957). A summary of these parameters is given in Tables 1 and 2 and described within four groups
as follows:

2.2.1. The drainage-network parameters

For any particular sub-basins of the studied Wadi, more effort in concerning characteristics of the drainage network
(physical features of the streams) has been done based on the use of ArcGIS 10.2. The stream orders (u) range between
6th and 7th order, where the lowest orders have a maximum number of streams than the highest ones. Moreover, both
stream numbers and lengths are measured for each sub-basin. For instance, sub-basin of less stream-numbers has fewer
stream-lengths, which indicates low recharging for groundwater than the others of the highest values. For other drainage
network characteristics, the bifurcation ratios and weighted mean-bifurcation ratios are close to No. 4, which mainly
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M. El Osta, M. El Sabri and M. Masoud Environmental Technology & Innovation 22 (2021) 101522

Table 1
Morphometric parameters formulas.
Morphometric parameters Formula Reference
1 Stream order (u ) Hierarchical Rank Horton (1945) and Strahler
(1952, 1964)
2 Stream number (Nu ) Nu = N1 + N2 + N3 + . . . ..Nn Strahler (1952)
Drainage 3 Stream length (Lu ) Lu = L1 + L2 + ...... Ln Horton (1932)
network
4 Bifurcation ratio (Rb) Rb = Nu/Nu + 1 Horton (1945) and Strahler
(1964)
(Rbu/Rbu+1)(Nu+Nu+1)
∑
5 weighted mean bifurcation WMRb = ∑
N
Strahler (1952)
ratio (WMRb)
6 Main channel Length (MC) GIS software Analysis
7 Main channel index (MCi) Ci = (Main channel length) / (Maximum Mueller (1968)
straight of the main channel)
8 Sinuosity (Si) Si = VL/LB Gregory and Walling (1973)
9 Rho coefficient (ρ ) ρ = Lur/Rb Horton (1945)
10 Watershed Area (A) GIS software Analysis Schumm (1956)
11 The basin length (LB) GIS software Analysis Schumm (1956)
12 The basin perimeter (Pr) GIS software Analysis Schumm (1956)
13 Basin Width (W) W = A/LB (km) Horton (1932)
Basin 14 Circularity ratio (Rc) Rc = 4π A/Pr 2 Miller (1953)
geometry √
15 Elongation ratio (Re) Re = (2 A/π/LB) (Schumm, 1956)
Nu/Pr
∑
16 Texture ratio (Rt) Rt = Horton (1945)
17 Form factor ratio (FFR) FFR = A/LB2 Horton (1932)
18 Inverse shape form (Sv) or S v = LB2 /A Horton (1932)
Shape factor ratio (Sf)
19 Basin shape index (Ish) Ish = 1.27A/LB2 (Haggett, 1965)
√
20 Compactness ratio (SH ) SH = Pr/2( π A) Horton (1945)
21 Fitness ratio (Fr) Fr = Channel length / Perimeter Melton (1957)
22 Lemniscate shape (Ls) Le = (3.14) (BL)2 / (4A) Chorley et al. (1957)
∑K
23 Stream Frequency (F) F = i=1 Nu/A Horton (1932, 1945)
Lu/A
∑
24 Drainage density (D) D= Horton (1932, 1945)
Drainage
texture 25 Drainage Intensity (Di) Di = F/D Faniran (1968)
26 Length of overland flow (Lo) Lo = 1/2D Horton (1945)
27 Infiltration Number (FN) FN = (F)(D) Faniran (1968)
28 Drainage pattern (Dp) Stream network using GIS software Analysis Horton (1932)
29 Maximum elevation (Hmax ) GIS software Analysis using DEM
30 Minimum elevation (Hmin ) GIS software Analysis using DEM
31 Relief (Rf) Rf = Highest elevation-Lowest elevation Strahler (1952)
Relief 32 Internal relief (E) E = (E85-E10) Strahler (1952)
characteristics
33 Mean Elevation (Hm) GIS software Analysis using DEM
34 Relief ratio (Rr) Rr = (Rf /LB)100 Schumm (1956)
35 Slope index (SI %) SI = (E /0.75VL)100 Majure and Soenksen (1991)
36 Mean basin slope (Sm) GIS software Analysis using DEM
37 Ruggedness number (Rn) Rn = Rf .D Melton (1957)
38 Hypsometric Integral (HI) HI = (Elev − Elevmin)/(Elevmax − Elevmin) Strahler (1952)
Elev is the mean elevation, Elev max . is the
maximum elevation and Elev min is the
minimum elevation,

attributed to the effect of lithology and device of geological structures in the area. Also, as the effect of lithology and
structures, the principal valley lengths are widely varying between 25.8 km and 75.6 km as presented in Table 2. For
clarification, basins of higher sinuosity have a longer duration of concentration and accordingly a high potentiality for
recharging the groundwater than those of low sinuosity. For any particular network parameters, the Rho coefficient (ρ ) is
a significant element regarding the drainage-density to the basin hydrological growth. This parameter plays an important
role in the estimation of water concentration capacity in the area. Regarding Horton (1945) and Pareta and Pareta (2011),
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M. El Osta, M. El Sabri and M. Masoud Environmental Technology & Innovation 22 (2021) 101522

Table 2
Morphometric parameters and hazard degree of Wadi El Azariq basin.

basins of higher Rho reveals a high capability for water-storage than the lower Rho records. This variant of (Rho) may be
owing to the influence of geological setting and climatic conditions in the concerned area.

2.2.2. The basin-geometry parameters

After analyzing the drainage network characteristics of flash flood-related basin morphometric parameters, we focus
in this section on 13 parameters described the basin geometry of the Wadi (Tables 1 and 2). Our analysis revealed that the
studied Wadi is considered as a large basin area in length ranging from 34 km to 101 km (Fig. 4). For explanation, lengthy
and widely basins have more chances for groundwater recharges than the others of shortly and narrowly property. The
Wadi under consideration has a relatively high potentiality of groundwater-recharge as it described by an elongated-
shape. On the other hand, the study by Schumm (1965) stated that Rt (texture ratio) depends mainly on topography,
lithology and infiltration rate. This parameter plays an important role in the hydrological setting of the Wadi. The Rt
ranges from fine to intermediate texture categories (Horton, 1945; Smith, 1958). Regarding the studies that have been
done by (Horton, 1932; Gregory and Walling, 1985), the Form Factor Ratio is defined as a geometric factor of the basin
shape, which ranges from 0.1 to 0.8, and controlling the water flow in the Wadi. In this research, the FFR of the studied
Wadi ranges between 0.220 and 0.320 (limited value). Gupta (1999) concluded that the basin of low FFR value is described
by elongated form with hydrograph characterized by a low peak as well as a long travel time. On the other hand, the
values of inverse shape-form (Sv) and shape-index (Ish) are furtherly presented in Table 2. Our analyses show that, high
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M. El Osta, M. El Sabri and M. Masoud Environmental Technology & Innovation 22 (2021) 101522

Fig. 4. Stream order of Wadi El Azariq basin.

records of Ish and Sv, which indicate an elongated shape of the Wadi and a good opportunity to recharge groundwater
in the study area rather than basins of low values, which resulted in high chances of surface-runoff. Moreover, the values
of SH (Compactness ratio) and Fr (Fitness ratio) are determined and presented in Table 2. Basins of low SH and high Fr
values are characterized by elongation form with less erodibility (Masoud, 2015). In contrast basins of high SH and low Fr
values are described by circular shape and hence a good opportunity for flash flood accumulation (El Osta and Masoud,
2015). Complementing these characteristics related to basin geometry, the Ls (Lemniscate) is related to the slope and
shape of drainage basin (Lykoudi and Zanis, 2004). In the studied area, Ls values vary from 2.43 to 2.94 confirming the
high-elongated shape of Wadi El Azariq such as recorded values of FFR, Ish, Sv, SH and Fr (Table 2).

2.2.3. The drainage-texture parameters

Exactly on the studying of basin morphometric parameters, drainage texture is essential and effective for evaluating
the hazard of the flash flood in the study area. For all particular, we determined in our analyses about six-drainage texture,
which are density (D), frequency (F), intensity (Di), length of overland flow (Lo), infiltration number (FN), and drainage
pattern (Dp). Tables 1 and 2 show the formula and record value for each parameter we include in our study. In general, the
higher values of D confirmed the high runoff progression with a slightly shorter period of concentration than the lower
ones. While the Di low record means that both drainage density and stream frequency have a minor influence on erosion
intensity that affects the power of rainfall and lithology type in the study area. On the other hand, the low values of Lo
display quicker accumulation of precipitated water in the basin than that of high Lo value. Also, the FN is an important
constraint that states the infiltration actions of the basins. The high records of infiltration numbers are reflected by low
infiltration rate as well as the high chance for the concentration of flash floods. Finally, the Dp is a useful parameter to
appreciate the erosion cycle stage based on the slope, lithology, and structural influence in the area of study (Pareta and
Pareta, 2011). Our analyses also confirmed the dendritic patterns for the studied Wadi, which are described by a high
potential for recharging the groundwater in the area (Fig. 3 and Table 2).

2.2.4. The basin-relief parameters

In our studies, about 10 parameters for basin-relief are determined according to the elevations of the hydrographic
basin as presented in Tables 1 and 2. The studied Wadi fits the type of low to medium altitude (Fig. 5). Both high records
for the Rr (relief ratio) and SI% (main channel slope) confirm the high reliefs of the basin and steep slope, while the
resulted BFD (basin flow direction) is agreeing to path of its valley which is concentrating into the Mediterranean Sea
by 59◦ NW angle as shown in Fig. 6. However, the Sm (mean basin slope) parameter is also important in evaluating the
hydrographic basin, where it reflecting the effect of relief on the hydrological behaviors of the basin. Hence, Fig. 7 shows
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M. El Osta, M. El Sabri and M. Masoud Environmental Technology & Innovation 22 (2021) 101522

Fig. 5. Map of digital elevation model (DEM) in meter of the of Wadi El Azariq basin.

Fig. 6. Flow direction map, histogram and rose diagram of Wadi El Azariq basin.

the thematic slope of Wadi El Azariq based on ArcGIS 10.2 tools. Accordingly, the drainage basin of the high slope has a
great possibility of runoff and the producing hydrograph with high peak of discharge and shorter-time of concentration.
Moreover, the Rn (ruggedness number) is a noteworthy element expressing the relief-features of the basin, where high Rn
are described in the basin by a long and steep slope property. The hypsometric curve is defined using a non-dimensional
relationship between elevation and area of the drainage basin, which reflects the impact of geological structures and the
maturity of the basin (Schumm, 1956; Strahler, 1964; Leopold et al., 1964; Hurtrez et al., 1999). Regarding Strahler (1952,
1957, 1964) and Hurtrez et al. (1999), there are three types of hypsometric-curve such as Mature (S shape curve), Young,
(Convex curve), and Old or Distorted (Concave curve). This study confirmed the Concave curve of old stage categorization
for Wadi El Azariq basin (Fig. 8). Moreover, Bishop et al. (2002) concluded that Hypsometric integral is also an essential
morphometric parameter relating to the relief features of the drainage basin, where it is expressing the erodibility rate
and possibility of surface water flow accumulation. The HI, is measured according to (Hurtrez et al., 1999; Chorley and
Morley, 1959; Haan and Johnson, 1966; Singh et al., 2008; Masoud, 2015), where it varies from 0.00 to 1.00. Wadi El Azariq
has a low value of the hypsometric integral of about 0.280, which indicates a mature to old Wadi affected by geological
structures, characterized by moderate accumulation of flash flood and slightly recharging to groundwater aquifers.
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M. El Osta, M. El Sabri and M. Masoud Environmental Technology & Innovation 22 (2021) 101522

Fig. 7. Slope map and its histogram of Wadi El Azariq basin.

Fig. 8. Hypsometric curve (a) and altitude (b) of Wadi El Azariq basin.

2.3. Flash flood hazardous evaluation

Although hydrological data is limited, this section considers as an effort for evaluating the hazardous of flash flood
depending on operative physiographic characteristics, which have a direct impact on the runoff accumulation in the
studied Wadi. After qualitatively and quantitatively analyzing of about thirty-eight parameters described the studied
Wadi, operative nine elements were adopted for hazardous evaluation according to the following two Eqs. (1) and (2)
(Davis, 1975; Masoud, 2015):

4(X − Xmax )
Hazard degree = +1 (1)
(Xmin − Xmax )
For the hazardous of WMRb

4(X − Xmin )
Hazard degree = +1 (2)
(Xmax − Xmin )
For the further eight - parameters
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M. El Osta, M. El Sabri and M. Masoud Environmental Technology & Innovation 22 (2021) 101522

Table 3
Hazard degree evaluation for Wadi El Azariq sub-basins.

Whereas;
X , denotes the sub-basin geomorphometric parameter.
Xmax, means the highest record of geomorphometric parameter overall the study sub-basins.
Xmin , indicates the minimum value of the geomorphometric parameter.
Tables 2 and 3 show that the summation of the total hazardous degree for separately sub-basin varies between 24.390
and 30.160. The overall outcome of these results revealed that the sub-basins of the Wadi under of consideration can
be grouped by two degrees; low hazardous degree that equal to 1 as shown in the sub-basin 1, and high hazardous
degree that equal to 5 as founded in the sub the basins 2 & 3 (Fig. 9). Consequently, sub basin 1 having a good chance
for recharging the aquifers, while the sub basins 2 and 3 have high probability for a concentration of surface runoff in
the area. To protect against flood risks, some appending dams can be established at the connection among streams of 4th
and 5th orders of Wadi El Azariq sub-basins.

2.4. Rainfall distribution

Almost in more publications for flood risk assessment; there is a shortage of comprehensive logical analyses of rainfall
data especially in semi-arid and arid regions. A recent study by Yog et al. (2018) is documented the great connection
concerning the occurrence of heavy weight precipitation events. Generally, we examined in our research a methodical
approach to analyze the extreme daily rainfall records and hence will be connected by WMS hydrological model for
subsequent flooding. Particularly, the method to identify rain-fall scattering in the Wadi includes; an assemblage of
extremely daily rainfall data from El Gudeirat station, statistical analyses of the extreme rainfall measures (daily), common
prospect supply functions for maximum records and the best possible distribution roles by the RMSE (Root Mean Square
Error). Recurrence data analyses and time series of daily-rainfall between 1991 and 2014 (23 years) based on (EMWRI)
are obtainable in Fig. 10 and Tables 4 and 5. Also, the SMADA software is used to create the statistical analytical tests
regarding rainfall stations. The time-duration of rainfall data is found to vary between 27 and 54 years. For obtaining the
best distribution, numerous types of distributions have been matched to the maximum daily rainfall all the measured
events. Overall, the functions used in our analyses include the Normal, Two-parameter Log-Normal, Three Parameter Log-
Normal, Pearson Type III, Log Pearson Type III and Gumbel. Some old studies have determined the optimal distribution
function based on the RMSE (Chow et al., 1988), which calculated as follows:

 n
1 ∑
RMSE = √ [R̂i − R1 ]2 (3)
n
i−1

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M. El Osta, M. El Sabri and M. Masoud Environmental Technology & Innovation 22 (2021) 101522

Table 4
Root mean square error of the rainfall stations at El Gudeirat station, south part of the study basin.

Table 5
Prediction (millimeter) for distributions of selected return periods (in years) based on duration data.
Distribution type Probability 0.80 0.90 0.96 0.98 0.99
Gudeirat
Return period (Years) 5 10 25 50 100
rainfall station
Gumbel Type I Rainfall depth (mm) 14.0 18.0 23.0 26.0 29.0

Fig. 9. Map of flash flood hazard degree of Wadi El Azariq sub-basins.

Where;
Ri , is the measured rainfall depth.
Ri , is the expectable rainfall depth (from the probability distribution).
n, is the number of measured by the rain gauge station.
Overall, the calculated values of RMSE for several cases define the mean inconsistency among predictable and
measured records. For spatial analysis maps of Wadi El Azariq basin, inverse square distance weighting method (ISDW)
is implemented at altered return times (5, 10, 25, 50 and 100 years) recognized upon Viessman et al. (1977). Because of
these analyses, El Gudeirat station (140 km south) is following the Gumbel distribution function.

2.5. The storage capacity curves (SCC)

SCC in the study area is established by using an option in WMS through the interrelationship between elevation in
meter (using DEM in Fig. 5) and both area and volume. Accordingly, curved for elevation — volume (a) and elevation —
area (b) for the entire Wadi El Azariq basin and sub-basin 2 are presented in Figs. 11 and 12 respectively. It worth pointing
out that, the calculated maximum volume for the whole basin at the proposed dam (12 m elevation) is equal 165×106
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M. El Osta, M. El Sabri and M. Masoud Environmental Technology & Innovation 22 (2021) 101522

Fig. 10. Graphical representation of maximum daily rainfall at different return periods for the temporal analysis of rainfall data at El Gudeirat station.

Fig. 11. Storage capacity curves for whole Wadi El Azariq basin.

Fig. 12. Storage capacity curves for sub-basin2.

12
M. El Osta, M. El Sabri and M. Masoud Environmental Technology & Innovation 22 (2021) 101522

m3 with an area of about 35.00 km2 , while the maximum volume at the constructed dam (204 m) for sub-basin 2 is about
35×106 with an area of about 3.50 km2 .

2.6. The model building

An overview of model construction, Wadi El Azariq-basin is characterized by relatively very limited stately hydrological
information. Therefore, studying the rainfall distribution and runoff is essential for the development sustainability of the
water resources as well as for the resistance from the flood hazardous and desertification. To achieve the objective of
this study, we further used the integration between physiographic features, GIS, WMS, HEC-HMS and the daily rainfall
(extremely) of intervals 5, 10, 25, 50 and 100 years. Certainly, the behavior of infiltrated water in WMS and HEC-HMS
models is based upon the type of curve number (CN) which has been cited in Soil Conservation Service SCS (1985) formula,
which nowadays transformed to Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS). Also, the CN is considered as a role of
a hydrological soil group and land use, overlaying maps of soil cover, land uses and catchment area could assess it. The
CN of Wadi El Azariq basin is obtained depending on the geological outcrops and SCS (NRCS) method (Gheith and Sultan,
2002). On the other hand, the rate of infiltration and prospective maximum retention are depending on both soil and
geomorphological features of the basin. Consequently, the total volume of runoff depends upon rainfall intensity, soil
category and its moisture content, lithology and topographical aspects. NRCS of the USA (1985 and 1986) established an
equation for calculating the runoff depth for the watershed area named CN method as the following equation:

R = (P − Ia )2 /(P − Ia + S) (4)

Where;
R represents the depth of runoff.
P is the amount of precipitation.
Ia is the initial abstraction factor.
S means the potential maximum retention.
Ia is connected to the soil drainage features and resulting through the maximum water retention of the soil as in the
following equation (5):

Ia = 0.2S (5)

Ia , is a term of water lost as a result of evaporation, plant intake, and water holding in the surface low lands for the period
of the rainfall occurrence. S is a term concerning by the overall quantity of water holding in the catchment through the
rainfall occurrence, including Ia and infiltration. Anonymous (1960) calculated Ia by applying Eqs. (5 and 6) and the resulted
Ia was 8 mm, which confirms by the evaporation average value through the seasons of rainfall. S value is computed using
the CN (hydrological factor) as follows:

S = (25400/CN) − 254 (6)

Regarding Gheith and Sultan (2002), the moisture content could be ignored due to the scarcity of rainfall events at
the study basin. We focus the role-played by lithology in controlling the CN. Three lithological types are common in the
studied area such as gravel & sand (Quaternary), fractured limestone (Tertiary) and sandy limestone (Cretaceous). Based
upon ordering of hydrologic soils by Soil Conservation Service (1986), the (A) type of a CN equal 63 is classified for the
Quaternary deposits, while limestones of both Tertiary and Cretaceous deposits are categorized as the (B) type with a
CN value equal 77 as shown in Table 6. It is also worth point out that for miscellaneous outcrops, the mean CN can be
calculated by the following equation:
k k
∑ ∑
CN = Ai CNi / Ai (7)
i=1 i= 1

Where;
CNi represents the proper Curve Number for each portion of the Wadi El Azariq that has an area (Ai ).
After calculating the CN of the studied Wadi, equations ((4) – (6)) can be applied to assess the total runoff as shown
in Eq. (4). Results of calculated CNs for Wadi El Azariq basin and its sub-basins according to Eq. (7) are concluded
in Table 6. Moreover, numerous equations of lag and concentration–time have been implemented by WMS, which
permit to select the proper manner for calculating both times of lag and time of concentration. The majority of the
hydrologic equation for calculating the lag and concentration–time was established for specific drainage basins under
specific hydrologic conditions such as area, land use, land cover, relief features, etc. So, the users should be taking into
account the assumptions of given equations, and should identify the hydrologic conditions of study basin to be similar to
the drainage basin of the applied equations. Moreover, the most widely used Eq. of NRCS (1985) was applied to calculate
the lag and concentration times for the whole Wadi El Azariq basin as well as for sub-basins 1, 2 and 3 as shown in
Tables 7 and 8. Also, the unit-hydrograph is calculated based upon Snyder’s (1938) method.
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M. El Osta, M. El Sabri and M. Masoud Environmental Technology & Innovation 22 (2021) 101522

Table 6
Assignments of curve numbers for different outcrops types in Wadi El Azariq basin and its sub-basins.
Basin Total area (km2 ) Substrate Type of Value of Weighted
soil group CN CN
Rock Type Area (km2 )
Quaternary 1176 A 63.0
Whole Wadi
2278.0 Tertiary 840.0 B 77.0 70.0
El Azariq
Cretaceous 262.0 B 77.0
Quaternary) 84.0 A 63.0
73.2
Sub-basin 1 309.0 Tertiary 117.0 B 77.0
Cretaceous 108.0 B 77.0
Quaternary (Gravel and sand) 94.5 A 63.0
75.4
Sub-basin 2 788.0 Tertiary 553.5 B 77.0
Cretaceous 140.0 B 77.0
Sub-basin 3 518.0 Quaternary 518.0 A 63.0 63.0

Table 7
Input and output parameters of Wadi El Azariq basin and its sub-basin1 for hydrograph generation and storage capacity using GIS, WMS and
HEC-HMS.
Parameters Description of the parameters Type of Wadi El Azariq basin Sub-basin1
parameters

Total area (km2 ) The area of the studied basin in km2 2278 309

Modeled area (km2 ) 2186 306

Input parameters

Overland flow (m) The flow length for sheet flow over 200 200
surface
Slope (m/m) The average land slope 0.01 0.01

Pervious area (km2 ) The area that allows relatively free 2050 278
passage of water

Impervious area (km2 ) The land which allows for abstraction 228 31
but upon which no infiltration takes
place. Rain which fall onto this type
of the land will either be abstracted,
flow directly to the outlet of the
watershed or flow onto the pervious
watershed regions.
Weighted curve number See the text 70 73
Initial abstraction (mm) See the text 8 8
Return period (Years) Estimation of rainfall of given value 5 10 25 50 100 5 10 25 50 100
Total rainfall (mm) Total rainfall (mm) for a series of 14.0 18.0 23.0 26.0 29.0 14.0 18.0 23.0 26.0 29.0
time increments
Total rainfall duration (hour) Event duration in hour 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0
Rainfall intensity (mm/h) Rainfall intensity (mm/h) 4.7 6.0 7.7 8.7 9.7 4.7 6.0 7.7 8.7 9.7
Type of rainfall distribution Type of rainfall distribution Gumbel type I Gumbel type I
(hyetograph) (hyetograph
Calculated time of concentration 22.3 7.6
(hour)
Calculated lag time (hour) See the text 13.4 4.6
Output parameters

Calculated maximum flow rate (peak discharge) m3/s 37.3 50.8 78.4 97.0 125.2 18.0 24.4 38.0 47.4 62.0

Runoff volume (106 m3 ) 4.1 5.6 8.7 10.7 13.8 0.6 0.8 1.3 1.6 2.1
Infiltration (mm) 4.14 7.50 11.1 13.1 14.7 4.0 7.4 11.0 12.0 14.2
Rainfall excess (mm) 1.86 2.50 3.90 4.90 6.30 2.00 2.60 4.00 6.00 6.80
Maximum elevation (m) above mean sea level 4.5 5.0 5.1 5.3 6.0 180.0 181.0 182.5 183.0 185.0

Maximum of flooded inundation area (km2 ) 3.6 3.8 6.4 6.8 9.0 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.6 0.8

2.7. Hydrograph procedure

Generally, hydrograph process is the last phase carried out in the modeling procedure, including estimated of the total
volume of surface runoff within Wadi El Azariq basin and its main sub-basins (1, 2 and 3), and in particular, those aspects
of the whole region which subject to a flash flood. Tables 7 and 8 show the essential elements for creating the unit
hydrograph according to the SCS dimensionless scheme of NRCS lag-time (m) with both implemented WMS and HEC-
HMS models. In this context, twenty improved hydrographs for the studied Wadi have been created based on an altered
recurrence interval of daily rainfall (maximum) such as presented in Figs. 14–17. The estimated volume of surface runoff
for Wadi El Azariq basin is ranging between 4.10×106 and 13.80×106 m3 on elevation equal 4.50 to 6.50 m (amsl) with
an inundation area stands 3.60 km 2 and 8.00 km 2 at recurrence intervals of 5 and 100 years correspondingly. Moreover,
Fig. 18 (a & b) also displays the Inundated Areas (IA) that are favorable for recharging the groundwater aquifers of Wadi
El Azariq basin and its sub-basin 2 at the proposed dam and constructed dam respectively. Further, the IA was computed
during the return period of 10 years to be 51.00 km 2 (12,000 feddans) and 80.00 km 2 (20,000 feddans) as given in
Fig. 18a and b respectively.
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M. El Osta, M. El Sabri and M. Masoud Environmental Technology & Innovation 22 (2021) 101522

Table 8
Input and output parameters of sub-basin2 and sub-basin 3 of Wadi El Azariq basin for hydrograph generation and storage capacity using GIS, WMS
and HEC-HMS.
Parameters Description of the parameters Type of Sub-basin2 Sub-basin3
parameters

Total area (km2 ) The area of the studied basin in km2 788.0 518.0

Modeled area (km2 ) 782.0 497.0

Overland flow (m) The flow length for sheet flow over 210 190

Input parameters
surface
Slope (m/m) The average land slope 0.014 0.004

Pervious area (km2 ) The area that allows relatively free 709 492
passage of water

Impervious area (km2 ) The land which allows for abstraction 79 26

but upon which no infiltration takes
place. Rain which fall onto this type
of the land will either be abstracted,
flow directly to the outlet of the
watershed or flow onto the pervious
watershed regions.
Weighted curve number See the text 75.4 63.0
Initial abstraction (mm) See the text 8 8
Return period (Years) Estimation of rainfall of given 5 10 25 50 100 5 10 25 50 100
Value
Total rainfall (mm) Total rainfall (mm) for a series of 14.0 18.0 23.0 26.0 29.0 14.0 18.0 23.0 26.0 29.0
time increments
Total rainfall duration (hors) Event duration in hour 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0
Rainfall intensity (mm/h) Rainfall intensity (mm/h) 4.7 6.0 7.7 8.7 9.7 4.7 6.0 7.7 8.7 9.7
Type of rainfall distribution Type of rainfall distribution Gumbel type I Gumbel type I
(hyetograph) (hyetograph
Calculated time of concentration See the text 11.0 17.0
(hour)
Calculated lag time (hour) See the text 6.6 10.2

Calculated maximum flow rate (peak discharge) m3 /s

Output parameters

36.1 50.4 80 100 130 10.5 15.0 25.0 31.4 42.0

Runoff volume (106 m3 ) 1.6 2.2 3.4 4.3 5.6 0.5 0.75 1.2 1.6 2.1
Infiltration (mm) 4.00 7.30 10.70 12.50 14.80 4.90 8.50 12.50 14.80 16.80
Rainfall excess (mm) 2.00 2.70 4.30 5.50 6.20 1.10 1.50 2.50 3.20 4.20
Maximum elevation (m) above mean sea level 183.0 186.0 189.0 191.0 192.3 2.5 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.2

Maximum of flooded inundation area (km2 ) 0.14 0.25 0.50 0.90 1.20 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.7 1.1

Fig. 13. Location map of the main sub-basins and dams of Wadi El Azariq basin.

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M. El Osta, M. El Sabri and M. Masoud Environmental Technology & Innovation 22 (2021) 101522

Fig. 14. Hydrographs of Wadi El Azariq basin at different return periods.

3. Results and discussion

Many flooding management strategies are depending upon the hydrologic analysis, which deals with estimating of
surface runoff magnitudes via the rainfall event. These estimations include the transformation of the rainfall to runoff
and that transportation of the surface runoff through the drainage system to the outlet of downstream or building dams
for direct infiltration for recharging the groundwater aquifer. The Wadi El Azareq has a stream order varying between 6th
and 7th order. Lithological features and intensity of rainfall control the performance of stream order and number. More of
tributaries up to the 3rd order is initiated at the highest elevation portions and creating steep slopes, while the tributaries
of higher than 4th order are originated in low elevated parts. Moreover, he studied Wadi is characterized by Rb and
WMRb equal to four, which reflects the impact of lithological features, and structural geology that control its hydrological
behavior. These higher values of WMRb are responsible for the elevated and elongated shape of the studied Wadi. After
analyzing the morphometric parameters, Wadi El Azariq was described by a large basin area by length varies from 34.0 to
101.0 km that causes the elongated shape of the Wadi and good opportunities for recharging the groundwater aquifers.
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M. El Osta, M. El Sabri and M. Masoud Environmental Technology & Innovation 22 (2021) 101522

Fig. 15. Hydrographs of sub-basin1 at different return periods.

Also, this Wadi categorized between fine to intermediate texture with the dendritic pattern, as well as of medium to low
elevation. Furthermore, the form features (Rc, Re and SH ), refers to the domination of medium to high elongation form.
Re is a significant factor of the hydrographic basin that has a direct influence upon the flash flood accumulation. Basins
of less elongated shape will produce a hydrograph with a high peak of discharge and small travel time than the others
of high-elongated shape during the same event of rainfall. Because of the calculated hypsometric integral values are less
than 0.6, so, it could be considered that the studied Wadi and its sub-basins are late matured to old, which is characterized
by eroded and dissected basin. According to the assessed degree of risk, the main sub-basins of Wadi El Azariq could be
categorized two assemblages. Firstly, the high hazardous grade that has a hazardous value equal to 5 (sub-basins 2 and 3).
Secondly, Low hazardous degree, which has a hazardous grade equal to 1 (sub-basin 1). So, sub-basin 1 was characterized
by a high opportunity for groundwater recharge than the other sub-basins 2 and 3, where the Quaternary deposits in
Egyptian part were composed of sand dunes, gravel, and sand but in the eastern part is composed of gravel and sand.
This confirms the potentiality of groundwater recharge in the Egyptian part where the curve number of such formation
is low. In contrast, the eastern part of the Wadi, where it composed of Tertiary (Miocene) and Cretaceous of hard rocks
(High curve number) with low permeability was characterized by the high potentiality of surface runoff accumulating. In
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M. El Osta, M. El Sabri and M. Masoud Environmental Technology & Innovation 22 (2021) 101522

Fig. 16. Hydrographs of sub-basin2 at different return periods.

particular, delaying constructions should be established at the conjunction between the tributaries of 4th and 5th order
for sub-basin 3 to recharge the shallow groundwater aquifer. An overview on modeling results, the total rainfall events
of (14, 18, 23, 26 and 29 mm) of recurrence intervals (5, 10, 25, 50 and 100 years) have been yield a volume of surface
runoff equal to 4.1×106 , 5.6×106 , 8.7×106 , 10.7×106 and 13.8×106 m3 respectively. The Volume of discharged runoff
for the three main sub-basins of the Wadi and its maximum peak is presented in Table 7. For Wadi El Azariq basin,
results also show infiltration losses ranging between 29.60% for return period 5 years and 51.00% for recurrence interval
of 100 years. On the other hand, the infiltration loss for sub-basins 1 and 2 is found to vary between 28.50% and 51.0% for
recurrence interval of 5 years and 100 years respectively. On the other hand, the sub-basin 3 has the maximum infiltration
losses where it ranges between 35.0% and 57.0% at recurrence interval of 5 years and 100 years respectively. Ultimately,
transmission losses are largely influenced by Physiographic features of the basin and its tributaries, soil texture, thickness
of unsaturated zone, temperature and surface water flow duration. Overall, the above results provide sub-basin 3 a very
good opportunity to recharge groundwater aquifers than the others.
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M. El Osta, M. El Sabri and M. Masoud Environmental Technology & Innovation 22 (2021) 101522

Fig. 17. Hydrographs of sub-basin3 at different return periods.

According to (Singh and Awasthi, 2011a,b), the flash flood in most of the hydrographic basins is responsible for the
lateral erosion. Due to (Singh et al., 2010), high quality of forecasting and warning network should be installed in the flood-
prone basins. The results so far focused on avoiding the flood hazardous and increasing the rate of groundwater recharge,
through a proposed management system (dams) objects at catching more runoff water in the area as presented in Fig. 13.
The proposed dam was suggested to be near the sea to protect the flowing of surface water to the sea, and to give a chance
for recharging the shallow groundwater aquifer. The suggested protection scheme starts with the controlling of sequential
partial low rocky barriers and boulders. These barriers can be accomplished by collecting the obtainable boulders of
weathering action without cementation (El Shamy, 1992). The control system was ended by building big masonry dams at
the outlet of the watershed area. Agreeing to Singh et al. (2015), we recommended also by the construction of retention
ponds in the main channel of study basin, to mitigate the flood and for groundwater recharge of the shallow aquifer.
Finally, the results of these suggested management systems so far focused on developing Wadi El Azariq basin through
recharging the groundwater aquifers, and in particular, ensures the protection of this strategic area from the flash flood.
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M. El Osta, M. El Sabri and M. Masoud Environmental Technology & Innovation 22 (2021) 101522

Fig. 18. Inundated area and groundwater potentiality map of Wadi El Azariq basin (a) and its sub-basin2 (b) at return period of 10 years.

4. Summary and coclusion

In this research, we assess the hazardous degree and flash flood of Wadi El Azareq basin in monitoring with different
recurrence stages of maximum daily rainfall. Our analyses proved that there are several factors are governing the behavior
of flash floods in the area of studies such as topography and catchment area. The topographical features are considered as
the result of the interconnection between geology and climate conditions. More specially, we found that the topographical
features of the studied basin are a significant governing factor upon the hydrologic behavior of surface runoff. On the other
hand, we evaluated the rainfall and runoff based upon the physiographical properties of the Wadi, GIS method and WMS
& HEC-HMS mathematical models. Our conclusions can be summarized in the followings points:

– The flash flood hazardous degrees for Wadi El Azariq were determined and grouped in both high (equal 5) and low
(equal 1) degrees for sub-basins 2 & 3 and sub-basin 1 respectively.
– Given the implementation of WMS & HEC-HMS models and based on daily rainfall events (maximum), we determined
the amount of surface runoff that ranges between 4.10×106 and 13.80×106 m3 at recurrence stages of 5 and
100 years respectively.
– Certain the development rainwater harvesting and flood management methods in the studied basin are very
important, we suggested protection and mitigation scheme of flash flood should be started by constructions of dams.
Some rock fill dams and dikes are highly recommended to construct for hindering of the surface runoff especially at
the conjunction points between 4th and 5th stream orders, to recharge the shallow aquifer.
– Particularly for monitoring the meteorological data, we have also suggested the installation of telemetric meteoro-
logical stations in the studied area.
– Overall, two promising development areas are covering 131.00 km 2 and need to be assessed for groundwater
resources using geophysical exploration methods and drilling some of the test wells.
– Finally, this research presents a detailed investigation of the potentiality of flash flood-prone areas and the mitigation
measures as well as helps and supports the workers who are dealing with the rainwater harvesting and hydrographic
basin development system.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Maged El Osta: Preparing and writing the research, Interpreting the results, Making all the requirements from the
reviewers . Mohamed El Sabri: Preparing and writing the research, Interpreting the results, Making all the requirements
from the reviewers . Milad Masoud: Preparing and writing the research, Interpreting the results, Making all the
requirements from the reviewers.
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M. El Osta, M. El Sabri and M. Masoud Environmental Technology & Innovation 22 (2021) 101522

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have
appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Acknowledgments

The authors are extremely acknowledging the technical support from the Egyptian Ministry of Water Resources and
Irrigation (EMWRI) as well as for permitting us to collect the previous studies and meteorological data from El Gudeirat
station.

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