Wear 251 (2001) 1075–1084

Tribological performance of thin organic permanent coatings

deposited on 55%Al–Zn coated steel — influence of coating
composition and thickness on friction and wear
P. Carlsson∗ , U. Bexell, M. Olsson
Dalarna University, SE-78188 Borlänge, Sweden

Abstract
Dry lubricants are today increasingly being used in various types of sheet metal forming operations. Among these, permanent coatings,
based on organic resins are the only lubricants which have the potential to increase the formability without additional lubrication, serve as
temporary corrosion protection during transportation and, finally, serve as a pre-treatment before subsequent painting.
In the present study, the influence of coating composition and thickness on the friction and wear behaviour of different thin organic
permanent coatings deposited on 55%Al–Zn coated steel sheet have been evaluated by various types of laboratory tests. Surface profilometry,
scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Auger electron spectroscopy (AES) and time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF–SIMS)
were used in order to characterise and model the tribological behaviour of the coatings.
The results obtained show that the tribological properties of thin organic permanent coatings are strongly influenced by the coating
thickness. In order to reduce problems associated with high friction and galling, the coating must be deposited with a uniform thickness,
i.e. uncoated regions must be avoided. Furthermore, the addition of various types of additives can be used in order to further improve the
tribological performance of these types of coatings. © 2001 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Scanning electron microscopy (SEM); Time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF–SIMS); 55%Al–Zn coated steel

1. Introduction Typical permanent coating formulations consist of a resin

As in most metal working operations, sheet metal forming
usually involves sliding contact between a soft work mate-
rial and a hard tool surface. Frequently this sliding contact
is associated with transfer of material which modifies the
contacting surfaces and consequently the friction and wear
characteristics of the system. As a result, problems asso-
ciated with galling are commonly a problem, especially in
those cases were the work material is very soft, e.g. in the
case of zinc and zinc alloy coated steel sheet [1]. In order to
reduce the friction forces and galling tendency, various types
of lubricants, liquid as well as solid, are frequently used in
the workshops [2]. Recently, various types of thin organic
coatings able to increase the formability, the anti-finger print
properties and the corrosion protection of hot-dip coated
steel sheet have been introduced on the market [3–13]. Be-
sides, these coatings should also provide a pre-treatment for
painting and consequently these multifunctional coatings are
usually referred to as permanent coatings.
∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +46-23-77-8626; fax: +46-23-77-8601.
E-mail address: pca@du.se (P. Carlsson).
(coating-forming material) and different types of additives,
e.g. forming additives and corrosion inhibitors [14]. The
main purpose of the resin in a permanent coating is to hold
the functional additives on the surface and so the binder it-
self does not need intrinsic functional properties. However,
the resin material should have a sufficient load carrying ca-
pacity, chemical resistance and wear resistance. Resins may
be organic or inorganic, or combinations of these. Forming
additives, e.g. waxes, are included in order to reduce the
coefficient of friction as well as the adhesion between the
tool and the steel sheet during the forming process. Finally,
corrosion inhibitors, e.g. chromates, are added in order to
provide the required transit corrosion protection of the steel
sheet.
In an previous investigation by the present authors, it was
observed that the friction and wear characteristics of thin
organic permanent coatings during sliding contact condi-
tions were strongly influenced by the coating thickness and
coating coverage [15]. On the basis of these findings an
investigation of this subject was initiated. Thus, the main
purpose of the present study is to evaluate the friction and
wear characteristics of various thin organic permanent coat-
ings of different thickness and, in particular, the influence

0043-1648/01/$ – see front matter © 2001 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 0 4 3 - 1 6 4 8 ( 0 1 ) 0 0 7 5 8 - X
1076 P. Carlsson et al. / Wear 251 (2001) 1075–1084

Table 1
Substrate materials included in the investigation
Substratesa Steel strip Coating compositions (wt.%) Coating thickness Surface roughnessb
thickness (mm) (␮m) Sa (␮m)

Aluzink® , smooth 1.0 55% Al, 43.4% Zn, 1.6% Si 20 1.6

Aluzink® , rough 1.0 55% Al, 43.4% Zn, 1.6% Si 20 1.8
a SSAB Tunnplåt AB designation.
b As obtained from an area of 4 cm × 4 cm.

of coating thickness on the tribological performance in dry Revetest® , but instead of the Rockwell C diamond stylus
sliding contact conditions. (radius 200 ␮m) frequently used in abrasion/scratch testing,
a steel ball (diameter 7.5 mm), made of ball bearing steel,
was drawn over the surface [16]. In all tests the normal
2. Experimental load was linearly increased from 0–100 N (5 N/mm load
increase). A sliding speed of 20 mm/min and sliding dis-
2.1. Materials tance of 20 mm were used in all of the experiments. All
modified scratch tests were performed perpendicular to the
Aluzink® , i.e. commercially produced (by SSAB Tun- strip rolling direction.
nplåt AB, Sweden) continuously hot-dip coated mild steel In the second test, a pin-on-disc apparatus was used to
sheet with a 55%Al–Zn coating, with two different surface evaluate the materials in a well-controlled multiple-passage
topographies were used as substrate materials, see Table 1.
The different topographies were obtained by rolling the
Table 2
metal coated steel sheet with two different topographic rolls, Composition (dry coating condition) of the thin organic permanent coat-
i.e. ground (smooth) and shot-blasted (rough) rolls, respec- ings investigated
tively. The substrates were subsequently coated using a con- Coating PC1 46.6 wt.% Styrene acrylic copolymer A
ventional roll coater with four different types of commer- 46.6 wt.% Polyester polyurethane copolymer
cially available thin organic permanent coatings, see Table 2. 5.5 wt.% Forming additive A
Organic coatings of three different nominal coating weights 1.3 wt.% Cr
of approximately, 0.5, 1 and 2 g/m2 , corresponding to nom- Coating PC2 37.5 wt.% Styrene acrylic copolymer B
inal coating thicknesses of approximately 0.5, 1 and 2 ␮m, 37.5 wt.% Styrene hydroxy acrylic copolymer
respectively, were obtained by varying the amount of the 18.5 wt.% Acrylic resin
4.5 wt.% Forming additive A
surface treatment solutions during the deposition process.
2.0 wt.% Cr
All organic coatings were supplied by Chemetall GmbH,
Frankfurt Laboratories, Germany. Coating PC3 29.1 wt.% Styrene acrylic copolymer A
29.3 wt.% Polyester polyurethane copolymer
27.0 wt.% Styrene hydroxy acrylic copolymer
2.2. Tribological test procedures 5.0 wt.% Forming additive B
8.3 wt.% SiO2
1.3 wt.% Cr
The friction and wear characteristics of the materials were
evaluated by two different test methods, i.e. modified scratch Coating PC4 10.0 wt.% Styrene acrylic copolymer A
testing and pin-on-disc testing, see Fig. 1. 83.2 wt.% Polyurethane acrylic copolymer
5.5 wt.% Forming additive A
The modified scratch test is based on conventional 1.3 wt.% Cr
scratch testing using a commercial scratch tester, CSEM

Fig. 1. Principle of the test methods used in the present study: (a) modified scratch testing; (b) pin-on-disc testing.
 P. Carlsson et al. / Wear 251 (2001) 1075–1084
sliding contact [17]. In this test the same steel balls were
used and drawn over the surface several cycles in the same
circular track at a normal load of 20 N and a sliding speed
of 10 mm/s.
Before testing, the coated samples were rinsed in alcohol
while the balls were rotated and cleaned in acetone and al-
cohol between the measurements to get a fresh and clean
sliding surface. All experiments were performed in con-
trolled room temperature (20–22◦ C) and relative humidity
(35–40%). During the experiments, the tangential (friction)
and normal forces were continuously measured with strain
gauges and recorded by a personal computer. Two tests were
performed for all materials investigated.
2.3. Surface characterisation
The as-received as well as the scratch and pin-on-disc
tested samples were subjected to a careful examination us-
ing non-contact surface profilometry, scanning electron mi-
croscopy (SEM), Auger electron spectroscopy (AES) and
time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF–SIMS)
in order to understand the tribological behaviour, i.e. the fric-
tion and wear mechanisms, of the thin organic permanent
coatings investigated. The non-contact surface profilometry
was performed with a WYKO NT-2000 3D interference mi-
croscope. Due to the transparency of the organic coatings,
these samples were sputter coated with gold before the 3D
surface profiling. The SEM analysis was performed with a
JEOL 820 scanning electron microscope equipped with a
LINK ISIS 300 EDX-system. The AES analysis was per-
formed with a PHI 660 scanning Auger microprobe operated
at an accelerating voltage of 10 kV and a primary beam cur-
rent of 300 nA. The thickness of the organic coatings was
measured by depth profiling using 2.0 keV Ar+ ion sputter-
ing in the Auger system. The sputter rate was 10 nm/min as
measured on Ta2 O5 . Semi-quantitative analysis was made
using the peak-to-peak heights of the Auger transitions of
the respective elements and sensitivity factors provided by
PHI. The ToF–SIMS analyses were performed only on the
modified scratched samples with a PHI TRIFT II instrument
using a 15 kV pulsed liquid metal ion source enriched in
69 Ga + ions. In this system, the secondary ions are acceler-
ated up to ∼3 kV before being deflected by 270◦ by three
electrostatic hemispherical analysers. Positive spectra were
obtained using a 600 pA dc primary ion beam, pulsed with
Table 3
Low, medium and high coating weight values of the organic coatings investigated as obtained by X-ray fluorescence
PC1 (mg/m2 ) PC2 (mg/m2 )
Low Medium High Low Medium High
Smooth substrate
525 1125 1950 480 1104 2208
Rough substrate
675 1125 2250 528 1104 2304
1077
a frequency of 8 kHz (m/z = 0.5–2000 amu) and rastered
over a surface area of 100 ␮m × 100 ␮m. A pulsed low en-
ergetic electron gun was used for charge compensation. The
total integrated primary ion dose was <1012 ions/cm2 ensur-
ing static analysing conditions [18]. The mass resolution at
m/z = +27 (C2 H3 + ) was around m/m = 3500. All spec-
tra were carefully calibrated using the exact masses of peaks
of known composition. Peak identification was done on the
basis of the exact mass of the secondary ions. Mass spec-
tra were recorded in three different areas on the as-received
polymer surface and in areas within the scratch track corre-
sponding to normal loads of 50, 75 and 100 N, respectively.
3. Results
3.1. As-received samples
The resulting coating weight values of the different thin
organic permanent coatings are summarised in Table 3. As
can be seen the as-received thickness values differs slightly
from the nominal values 0.5, 1 and 2 g/m2 . However, SEM
analysis using the back scatter electron image mode, EDX
mapping of carbon (C K␣) and EDX/AES point analysis
show that all organic coatings display a significant varia-
tion in coating thickness over the coated area, see Fig. 2.
This is mainly due to the stretch levelling made after the
55%Al–Zn hot dip coating process, which results in a pro-
nounced wavy surface profile in the strip rolling direction.
Besides, the variation in surface topography on a dendritic
size level will also affect the variation in coating thickness.
No significant difference between the two types of substrates
could be observed, the only exception being a somewhat
less pronounced surface waviness of the rough substrate, see
Table 1.
Fig. 3 illustrates the influence of organic coating deposi-
tion on the resulting surface topography of the organic coated
samples. As can be seen, the organic coated samples dis-
play a less pronounced wavy surface profile with increasing
coating thickness since the low level regions tend to be filled
with the organic substance during the coating deposition pro-
cess, cf. Fig. 2. Consequently, the surface waviness will de-
crease with increasing organic coating thickness, see Fig. 3.
However, the influence of organic coating deposition on the
resulting surface roughness average, Sa , is relatively small.
PC3 (mg/m2 ) PC4 (mg/m2 )
Low Medium High Low Medium High
375 1200 1950 450 1350 2700
600 1050 2100 675 1125 2325
1078 P. Carlsson et al. / Wear 251 (2001) 1075–1084
Fig. 2. SEM back scatter electron image (BEI COMPO-mode) showing the
variation in coating thickness over the surface (coating PC4, high coating
thickness, smooth substrate surface topography). The low BEI-signal in
the black regions corresponds to a high coating thickness, i.e. a low mean
Z-value (atomic weight).
ToF–SIMS analysis of the as-deposited coatings could
not reveal any lateral variations in the chemistry of the top
surface of the organic coatings investigated.
3.2. Friction characteristics
3.2.1. Modified scratch tests
When the variations in friction coefficient with increas-
ing normal load in the modified scratch tests are examined,
three types of behaviour for the different coated samples can
be distinguished, see Fig. 4. The first type, Type I, is charac-
terised by an initially relatively low, in some cases very low,
friction coefficient which increases slowly to the maximum
normal load 100 N. Type II is characterised by an initially
relatively low friction coefficient but in this case the fric-
Fig. 3. Influence of organic coating deposition on the resulting surface topography of the organic coated samples (coating PC4). Uncoated substrate (a)
and low (b), medium (c) and high (d) organic coating thickness. The arrow in (a) indicates the profile recording direction.
tion coefficient increases more rapidly with increasing nor-
mal load until a plateau is reached. Finally, Type III is also
characterised by a relatively low initial friction coefficient,
which, with increasing normal load, displays pronounced
peaks of relatively high friction values.
Table 4 summarises the observed friction characteristics
of the samples investigated, i.e. type of friction trace, the
friction coefficient at a normal load of 20 N (µ20 N ) and the
increase in the friction coefficient with increasing normal
load (dµ/dN). As can be seen, coating PC3 shows the overall
best results, i.e. a low µ20 N value and a low dµ/dN value,
followed by coatings PC4, PC1 and PC2. For all coatings
a low µ20 N value and a low dµ/dN value are promoted
by a high coating thickness, i.e. thin coatings and coatings
showing incomplete coverage must be avoided in order to
avoid metal/metal contact and galling. Finally, no significant
difference could be observed when comparing the friction
characteristics of coatings deposited on the two types of
substrates investigated.
SEM and EDX studies of the worn surfaces show that
the Type I friction trace is typical for coatings with a uni-
form thickness and a high load carrying capacity, i.e. the low
steady-state friction coefficient is controlled by steel sliding
against the organic coating. In contrast, the Type II friction
trace is typical for coatings of a uniform thickness and a
limited load carrying capacity, i.e. the low initial friction co-
efficient is gradually increased due to the gradual deforma-
tion and failure of the organic coating which may result in
local exposure of the underlying metal substrate. This con-
tinues up to a critical normal load at which the coating alone
is not able to carry the load. Finally, the Type III friction
trace is typical for coatings showing insufficient coverage,
i.e. showing regions with no coating (i.e. uncoated regions)
or extremely thin coatings not able to inhibit metal/metal
contact. Consequently, the friction coefficient versus normal
load trace will result in pronounced peaks with high friction
coefficients corresponding to metal/metal sliding contacts.
 P. Carlsson et al. / Wear 251 (2001) 1075–1084 1079

Fig. 4. Schematics showing the variation in friction coefficient with increasing normal load as observed in the modified scratch tests. (a) Type I, (b) Type
II and (c) Type III.

Table 4
Friction data obtained in the modified scratch tests
Coating Thickness Friction characteristics µ20 N a dµ/dNb

Smooth Rough Smooth Rough Smooth Rough

PC1 Low Type II Type II 0.10 0.10 0.0018 0.0017

Medium Type I Type I 0.09 0.09 0.0011 0.0013
High Type I Type I 0.09 0.08 0.0010 0.0012
PC2 Low Type II Type II 0.14 0.16 0.0014 0.0013
Medium Type I Type I 0.14 0.13 0.0011 0.0015
High Type I Type I 0.14 0.14 0.0010 0.0010
PC3 Low Type III Type III 0.04 0.02 0.0014 0.0015
Medium Type I Type I 0.03 0.02 0.0007 0.0008
High Type I Type I 0.02 0.02 0.0006 0.0005
PC4 Low Type III Type III 0.09 0.11 0.0017 0.0019
Medium Type I Type I 0.09 0.10 0.0008 0.0012
High Type I Type I 0.08 0.08 0.0006 0.0008
a Friction coefficient at a normal load of 20 N.
b k in µ = kN + µa .

3.2.2. Pin-on-disc tests
The variations in the friction coefficients with increasing
number of cycles as measured in pin-on-disc tests also fall
into three types of behaviour for the different coated sam-
ples examined, see Fig. 5. The first type, Type A, is charac-
terised by a relatively low steady-state friction coefficient,
µsteady-state , up to a critical number of revolutions, Ncritical ,
after which the friction coefficient rapidly increases to a rel-
atively high steady-state value, i.e. µ close to 0.6–0.7. This
value corresponds to steel sliding against the uncoated metal
substrate. In this high steady-state regime the friction co-
efficient displays a pronounced high frequency fluctuation.
Type B is characterised by a relatively low initial friction
coefficient, which relatively slowly increases to the same

Fig. 5. Schematics showing the variation in friction coefficient with increasing number of cycles as observed in the pin-on-disc tests. (a) Type A, (b)
Type B and (c) Type C. The high frequency fluctuation in the high steady-state friction coefficient is not presented in the figures.
1080 P. Carlsson et al. / Wear 251 (2001) 1075–1084

Table 5
Friction data obtained in the pin-on-disc tests
Coating Thickness Friction characteristics µsteady-state a Ncritical b

Smooth Rough Smooth Rough Smooth Rough

PC1 Low Type C Type C – – 0 5

Medium Type A Type A 0.16 0.17 6 6
High Type A Type A 0.16 0.16 10 8
PC2 Low Type C Type C – – 0 0
Medium Type C Type C – – 0 0
High Type B Type B 0.24 0.23 8 8
PC3 Low Type C Type C – – 0 0
Medium Type A Type A 0.08 0.10 17 15
High Type A Type A 0.07 0.06 46 37
PC4 Low Type C Type B – 0.20 0 3
Medium Type B Type B 0.18 0.19 4 4
High Type A Type A 0.16 0.16 15 20
a Steady-state friction coefficient before coating failure.
b Number of revolutions until coating failure.

relatively high steady-state value as for Type A. Finally, Type flattened out with increasing normal load (in the modified
C is characterised by a relatively low initial friction coeffi- scratch test)/increasing number of cycles (in the pin-on-disc
cient, which rapidly increases to the same high steady-state test) resulting in a smoother topography (Fig. 6). ToF–SIMS
value as for Types A and B. analysis of these smooth areas show that the composition
Table 5 summarises the observed friction characteristics of the top surface layer differs from that of the as-deposited
of the samples investigated, i.e. type of friction trace, the coating and that the change is influenced by the normal load
friction coefficient in the low steady-state friction regime, value. Fig. 7 shows the major change in surface chemical
µsteady-state , and the critical number of revolutions, Ncritical , composition of coating PC1 within the scratch (normal load
until coating failure. As can be seen, coating PC3 shows the 50 N) after the modified scratch test as illustrated by the in-
overall best results, i.e. a low µsteady-state value and a high tensities of secondary ions in the interval m/z = 70–250.
Ncritical value, followed by coatings PC4, PC1 and PC2. For The ion fragments at m/z = +73, +147 and +221 orig-
all coatings a low µsteady-state value and a high Ncritical value inate from the linear structure of poly dimethyl siloxane
are promoted by a high coating thickness, i.e. thin coatings (PDMS) while the ion fragments at +133 and +207 origi-
must be avoided in order to avoid metal/metal contact and nate from the cyclic structure of PDMS [19], all belonging
galling. Finally, no significant difference could be observed to forming additive A. The peak at m/z = +91 is charac-
when comparing the friction characteristics of coatings de- teristic of aromatic hydrocarbons (C6 H5 CH2 + or, by rear-
posited on the two types of substrates investigated.
SEM and EDX studies of the worn surfaces show that the
Type A friction trace is typical for coatings of a uniform
thickness and a high load carrying capacity/wear resistance,
i.e. the low steady-state friction coefficient is controlled by
steel sliding against the organic coating. In contrast, the Type
B friction trace is typical for coatings of a uniform thick-
ness and a limited load carrying capacity/wear resistance,
i.e. the low initial friction coefficient is slowly increased due
to the gradual deformation and failure of the organic coating
resulting in exposure of the underlying metal. Finally, the
Type C friction trace is typical for coatings showing insuffi-
cient coverage/poor adhesion, i.e. showing uncoated regions
or regions were the coating is, more or less, immediately
detached.

3.3. Characteristics of worn surfaces

Fig. 6. Surface characteristics of coating PC4 showing a smooth surface
Observations of the tested samples show that the orig- topography within the scratch (at a normal load of 70 N) as observed in
inal, as-deposited topography of the coatings is gradually the modified scratch test (SEM, TOPO-mode).
 P. Carlsson et al. / Wear 251 (2001) 1075–1084 1081

Fig. 7. Positive ToF–SIMS spectra (mass range 70–250 amu) of coating PC1 recorded from: an as-deposited region (a) and a region within the scratch
(b) obtained in the modified scratch test (corresponding to a normal load of 50 N). Note the different scales on the y-axis.

rangement, the cyclic tropyllium ion C7 H7 + ) and originates
from the styrene in the coatings [20]. Fig. 8 illustrates the
major change in surface chemical composition of coating
PC3 within the scratch (normal load 50 N) after the modi-
fied scratch test. As can be seen the high mass ion fragments
in the range +300 < m/z < +800, most probably originat-
ing from forming additive B, cannot be detected in the worn
coating. Thus, the sliding contact does not only result in a
change in surface topography due to mechanical interaction
and/or wear but also in surface chemistry due to tribochem-
ical interactions and/or wear.
At higher normal loads/higher number of cycles the coat-
ing material tends to deform even more and be displaced
from the centre of the scratch to the sides resulting in more
or less pronounced ridges along the scratch, see Fig. 9a and
b. The AES depth profile in Fig. 9c shows that part of the
organic coating still remains within the centre of the scratch,
i.e. the substrate is not exposed. However, higher normal

Fig. 8. Positive ToF–SIMS spectra (mass range 300–800 amu) of coating PC3 recorded from: an as-deposited region (a) and a region within the scratch
(b) obtained in the modified scratch test (corresponding to a normal load of 50 N).
1082 P. Carlsson et al. / Wear 251 (2001) 1075–1084

Fig. 9. Surface failure of coating PC1 in the modified scratch test as observed in the SEM. (a) and (b) Ridge formation (at a normal load of 70 N) along
the scratch; (c) AES depth profile (from the black spot indicated in a) showing that the substrate is not exposed in the centre of the scratch. Steel ball
sliding direction from left to right.

loads/higher number of cycles will result in complete coat-
ing failure and substrate exposure. This type of mechanism
is most pronounced for coating, PC1, and becomes more
evident with increasing coating thickness. In contrast, coat-
ing PC2 shows signs of adhesive failure, i.e. a failure that
occurs predominantly at the coating/substrate interface, as
illustrated by the micrographs and AES depth profile in Fig.
10. Also this type of failure mechanism becomes more evi-
dent with increasing coating thickness.
4. Discussion
From the results obtained in the present study it is ev-
ident that thin organic permanent coatings can be used in
order to improve the formability of 55%Al–Zn coated steel
sheet. However, the tribological behaviour of the coatings
is strongly dependent on the coating chemical composition
and the coating thickness, i.e. regions showing incomplete
coverage must be avoided in order to prevent metal/metal
sliding contact and galling. The results show that the varia-
tion in coating thickness to a large extent is controlled by the
variations in substrate surface topography, mainly the wavi-
ness of the 55%Al–Zn coating. Thus, in order to avoid local
break through of the organic coating, resulting in exposure
of the underlying metal and problems associated with galling
in forming applications, relatively thick coatings must be
deposited, if not the substrate topography can be improved
(decreased). However, this may cause problems due to ridge
formation and adhesive failures in regions with high coating
thickness, which may affect the adhesion to the paint as well
as the corrosion properties of the final product. Besides, the
deposition of thick organic coatings will have a detrimen-
tal effect on the weldability and thus be less cost-effective.
Consequently, the coating deposition process has to be fur-
ther improved in order to obtain organic coatings with a
more uniform coating thickness also on rough substrate sur-
faces. It is believed that this requirement can be fulfilled by
optimising the deposition process by using a multiple roll
coating deposition system [21]. Thus, further work will be
required in order to gain a better understanding of the or-
ganic coating deposition process.
Of the coatings investigated, coating PC3 shows great
potential when it comes to keeping the friction coefficient
 P. Carlsson et al. / Wear 251 (2001) 1075–1084 1083

Fig. 10. Adhesive failure of coating PC2 in the modified scratch test as observed in the SEM. (a) Initial adhesive failure at a normal load of 45 N and
(b) adhesive failure resulting in complete substrate exposure within the scratch at a normal load of 95 N; (c) AES depth profile (from the black spot
indicated in b) indicating a pure adhesive coating failure (the low carbon signal in the profile obtained originates from the interdendritic areas in the
figure). Steel ball sliding direction from left to right.

and galling tendency at a low level. It is believed that this 5. Conclusions

is mainly due to the lubricating effect of forming additive
B in combination with a high load carrying capacity/wear
resistance of the resin used which is further improved by the
addition of SiO2 .
Post-test examination of the tested samples revealed dis-
tinct differences in coating failure mechanisms between the
different organic coatings investigated. The complexity of
the tribological response, including both mechanical and
chemical interactions at the sliding interface makes it diffi-
cult to, more in detail, correlate the tribological performance
of the coatings to their mechanical properties and chemi-
cal composition. Besides, the fact that the coatings evalu-
ated in the present study are under industrial secret makes
this correlation even more problematic, mainly due to the
lack of basic material data. Thus, it is believed that fur-
ther insight on the tribological response of these types of
coatings can only be obtained from systematic work using
microscopic and surface analytical techniques on different,
more well-defined organic coatings based on less complex
formulations.
In the present study, the tribological behaviour of thin
organic permanent coatings deposited on 55%Al–Zn hot-dip
coated steel sheet is evaluated by two different laboratory
tests; modified scratch testing and pin-on-disc testing. The
results obtained showed the followings.
Thin organic permanent coatings showing low friction,
high load carrying capacity and high wear resistance can
be used to solve problems associated with high friction and
galling in sheet metal forming applications. However, in
order to guarantee a low friction/low tendency to galling
the coating deposition process must be further developed in
order to obtain coatings with a uniform coating thickness
also on rough substrates.
The two laboratory tests in combination with the micro-
scopic and surface analytical techniques used in the present
study makes it possible to evaluate the tribological perfor-
mance of thin organic permanent coatings.
Further systematic work on more well-defined organic
coatings based on less complex formulations is needed in
1084 P. Carlsson et al. / Wear 251 (2001) 1075–1084
order to further increase the knowledge-base concerning the
property–performance relationships of thin organic perma-
nent coatings.
Acknowledgements
Dr. Sven-Erik Hörnström, SSAB Tunnplåt AB, and Dr.
Heribert Domes, Chemetall GMBH, are recognised for pro-
viding the metal coated steel substrates and the organic coat-
ings, respectively, as well as valuable discussions of the
work. The financial support from the Swedish Foundation for
Knowledge and Competence Development (KK-stiftelsen),
SSAB Tunnplåt AB, Becker Industrifärg AB and Chemetall
Skandinavien Ytteknik AB is gratefully acknowledged by
the authors.
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