Structural Timber: Characteristics and Testing
ri() Ceccotti
Prof.. Univ. of Florence. Florence. Italy
Surnmar
A basic introduction to timber as a structural material will be given, examining
its physical parameters for both clear wood and structural timber and the influ-
ence of these parameters on its structural applications. Current testing methods
and criteria will also be presented. Finally, connections for timber structures will
he considered.
Characteristics
Origin
Timber is a natural material of biologi-
cal origin obtained from tree trunks.
Timber used for building purposes is
obtained mainly from hardwoods
(oak. beech, chestnut. poplar, etc.) and
softwoods (spruce, pine, larch. douglas
fir. etc.) and it is identified according
to botanical species. The correct iden-
tification of timber species is critical to
the testing process and in most cases
requires examination with a micro-
scope.
Anisotropv
The micro-structure of timber is
formed by cellular elements, arranged
differently according to species. with a
general orientation parallel to the
stem axis. This parallel orientation
largely determines timber's mechani-
cal properties. Attempts to assign val-
ues for the elastic modulus of timber
should consider its three anatomical
directions: longitudinal (parallel to the
grain), tangential (tangent to the annu-
al growth rings) and radial (towards
the pith). It should he noted that the
ratio between the first two differs for
softwoods and hardwoods. Shear mod-
ulus. which is much lower than longitu-
dinal elastic modulus (about 1/15). also
has an influence on test results that
should not he ignored.
Variability
The biological origin of timber results
in significant variability in all charac-
teristics. Such variability can be seen
among different species (especially be-
tween softwoods and hardwoods).
within the same species from different
Structural Engineering
International
places of origin, among different
plants from the same place of origin
and even within the same plant.
Therefore. when testing a specimen, it
is crucial to have at least a preliminary
statistical description of such scatter.
This information can be found in the
literature and gives average values.
variation coefficients and similar data.
In any case, there are considerable
problems in choosing elements to he
tested. Sampling criteria, numbers of
samples. generalisation of the results.
limits of validity, all must be estab-
lished as part of the testing procedure.
Visco-elasticitv
Since timber is a visco-elastic material.
its characteristics of deformation and
strength strongly depend on the veloc-
ity and duration of an applied load, as
well as the obvious consideration of
the direction of force, which is referred
to in terms of the anatomic directions
mentioned above.
When testing the elastic modulus in
bending of a particular piece of timber,
it is not possible to attain a useful re-
sult. even for short-term purposes, if
rigorous testing arrangements and a
strictly observed loading velocity are
not defined.
Hygroscopic Behaviour
Timber is a hygroscopic material and
its deformation and strength charac-
teristics are therefore strongly influ-
enced by its moisture content. Stiffness
and resistance particularly decrease as
the humidity of wood increases. Mois-
ture heavily influences the possible
presence of fungi which are the cause
of decay. In addition. moisture can di-
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minish the effectiveness of adhesives
used for glued connections.
Environmental thermo-hygrometric
conditions are responsible for varia-
tions of moisture content in wood,
even if the wood has been 'seasoned".
The time necessary to reach the hygro-
metric equilibrium depends on the
permeability of the timber species and
on the environmental temperature, as
well as the section dimensions. The
larger the section dimensions. the
smaller are the moisture content varia-
tions within a timber element. Con-
trolling environmental conditions dur-
ing testing is essential, especially when
attempting to analyse and interpret re-
sults.
Strength Quality Grading
Timber in structural sizes can exhibit
numerous anomalies, biological in ori-
gin and often not pathological, which
are considered "defects". For structur-
al purposes. knots (deriving from
branch outgrowths). deformations.
cracks, slope of grain, fungi and insect
attacks. etc. may all be considered im-
portant. Clear wood, without defects
and with a straight grain, is normally
found only in sizes too small for struc-
tural purposes.
The mechanical behaviour of structur-
al timber is strongly influenced by pos-
sible defects, which can result in rup-
ture. as defined by certain parameters.
Structural timber may he prone to brit-
tle failure in bending (according to
species and quality), while clear timber
has a more ductile behaviour. Further-
more. moisture-related resistance is
less accentuated in structural timber
than in clear wood.
Structural timber may be classified
into various quality classes (grades)
according to its strength. Such classifi-
cation is based on a variety of factors.
such as frequency and diameter of
knots, slope of the grain. etc. This kind
of visual analysis requires an accurate
survey of the specimen. Alternatively.
a grading machine provides several
nondestructive testing methods, for ex-
ample. the elastic modulus in bending.
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AF
Fig. 1: Simplified test fir a semi—rigid joint in a timber structure under cyclical loading
Testing Aims and Codes
Testing timber structures is undertak-
en not only for reasons common to the
testing of structures in other materials.
i.e.. mechanical identification, model
validation, monitoring. etc. In addi-
tion, timber structures are tested to de-
termine product homogeneity and per-
formance. and as part of the design
process as well ('design by testing").
Testing Standards
ISO standards for tests on clear and
structural timber for structural purpos-
es, aimed at establishing common in-
ternational practices for reporting test
results, have existed for some time
(e.g.. ISO 8375). The Structural Euro-
codes (comprehensive design stand-
ards for the 18 member nations of the
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- density of the wood. Embedding
I—.
European Community and the Euro-
pean Free Trade Association) also ad-
dress the design of timber structures
under Eurocode 5.
The following testing prestandards
(prEN) and proposals of the European
Committee for Standardisation (CEN)
will soon be available as supporting
standards for Eurocode 5:
— prEN 789 Timber Structures
—
Wood-based panels: Test methods
for the determination of mechanical
properties for structural purposes.
— prEN 408 Timber Structures — solid
and glued-laminated timber: Deter-
mination of some physical and me-
chanical properties for structural
purposes (derived from ISO 8375).
— ('EN TC 124-105 Solid Timber in
Structural Sizes: Determination of
tensile and compressive stiffnesscs
perpendicular to the grain.
— prEN 384 Structural Timber: Deter-
mination of values of mechanical
properties and densities.
— CEN TC 124-206 Wood-based Mate-
rials: Determination of characteris-
tic values.
CEN TC 124-207 Glued-laminated
Timber: Strength classes and deter-
mination of characteristic proper-
ties.
— prEN 518 Structural Timber — Grad-
ing: Requirements for visual
strength grading standards.
prEN 519 Structural Timber — Grad-
ing: Requirements for machine
strength graded timber and grading
machines.
Connections
Density
Connections between timber elements
can he glued or made with mechanical
fasteners. Mechanical joints are always
semi-rigid and their deformation and
strength are strongly dependent on the
strength. timber thickness. fastener di-
ameter. and end- and edge-distance
are the most important factors for the
strength of the mechanical connec-
tions, apart from time and moisture.
Embedding strength is strongly influ-
enced by the density of the wood. Stiff-
ness, too, is influenced by density,
which reduces the deformation of the
wooden bed where the fastener acts.
For this reason, it is very important to
have an accurate idea of the
specimen's density if a correct inter-
pretation of test results is to he ob-
tained.
Slip
Slip occurs in all mechanical joints in
timber construction, both initial slip
(free) and elastic slip, according to the
type of connection. Initial slip is due to
the closing of gaps between connec-
tion elements: elastic slip derives from
the deformation of fasteners and their
further embedding into the wood.
The slip modulus (i.e.. the slope of the
load-slip curve) of a joint strongly af-
fects the deformation of the joint. A
glued connection is much stiffer than a
mechanical one, Elastic deformation
of the wood in a joint is usually less im-
Structural Engineering International 2/93
portant than the mechanical slip of the
whole joint.
Initial slip is widely present in older
structures due to the inaccuracy of the
tools and of the types of connections
used (i.e. non-drilled nails, stirrups.
and bolts, as well as wooden connec-
tors). Modern structures benefit from
more advanced connection techniques
and materials (pre-drilled and im-
proved nails, dowels. and toothed con-
ilectors, etc.).
In order to properly manage and inter-
pret testing. knowledge of both the cx-
pected initial slip and the values of the
slip modulus are necessary. Initial free
slip will not recover during an unload-
ing phase. For repeated loads, the hvs-
teresis cycle will increase as the load
increases (under the primary creep-
limit). The slip modulus will remain
unchanged or will increase under these
circumstances.
For cyclical tests with inversion of the
load sign, asymmetric pinched hystere-
sis loops occur, increasing with the cy-
cles. It is strongly advised to use stand-
ard cyclical testing methods in order
to obtain results comparable to those
of other researchers (Fig. 1).

Rupture
It must be emphasised that rupture be-
haviour for glued connections is very
different than for mechanical ones.
Glued connections are generally brit-
tle; mechanical ones max' he brittle or
ductile. depending on type. arrange-
ment of connection elements and rela-
tive dimensions.

Connection Standards Ii. 2: .Siuüc 1e,1 0/ Iiiie /)(II1 (() Ill) ,'III('(i—1(l11li!I(l1C(1 iintbt'r 10(1/

The following relevant CEN rules are

in preparation:
— prEN 383 Timber Structures — Test
methods: Determination of embed-
ding strength and foundation values
for dowel type fasteners.
— prEN 409 Timber Structures — Test
methods: Determination of yield
moment of dowel-type fasteners.
— CEN TC 124-1 12 Timber Structures:
Testing of load-bearing nailed joints.
— CEN TC 124-I 16 Timber Structures:
Testing of punched metal plate fas-
teners.
— EN 2ô$ I Timber Structures — Joints
made with mechanical fasteners:
General principles for the determi-
nation of strength and deformation
characteristics.
— EN 28970 Timber structures — Joints
made with mechanical fasteners:
Requirements for wood density.
In addition. for cyclic loading, refer to
RILEM TC 109 TSA. "Test Methods
for Cyclic Loading of Timber Joints'.
Structures
Prototypes
Tests on prototypes can be used for de-
termining the characteristic values of
stiffness and strength. especially for
reliability-based design codes. Tests on
prototypes are considered by Euro-
code 5 for wall diaphragms in order to
determine load carrying capacity [8].
Actual Structures
Load testing. static or dynamic. of
structures in situ usually is performed
in order to assess the mechanical state
of the structure (Fig. 2), as is the case
with testing structures made of other
materials. Old timber structures sub-
stantially retain their structural resis-
tance with the passage of time if stress-
es have remained below the creep-
limit.

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x — Test methods: The performance of
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Fig. 3: Loading procedure Jor ti,nber structures according to RILEM Recommendations
It is essential to control old timber
structures for the presence of fungi or
insects, which can be especially dan-
gerous if they occur unseen inside the
walls. It is also important with old tim-
ber structures to make an accurate sur-
vey of the structural elements, their di-
mensions and the connections, as well
as identifying the timber species and
strength quality class. Often, it will be
observed, earlier builders put the best
pieces in the most stressed areas!
Numerous nondestructive testing
methods for evaluating in situ timber
elements are available, including ultra-
sonic. stress wave velocity, vibration,
drilling energy, and penetration test-
ing, etc. It should be noted that appli-
cation of a particular method requires
that the operator has considerable
knowledge of the limits of validity of
that method.
It is necessary to verify the environ-
mental thermo-hygrometric conditions
during testing. This information is
even more useful if it is supported by
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I strength arid stiffness of structural
am
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Time
data on the conditions that preceded
the tests. Ongoing observation of the
specimen's humidity is also important
to a well managed testing procedure.
The influence of slip in the connec-
tions must be considered, as it may be
responsible the unloading of some
connections in a structure and increas-
es in the loading of others. In some
cases. elements not normally consid-
ered load-bearing may share the loads.
producing considerable alterations to
the expected static scheme.
Structural Testing Standards
It is advisable to follow established
and relatively simple structural testing
procedures. adjusted to specific condi-
tions and aims. A useful guideline is
RILEM 57 TSB-1: Recommendations
for testing of timber structures (1985).
slightly revised in prEN 380: Timber
Structures — Test Methods: General
principles for static loading (Fig. 3).
Other relevant testing guidelines are
found in:
prEN 594 Timber Structures — Tim-
her frame walls: Test for racking
—
wall panels.
prEN 595 Timber Structures —
Trusses: Tests for determination of
strength and stiffness.
— CEN TC 124-109 Timber Structures
structural floor decking.
Also important is Appendix Al of Eu-
rocode 5: Determination of 5-
percentile characteristic values from
test results.
References
[1] ARRIAGA. F. et al. Grading and Load
Carrying capacity Determination of Old
Timber Beams. American Society br Agri-
cultural Engineers, paper n. 92-4(165. 1992.
L2] BODIG. J. et al. Load and Resistance
Factor Design Guidelines for Developing
Reference Resistance. Draft. E 1)M. Fort
Collins. Colorado. 1991.
[3] CECCOTTI. A. and GIORDANO, S. .4
Device for Cyclic Load Testing of Glue-la-
minated Ti,nher joints: Experimental Eva!-
nation of Hysteretic Ductility of Doweled
Connections. Proceedings of the Workshop
on Structural Behaviour of Timber Con-
structions in Seismic Zones". Dept. of Civ-
il Eng.. Univ. of Florence. 1989.
[4] GORLACHER. R. and KRO\ILR. \1.
Tragfahigkeit von Versatzansc/zlussen in
Izistorisehen !lol:konstrukiionen. l-Iolzhau -
Statik-Aktuell Ausgabe, Düsseldorf.
2/1992.
[5] KUIPERS. J. Effect ofAge and/or Load
on Timber Strength. Paper no. 19-6-I, CIB
W18 Meeting. Florence. 1986.
16] RUG. \V. and SEE\IAN. A. Strength of
Old Timber. Building Research and Infor-
mation. vol. 19 n.l.. 1991.
I
17] SANDOZ. L. Grading of Construe-
lion Timber by Ultrasound. Wood Science
and Technology 23. 95—lOS. 1989.
[8] FN\' 1995-I-I. Eurocode 5— Design of
Timber Structures. CEN. Brussels. 1992.
[91 RILEM Recommendation TSB-1. Test-
ing Methods or Timber Structures. Maté-
riaux et Constructions vol. 23. no. 137.
1990.
Structural Engineering International 2/93