Norman Conquest

The Norman Conquest was an epoch making event in British history. The rulers of Normandy had originally been the
Scandinavian Vikings. The occupied parts of northern France and in the early 10th century were recognised by the
French crown. By the middle of the 11th century, they lost their Scandinavian speech. They spoke French and were
essentially French in culture. —---/During the reign of Edward, the Confessor, the last Saxon king, Harold Earl of
Wessex happened to visit Normandy. William, the Duke of Normandy had hopes of becoming the king of England after
the death of the childless Edward. But the witan, in obedience to the dying voice of Edward, elected Harold as the king.
This infuriated William and he landed in England with a mighty army in 1066. Harold was unable to get the
whole-hearted support of the nobles. England was a house divided against itself and was totally defeated in the Battle
of Hastings in 1066. Thus William the Duke of Normandy became known as William, the Conqueror, and was crowned
as the king of England. —--------1.government passed from English to Normans. establish strong central government.
William continued to be the Duke of Normandy- steady flow of people between England and Normandy2.. Appointed
Norman lords in the Advisory Council and forced most Anglo-Saxons to become serfs. 3. development of feudalism.
William claimed all the lands of the kingdom as his own, but divided it among the barons. The lesser barons and
knights held land from the tenants-in-chief. They render military service as well as pay feudal taxes. Below them were
the peasants and villeins. work for the lords in return for food and shelter. They were not free. 4.William conducted a
survey to determine details of the land. He used the information from the survey to fix the taxes and to divide the large
estates among his followers. This record of William’s survey is known as the Doomsday Book. 5. English church
brought nearer to Rome. The Saxon prelates were replaced by Norman Bishops who were very pious and learned, and
refined the English church by enforcing strict discipline.6. Ecclesiastical courts separated from secular courts. bishops
could new try only cases relating to spiritual matters. The church also encouraged education, art and architecture. 6.
The civilization of the Normans was marked by two main features – chivalry and religion. 7. Orders of knighthood-
The Knights Hospitallers, The Templars.
For a long time, the Normans treated the Anglo-Saxons as the conquered. no effort to ‘Normanise’. But as years
passed, the two races intermingled and blended into one. Norman French blended with the Germanic tongue of the
Anglo-Saxons and became English. But French and Latin were considered to be the languages of the cultured and the
fashionable. English was relegated to a lower position. Latin was the language used for writing and French was the
preferred spoken language in polite society. French enjoyed greater prestige and social status, have been the language
of the court, of the nobility, of the law courts. resultant language was still predominantly Saxon tongue. enrichment of
English language with a large number of French words.-The illiterate peasants easily preferred French words because
the latter was full of clumsy inflexions and elaborate genders.

Characteristics of Middle English

middle period between Old English and Modern English. quite different from Old English.
Vocabulary- OE vocabulary was almost pure or unmixed, containing only a sprinkling of Latin and Old Norse terms,
Middle English vocabulary was heterogenous. During the Middle English period, sweeping changes had come over
English vocabulary on account of Danish invasions resulting in a Scandinavianing of the Northern dialects and the
Norman Conquest resulting in a vast number of French loans.------Latin words were also introduced into the language.
technical, legal and ecclesiastical terms. passed into popular use and became permanent parts of English. The net
result of all this was that English vocabulary which was more or less homogenous.
Pronunciation and Spelling-we find Middle English very different from Old English. The scribes who were mostly
French men accustomed to French spelling traditions, tried to introduce these traditions into English.
1. The long ‘u’ was indicated in spelling by ‘ou’. Hus > house
2. Another Middle English device was to writer ‘u’ as ‘o’ in the neighbourhood of m, n, v a and w.
cume > come luve > love fuwl > fowl
3. Old English ‘a’ was changed into the rounded vowel ‘o’. stan > stone
4. OE ‘f’ which became voiced between vowels came to be written as ‘v’. This accounts for the ‘v’ in love, over,devil
5. Long vowels in ME spelling were often indicated by the doubling of the short vowel.grene > green, bot > boot
6. OE ‘cw’ was substituted by ‘qu’ in Middle English . cwene > queen
Grammar- Middle English period witnessed many changes in the grammatical structure of language.
1. gradual decay and ultimate loss of most of OE inflectional ending. This was the natural consequence of the
fixing of the Germanic accent on the first syllables of words which led to the obscuring of the vowel in the unstressed
inflectional ending of the words. OE had varied endings for the Nominative and Accusative plurals ( -as, -a, -an, e, u).
Middle English reduced them all to ‘-as’. Similarly the OE genitive endings like (-es, -a, -an, -e) were reduced to –es.
Later on vowels in all unstressed positions blurred and –as and –es were pronounced alike.
2. Tendency to form plurals ending in _en. Children, brethren, oxen
3. Definite article ‘the’ as well as the adjective came to be used in all cases, gender and numbers.
4. substitution of grammatical gender by natural gender. divided into masculine, feminine or neuter.
5. Introduction of certain French usages into English. Usedl preposition ‘of’ as a regular sign of genitive sense.
6. Old English formed the comparatives and superlatives of adjectives by means of inflectional endings. To form
the comparatives and superlatives of polysyllabic words of French origin used adverbs.Eg : beautiful, more beautiful,
most beautiful—-Delightful, more delightful, most delightful…. Monosyllabic words continued to form the comparative
and superlative through inflectional endings. Long, Longer, Longest
7. The leveling of inflectional endings resulted in much confusion regarding the use of pronouns of the third
persons.The ambiguities were removed by the introduction of Scandinavian pronouns– they, them, their.
8. The OE pronoun for person singular ‘ic’ also changed into Modern English form “I”
From all this, it is clear that the Middle English period was a period of transition in the history of language.
Dialects- Northern:This dialect is the continuation of the Northumbrian variant of Old English. Southern- West
Saxon is the forerunner of this dialect of Middle English. West Midland most conservative of the dialect areas in the
Middle English period and is fairly well-documented in literary works. East Midland dialect out of which the later
standard developed. Spoken in London.
French Influence on English Language or French Loan Words
English is far from being a pure tongue. Present day English is not merely the product of dialects brought to England
by the Angles, Saxons and Jutes. Roman conquerors, Renaissance scholars, Italian artists and the French invaders
left their mark on the English vocabulary. These words which have been adopted from foreign languages are called
loan words. Like Latin, French was one of the fundamental forces in English. After the French conquest, French
replaced English as the language of administration, instruction,legislation. The vernacular was neglected.—-With the
Norman Conquest (1066) a stream of French words flowed into English.
Church - Religion sermon parish pray prayer clergy friar saint chapel cathedral trinity
baptism confess confession communion mystery miracle convert convent nun
feudal system- domain castle baron livery servant
legal system- trespass treason justice judge jury verdict prison license advocate prisoner
punish plaintiff court plea property defendant attorney assault arrest bail
Military- Army navy battle soldier captain major colonel arms defend
Fashion- Clothes- fashion dress attire cloak coat garment robe collar veil
Colour- blue brown scarlet violet
Stones- ruby emerald sapphire pearl diamond coral
Food- dinner supper feast appetite taste roast fry salad pork beef mutton
adoption of phrases and expressions based on French model.
coup d' etat (forcible overthrow of a govt), bete noire (something that is disliked or feared and therefore avoided.)
To take leave, In vain, By heart, at large, hand to hand, make believe, on the basis of
hybrid words in English coined by adding French suffixes
Surnames were derived from- (1) Personal features – Longfellow Goodfellow (2) Occupations - Cook Smith (3) Place
names - Bridges Hill (4) Geneological - Robinson (son of Robin) Johnson (Son of Johnson)
Influence on Grammar
1. From French, English has adopted the feminine endings of nouns like lioness, tigress etc.
2. substitution of grammatical gender by natural gender.

Bible Translations
Very important outcome of the Reformation was the various translations of the Bible. The Bible had been a strong
formative influence on the style of many eminent writers. It has Crucial role in shaping the literary language.
Contributed new words which were adopted into the spoken tongue.
Translation by John Wycliffe- Religious reformer. Founder of the Lollard Movement. First to translate the Bible
into English. Translated it from the Latin Vulgate of St Jerome.. “the sweat of thy brow” – Lollard version (1382)
Translation by William Tyndale- Translated the New Testament from Hebrew . Greatly influenced by Martin
Luther.. Has used beautiful phrases and idioms which have carved a niche in the language. 16thc
“Scape goat” “beautiful” “glad tidings” “trespass” “the burden and heat of day” “eat, drink and be merry”
“stumbling block” “peace maker” “long suffering” “ungodliness” “weakling” “godly” “elders”
Translation by Miles Coverdale- Augustan Friar of Cambridge who later became the Bishop of Exeter. Translated
the Bible from Greek. 1535. Enriched the language with a few words and phrases like,
‘Loving Kindness’, ‘valley of the shadow of death’, ‘ avenger of blood’, ‘morning star’, ‘broken hearted’
Authorized Version of 1611- King James I. 47 linguistic scholars entrusted with the task of translating the Bible
into English. Completed in 1611. Dominant influence on the phrases, rhythms, style and syntax.:“labour of love”, “clear
as crystal” , “the still small voice”, “a thorn in the flesh”, “the eleventh hour”, “a howling wilderness”, “ the old Adam”,
“the salt on the earth”, “the olive branch”. Most influential single factor –Reading the Bible and Listening to it every
Sunday make the book familiar. Old words were revived. Eg: damsel, raiment, apparel
Phrase “holy of holies” has given rise to “heart of hearts” – Shakespeare in Hamlet, “the place of all places” – Jane
Austen in Mansfield Park. Songs of Solomon – two phrases. “the rain is over and gone” – used by Wordsworth.

Chaucer’s Contribution to English Language

Geoffrey Chaucer who lived approximately from 1343 to 1400 is considered the greatest English language poet
of the Middle Ages. Though he has not exerted any dominant influence on the development of the English language, he
is regarded as the Father of English lit or poetry.--------Chaucer’s work is important for he was the court poet and
wrote in the East Midland dialect, the ancestor of Standard English. More than Chaucer, it was Caxton who through
his printed work gave currency to the East Midland dialect. Chaucer’s works contain a large number of French words.
For example, if we examine the opening lines of the Prologue to the Canterbury Tales, in the first eighteen lines, we
have an average of one French word for every line. It was the vogue of the time to use Latin and French languages in
church, court and in any literary work. But Chaucer refused to adopt these languages for his poetry. He transformed
the East Midland dialect into a full-fledged language of England.
Another factor to be noted is that Chaucer’s language shows modern English grammar in its infancy.
The Old English inflections have been simplified.
(a) The plural suffix is ‘-s’, though ‘en’ and ‘ne’ are sometimes used. Eg. ‘eyen’.
(b) The genitive case ending is mostly ‘-s’, though there are a few ‘-s’less genitives. E.g. Lady Grace , church door
(c) The adjective is nearer to Modern English. Chaucer having done away with the elaborate OE inflectionial system to
denote the plural and the feminine.
(d) Chaucer sometimes has the ‘-e’ form. E.g. His horse were goode, Younge sunne
(e) The comparatives and superlatives of adjectives have –er and –est as in Modern English
(f) The definite articles in Chaucer is the indeclinable ‘the’.
(g) Pronouns are mostly as in Modern English though the Genitive and Dative cases are still here and hem.
(h) Verbs have the weakened –en ending in infinitive in the place of OE ‘-an’
(i) Chaucer has three forms of the infinitive
– to seek, seken to seke to seeketh/seekith
Chaucer’s syntax is loose and conversational perhaps because the English language was in a stage of transition. Hence
there is not rigidity or formalization. Moreover the interest of the writer and the reader was in the story and its telling
rather than in the language which clothed it.-----Chaucer’s importance lies in the fact that he lived and wrote in a
period of transition when English had started showing simplification in its grammar and orthography. Though the
language was still in its raw form, he ventured upon using the English language for his poetry. He probably realized
that Latin and French due to its complex grammar could lag behind. Hence it is no wonder that Lowell remarks:
“Chaucer found his English a dialect and left it a language.”

Rise of Standard English

To call a lang as Standard language is practical impossible. Each speaker has his/her own standard language.Despite
differences and peculiarities in pronunciation, and syntax – there is an accepted form of English.------- Standard
English is an accepted form of speech in which every educated person understands and aims at speaking. It stands
above the regional dialects.-------Standard English is said to have grown and developed from the dialect of London.
Reasons for the predominance of this dialect: (!)Dialect used in London – East Midland. London was the metropolis
the centre of administration, national life, hub of social and intellectual activities. (2)East Midland dialects – used in
the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge. (3)Caxton – used this dialect in printing books. Chaucer (4) The East
Midland dialect between two extremes – Southern dialect -conservative. Northern – showed great readiness to change.
East Midland – less progressive than the Northern but more advanced than the Southern. Hence comprehensible to
the speakers of both dialects. Thus East Midland - most important dialect - Middle English period
The Renaissance and reformation- Milton, Spencer, Shakespeare enriched English language. Printing press
stabilized English spelling and made knowledge more accessible. latin influence
Modern English- Chiefly based on an Anglo-Saxon foundation. Large scale borrowings from other languages –
English remains predominantly Anglo-Saxon. 75% of total number of words in English – Anglo Saxon.
Latin influence- Latin influence of renaissance period threatened to undermine Anglo Saxon basis. When puritans
came to power there was a counter movement. It was a conservative tendency to make language simple, austere and
devoid of Latinisms.
Restoration period exposed the English language to the influence of Europe particularly France. Writers in England
felt that language should be regularised in the wake of restoration. The royal society founded in 1662 was given the
task of improving English language. It included writers like Dryden and Waller.
Dr Johnson Dictionary- attempted to compile the first English dictionary. Imperfect. But provided an approximate
standard for good and correct English. 1755 samuel johnson.
19th century-growth of individualism and trade. Age of expansion of empire. This tendency was reflected in
language. The growth of science and social theory- made people exploit resources of classical languages and coin words
of scientific and technical nature. Movement for purification of language by exploring foreign terms and replacing
them with Anglo Saxon words. Tennyson and William Morris
Factors that contributed to the evolution of Standard English
(1) Invention of the printing press. (2)publication of Dr Johnson’s Dictionary (3) increased contact btw social classes.
(4) spread of edu and reading among all classes. (5) advent of the wireless.
(page 69-71)

LAST MODULE - THE GREAT VOWEL SHIFT