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The Iron Age Warrior Grave from North Bersted, West Sussex

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Bronze Age, Iron Age and Roman Landscapes
of the Coastal Plain, and
a Late Iron Age Warrior Burial
at North Bersted, Bognor Regis, West Sussex

Excavations 2007–2010

by Andy Taylor, Andrew Weale and Steve Ford

Thames Valley Archaeological Services Ltd

Monograph 19
2014
Published 2014 by Thames Valley Archaeological Services Ltd.
47–49 De Beauvoir Road, Reading, Berkshire, England RG1 5NR

Copyright © Thames Valley Archaeological Services Ltd.

All rights reserved

ISBN 978-0-9926330-2-8

Typeset by TVAS Press

Cover Design by Tim Dawson, Thames Valley Archaeological Services Ltd.

Printed by TVAS Press, Reading.

Produced by Steve Preston

Front cover: the ‘warrior burial’ under excavation

Rear cover: upper: open-work crests as they appeared in the grave
lower: Typical Roman ditch during excavation
vi North Bersted, West Sussex

CONTENTS
List of Figures
List of Plates
List of Tables and Charts
Summary ........................................................................................................................................1
Resumé ..........................................................................................................................................1
Zusammenfassung ........................................................................................................................1
Introduction ...................................................................................................................................2
Topography and geology ....................................................................................................................................................................2
Archaeological background .............................................................................................................................................................. 2
Acknowledgements........................................................................................................................ 2
The Excavation .............................................................................................................................. 4
Upper Palaeolithic ......................................................................................................................... 4
Mesolithic ...................................................................................................................................... 5
Neolithic ........................................................................................................................................ 5
Grave 2039 ...........................................................................................................................................................................................6
Early Bronze Age ........................................................................................................................... 6
Cremation burial 4929 ........................................................................................................................................................................6
Roundhouse 10087 (Fig. 14) ..............................................................................................................................................................7
Burnt Áint pits (Figs 5 and 8) ............................................................................................................................................................7
Middle Bronze Age and Middle-Late Bronze Age .......................................................................15
Middle Bronze Age, Road Corridor ...............................................................................................................................................16
Area F enclosed occupation site .....................................................................................................................................................16
Area B enclosed occupation site .....................................................................................................................................................19
Area H enclosure ...............................................................................................................................................................................19
Area A occupation and burnt mounds ..........................................................................................................................................19
Middle Bronze Age and Middle/Late Bronze Age pits ..............................................................................................................22
Miscellaneous Linear features ........................................................................................................................................................22
Late Bronze Age .......................................................................................................................... 24
Pit and posthole clusters .................................................................................................................................................................24
Area B Complex ...............................................................................................................................................................................24
Area H clusters ..................................................................................................................................................................................30
Cremation burial deposits and other human bone ......................................................................................................................35
Palstave Hoard ...................................................................................................................................................................................35

Middle Iron Age........................................................................................................................... 39

Middle Iron Age enclosure complex H1, Area H ........................................................................................................................39
Ring gully 10313 .....................................................................................................................................................................39
Field system .............................................................................................................................................................................39
Enlargement of enclosure H1 ...............................................................................................................................................42
Enclosure complex Area H2 ...........................................................................................................................................................42
Enclosure H4 .....................................................................................................................................................................................42
Fields H5 and H6 .............................................................................................................................................................................42
Enclosure complex 10222/10228/10236 Area H........................................................................................................................43
Middle Iron Age enclosure complex Area B1 ..............................................................................................................................43
Field system .............................................................................................................................................................................43
Enclosure B1 ............................................................................................................................................................................43
Final phase activity ..................................................................................................................................................................53
Area H enclosure 10221–2, 10228/10236)..........................................................................................................................56
Area B South-east MIA occupation or landuse ..................................................................................................................56
Ditches ......................................................................................................................................................................................56
Middle Iron Age pits .........................................................................................................................................................................56
 North Bersted, West Sussex vii

Late Iron Age ............................................................................................................................... 58

Enclosure complexes in Areas B and H ........................................................................................................................................58
Enclosure complex Area E ..............................................................................................................................................................58
The warrior/priest burial chamber 4307 in Area E .....................................................................................................................59
Roman .......................................................................................................................................... 64
Early Roman.......................................................................................................................................................................................64
Enclosure complex, Area E ...................................................................................................................................................64
Enclosure complex F ..............................................................................................................................................................65
Fields or paddocks ...................................................................................................................................................................66
Late Roman ........................................................................................................................................................................................70
House Site Structure 10012....................................................................................................................................................70
Enclosure complex B15 ........................................................................................................................................................72
Pit group ...................................................................................................................................................................................73
Roman complex Area H .........................................................................................................................................................73
Medieval/early post-medieval ..................................................................................................... 74
Pits .......................................................................................................................................................................................................74
Ditches ................................................................................................................................................................................................74
Post-medieval and Modern.......................................................................................................... 74
Undated Features ........................................................................................................................ 74
Undated cremation burials and related deposits ..........................................................................................................................74

THE FINDS
Prehistoric Pottery by Frances Raymond.................................................................................... 75
Undated Groups ................................................................................................................................................................................75
Neolithic .............................................................................................................................................................................................75
Early Neolithic .........................................................................................................................................................................75
Early to Middle Neolithic .......................................................................................................................................................76
Late Neolithic to Early Bronze Age ..............................................................................................................................................78
Beakers ......................................................................................................................................................................................78
Bronze Age Pottery ...........................................................................................................................................................................80
Generic Bronze Age Pottery ..................................................................................................................................................80
The Early Bronze Age ............................................................................................................................................................81
The Middle Bronze Age .........................................................................................................................................................81
Middle to Late Bronze Age Assemblages ............................................................................................................................87
Late Bronze Age ......................................................................................................................................................................88
Palstaves by Robin J. Taylor .........................................................................................................91
Discussion and conclusion ..............................................................................................................................................................93
Struck Flint by Steve Ford ........................................................................................................... 93
Iron Age, Roman and Medieval Pottery by Malcolm Lyne ........................................................ 95
Fabrics .................................................................................................................................................................................................95
Late Bronze Age/Early Iron Age .........................................................................................................................................95
Middle Iron Age.......................................................................................................................................................................95
Late Iron Age ...........................................................................................................................................................................96
Roman .......................................................................................................................................................................................96
Medieval ....................................................................................................................................................................................97
The Assemblages ...............................................................................................................................................................................97
Middle Iron Age. 500–50 BC.................................................................................................................................................97
Middle Iron Age/Late Iron Age transition. c. 90–50/25 BC (or later?) .........................................................................99
Late Iron Age/Atrebatic ‘Overlap’. c. 25 BC–AD 5 0/60 ............................................................................................. 104
AD 50/60–150 ...................................................................................................................................................................... 107
AD 150–250 .......................................................................................................................................................................... 109
AD 250–350+ ....................................................................................................................................................................... 110
Medieval c. AD 1250–1350 ................................................................................................................................................. 112
Discussion ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 113
Middle Iron Age.................................................................................................................................................................... 113
Middle /Late Iron Age transition ...................................................................................................................................... 113
viii North Bersted, West Sussex

Late Iron Age ........................................................................................................................................................................ 113

Early Roman .......................................................................................................................................................................... 114
Late Roman ........................................................................................................................................................................... 114
Human Bone by Ceri Falys ........................................................................................................ 115
Skeletal Remains ............................................................................................................................................................................. 115
SK2153 ................................................................................................................................................................................... 115
Pit 2517 (2863) ...................................................................................................................................................................... 115
SK 4657–The Warrior Grave 4307 ................................................................................................................................... 115
Cremated Bone ............................................................................................................................................................................... 117
Osteological Analysis ........................................................................................................................................................... 118
Carbonate Oxygen and Carbon Isotopes in Dental Enamel from the Skeleton by A.M. Pollard
and Peter Ditchfield .................................................................................................................... 119
Conclusion ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 120
The Metal Finds from Burial 4307 by Michel Feugère .............................................................. 121
Description and context ................................................................................................................................................................ 121
Helmet .................................................................................................................................................................................... 121
Openwork ornaments .......................................................................................................................................................... 121
Pendants ................................................................................................................................................................................. 122
The shield boss ..................................................................................................................................................................... 123
The sword .............................................................................................................................................................................. 123
The spearhead ....................................................................................................................................................................... 124
The iron bars across the grave ............................................................................................................................................ 124
Interpretation .................................................................................................................................................................................. 125
The helmet ............................................................................................................................................................................. 125
Openwork drawing and its meaning for the Celts........................................................................................................... 125
The shield............................................................................................................................................................................... 126
The sword .............................................................................................................................................................................. 127
The spearhead ....................................................................................................................................................................... 127
The iron bars ......................................................................................................................................................................... 127
Who was the deceased buried in North Bersted? ..................................................................................................................... 127
Other Metalwork by Steven Crabb .............................................................................................128
Late Bronze Age ............................................................................................................................................................................. 128
Iron Age and Roman ..................................................................................................................................................................... 128
Tools and implements .......................................................................................................................................................... 128
Personal items ...................................................................................................................................................................... 129
Fittings .................................................................................................................................................................................... 130
Metalwork from grave 4307 ................................................................................................................................................ 131
Textiles from the Warrior Grave by Heather Hopkins and Jacqui Watson ............................... 131
Slag and Industrial Debris by Steven Crabb............................................................................... 131
Brick and Tile by Danielle Milbank ........................................................................................... 131
Discussion ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 132
Fired Clay by Danielle Milbank .................................................................................................132
Spindle Whorls by Steven Crabb and Danielle Milbank ............................................................133
Quernstones by David Williams .................................................................................................133
Other Stone by Steven Crabb ......................................................................................................134
Whetstone........................................................................................................................................................................................ 134
Other stone ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 134
Animal Bone by Matilda Holmes ...............................................................................................134
Bronze Age ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 135
Middle Iron Age ............................................................................................................................................................................ 135
Late Iron Age .................................................................................................................................................................................. 136
Earlier Roman ................................................................................................................................................................................. 137
Late Roman ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 138
The Worked Bone and Antler ...................................................................................................................................................... 139
Whistle/toggle by Steven Crabb .................................................................................................................................................. 139
 North Bersted, West Sussex ix

Burnt Animal Bone by Ceri Falys...............................................................................................139

Environmental Samples by Rosalind McKenna.........................................................................140
Results .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 141
Conclusion ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 141
Radiocarbon Dating ...................................................................................................................142
Palynological Assessment by Karen Wicks ................................................................................142
Method ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 142
Interpretation .................................................................................................................................................................................. 144

CONCLUSIONS
Upper Palaeolithic and Mesolithic .............................................................................................147
Neolithic .....................................................................................................................................147
Earlier Bronze Age .....................................................................................................................147
Later Bronze Age ........................................................................................................................148
Middle Bronze Age and Middle/Late Bronze Age .................................................................................................................. 148
Enclosures ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 150
Burnt mounds ................................................................................................................................................................................. 150
Unenclosed clusters ....................................................................................................................................................................... 152
Isolated pits ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 152
Burials............................................................................................................................................................................................... 152
Palstave hoard ................................................................................................................................................................................. 152
Land boundaries ............................................................................................................................................................................. 152
Economy and Environment ......................................................................................................................................................... 153

Iron Age ......................................................................................................................................153

Occupation ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 153
Economy ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 153
Environment ................................................................................................................................................................................... 155
Landscape ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 155
Stray Ànds and isolated features .................................................................................................................................................. 155

Late Iron Age ..............................................................................................................................155

The ‘warrior burial’ in context by Steve Preston ....................................................................................................................... 157
Commios: an exploration of possible identiÀcation ................................................................................................................ 161

Roman .........................................................................................................................................163
Early Roman .................................................................................................................................................................................. 164
Later Roman.................................................................................................................................................................................... 166
The sites in their wider context ................................................................................................................................................... 166

Medieval ......................................................................................................................................167

Post-medieval..............................................................................................................................167

REFERENCES ......................................................................................................................... 170

APPENDIX 1 Catalogue of excavated features with cross-references to plans and phasing. ......180
APPENDIX 2 Catalogue of Struck Flint ........................................................................................188
APPENDIX 3. Carbonate Oxygen and Carbon Isotopes in Dental Enamel: methodology ..........192
APPENDIX 4. Catalogue of Metalwork ........................................................................................193
APPENDIX 5. Environmental samples ..........................................................................................197
APPENDIX 6. Palynological assessment; methodology and detailed data .................................. 204
xii North Bersted, West Sussex

N
Haslemere
Crawley

Horsham

Arun
06000
Midhurst Eastergate
North
ur
Ad
Bersted
South
Down
Westhampnett s
Brighton
Chichester

Worthing 5m
Bognor Regis
Westergate
Hayling 10m
Island

05000

04000

Lidsey
A29

Old canal

03000
Colworth

5m Shripney

Elmbridge SITE
02000

5m
Babsham
Farm
Ald
A2

in gbo
u
59

rne
Rife
North
Bersted

2
01000

SU91000 92000 93000 94000

0 1km

Figure 1 Location of site within North Bersted and in relation to Bognor, Chichester and West Sussex. Dots
represent locations of excavated sites: 1: Bedwin and Pitts (1978); 2: Burghestede Road (unpublished).
 North Bersted, West Sussex 1

BRONZE AGE, IRON AGE AND ROMAN LANDSCAPES

OF THE COASTAL PLAIN, AND A LATE IRON AGE
WARRIOR BURIAL AT NORTH BERSTED, BOGNOR
REGIS, WEST SUSSEX; EXCAVATIONS 2007–2010
by Andy Taylor, Andrew Weale and Steve Ford
with contributions by Steven Crabb, Ceri Falys, Michel Feugère, Heather Hopkins, Matilda Holmes,
Malcolm Lyne, Rosalind McKenna, Frances Raymond, Steve Preston, Robin Taylor, Jacqui Watson and
Karen Wicks

Summary
Open area excavation took place across nine separate areas totalling 18.8ha, though in effect these can be combined into two contiguous
zones. The fieldwork revealed artefacts and features spanning the Upper Palaeolithic through to the mid-1940’s Defence of Britain,
although the principal periods represented were of later Bronze Age, Iron Age and Roman date. A smaller volume of Neolithic and
medieval deposits were encountered. The earlier periods were represented by discrete occupation zones - isolated pits, roundhouses, burnt
mounds, isolated burials and some enclosure but with little evidence for the development of an enclosed landscape of field systems. This
changed with the onset of the Middle Iron Age and continuing into the Roman period when most of the excavated areas (and beyond)
had been enclosed with a complex of field boundaries and enclosures with further development through time. Study of the settlement of
this area was enhanced by a radiocarbon-dated palynological analysis of peat and alluvium deposits that infilled the valley of a small
stream.Perhaps the most notable finding of the excavation was the grave of a late Iron Age warrior prince or priest who may have been
raised in southern Europe, may have fought with the Roman army, and was buried with sword, scabbard, spear, shield, complete pottery
vessels, and other grave goods including most remarkably, elaborate ceremonial headwear achieved by modifying a military helmet.

Resumé
Fouilles archéologiques en extension à North Bersted, Sussex, Angleterre, larges de 18,8ha, ont revelé des témoins datants du
Paléolithique récent jusqu’a la Défence de Bretagne des années 1940, mais concernant principalement l’Age du Bronze récent, L’Age
du Fer et l’ère romaine. Moindre volume de dépôts du Néolithique et Moyen-Age ont aussi été rencontrés. Les époques plus anciennes
se répresentent par des zones d’occupation discrètes, fosses isolées, bâtiments circulaires, monceaux de pierres incendies, sépultures aussi
isolées, parfois des enclos, mais portant peu aux développement d’un paysage des champs enclos. Cela changea au commencement de
l’Age du Fer moyen, en continuant a l’ époque romaine, quand la plupart de la zone fouillée (et plus loin encore) était comprise dans
une système délimitée de fossés de lignes et enceintes, plus évoluées avec le temps. L’étude de l’habitation de cette aire était augmentée
par l’analyse palynologique des sediments de tourbe et d’alluvion accueilliés dans le lit d’un petit ruisseau etaint. Mais la découverte la
plus notable des travaux était la sépulture d’un guérrier-prêtre de l’Age du Fer final, né, peut-être, dans une région plus méridionale,
qui peut-être avait assisté aux auxiliaires de l’armée romaine, interré avec épée en fourreau, lance, bouclier, des vaisseux céramiques
completes, et d’ autre mobilier funéraire qui compris, remarquablement, une coiffure céremoniale formée par la modification d’une casse
militaire.

Zusammenfassung
Ausgrabungen wurden über neun unterschiedliche gebiete unternommen, die ins gesamt etwa 18,8 Hektare maßen, die jedoch zwei
vereinigte angeschlossene gebiete waren. Das Geländearbeit hat Artefakten und Merkmalen aufgedeckt die aus dem Jungpaläolithikum
bis zu dem Mitte der 1940er spannten, obwohl die Haupt dargestellte Zeitalter waren von dem späteren Bronzezeit, Eisenzeit, und
Römischen Datum. Eine geringere Menge von Jungsteinzeitliche und Mittelalterliche Merkmale wurden auch begegnet. Die früheren
Zeitaltern bestehten aus eigenständige Belegungs Zonen – abgelegene Gruben, Rundhäuser, Kochhügel, abgelegene Bestattungen und
einige Einhegungen, aber jedoch kein Hinweis für die Erschließung eines Systems von abgeschlossene Felder. Dies änderte sich um den
Beginn der mittel Eisenzeit und andauernd bis zum Römischen Zeitalter, mischen it dem ln. iet von 18,8 hektarewohin das größte
Teil des ausgegrabenes Bereich (und auch weiter hinaus) eingeschlossen wurde mit einigen Systeme von Feldbegrenzungen die andauernd
weiter entwickelnd wurden. Untersuchung der Siedlung wurde unterstützt durch Radiokarbondatierung einer Pollenanalyse von Torf
und Alluvium Ablagerung. Vielleicht der wichtigster Fund dieser Ausgrabung war das Grab eines spät Eisenzeitlicher Kriegerprinz,
oder Priester, der vielleicht in Südeuropa aufgezogen ist, und auch möglicherweise mit der Römischen Armee gekämpft hat. Er wurde
mit einem Schwert, Scheide, Speer, Schild, vollständige Keramikbecher sowie andere Grabbeigaben vergraben. Das bemerkvollste davon
ein kunstvolles Zeremonialhelm dass aus einem veränderten Militärhelm hergestellt wurde.
60 North Bersted, West Sussex

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Figure 44 Detailed plan and profiles of warrior grave 4307.

within the grave. Soil around the copper alloy objects
was also separately sampled, as were some darker areas
of fill at the southern end of the grave. These may
represent organic deposits that had been placed within
the grave, that have rotted away since deposition, but
no trace remained in the samples.
In summary, the burial was that of a man who was
1.57m (about 5’ 3”) tall and was c. 30–45 years old
when he died, in around 50 BC (the dating is discussed
in more detail below). He had survived a period of
malnutrition or disease when young but went on to
lead a physically active lifestyle. In particular, he had
 North Bersted, West Sussex 61

Plate 11 Grave 4307 in early stages of excavation, looking south-east; scales 2m, 1m, 0.2m.

Plate 12 Grave 4307 in last stages of excavation, looking north-west; scale 2m (partial).
 North Bersted, West Sussex
of a military contract also including salt and grain. It
may be that they brought their supply arrangements
with them, with some of the BB1 being sold in the
market at Chichester to the civilian population of the
city and countryside around.
The few finewares supplied to North Bersted after
the mid-3rd century include fragments from a New
Forest Purple Colour-coat beaker, a parchment ware
bowl from the same source, a Lower Nene Valley
Colour-coat beaker and an Oxfordshire Red Colour-
coat bowl.
Occupation within Building 10012 seems to have
terminated by c. AD 330 but the Pevensey ware bowl
and New Forest Colour-coat mortarium from Ditch
10004/10005 around Building 10012 indicate that
some kind of low-level activity continued in the vicinity
of the building after the middle of the century.
Human Bone by Ceri Falys
SKELETAL REMAINS
Human skeletal remains were recovered from three
contexts. Two articulated individuals were excavated,
in addition to a disarticulated cranium from a pit. The
preservation of the remains was generally poor, as
the brickearth is not conducive to bone preservation.
All elements were subject to frequent fragmentation,
cortical exfoliation and occasional damage by root
activity. Osteological analysis of all human skeletal
remains was carried out using recommended standards
published by the Brickley and McKinley (2004)
and Buikstra and Ubelaker (1994). The state of
preservation and completeness of the skeleton(s)/
skeletal element(s) were assessed. Demographic
information (i.e. determination of age and sex) was
determined where possible, in addition to assessments
of any pathological expression and non-metric traits
present.
SK2153
The articulated remains of Skeleton 2153 were
recovered from a shallow grave 2039. The body
was tightly flexed on its left side, and orientated
approximately North-West (head) to South-East.
The preservation of the remains was poor. Areas of
trabecular bone were not preserved, resulting in the
complete absence of the vertebrae, sternum, and
pelvis, as well as all proximal and distal ends of long
bones, hands and feet. The only elements present were
the cranial vault (no mandible), few teeth, and mid-
shaft portions of the arms and legs. All were highly
fragmented, with the largest piece of bone measuring
57mm in length. The surface preservation was also
exceedingly poor, with frequent cortical exfoliation,
and etching resulting from root activity.
The amount of retrievable demographic
information was limited, due to the condition of the
remains and availability of necessary elements. The sex
of the individual was indeterminate, due to conflicting
observations of the mastoid process, nuchal crest of
115
the skull and linea aspera of the femora. The age at
death was also not determined with confidence. At the
time of excavation, the degree of dental attrition of
a first maxillary molar was recorded to be 35+ years,
although no other teeth were present for comparison.
The few teeth present at excavation disintegrated
following removal from the ground, and thus were not
available for post-excavation analysis with the rest of
the skeleton. No pathological alterations or non-metric
traits were observed, and no further information could
be derived from these poorly preserved remains.
Pit 2517 (2863)
Portions of a single disarticulated human cranium
were recovered from pit 2517. The overall preservation
of the bone was poor, with all pieces demonstrating a
degraded chalky texture. Although fragmented, it was
apparent that primarily the right side of the cranium
was present. A specific age-at-death could not be
assessed, beside the general observation it belonged
to an adult individual, which was supported by the
occasional fusing of cranial sutures. Although limited,
sexually dimorphic characteristics were present. The
sex was determined to be possibly male, based on the
presence of a moderately projecting mastoid process
and supra-orbital ridges; in addition to a pronounced
nuchal crest. No non-metric traits were observed.
Pathological analysis identified three main
alterations to the cranium, all probably resulting from
the same aetiology: anaemia. The vault fragments were
notably thick due to expansion of the diploë, although
not specifically characteristic of iron deficiency,
the posterior aspect of the exterior surface of the
parietal bones and occipital, as well as the orbital
roof, displayed moderate porosity, suggesting porotic
hyperostosis and cribra orbitalia respectively. These
latter two lesions are commonly suggested to be found
within the skeletal remains of individuals who suffered
from iron-deficient anaemia. Such anaemia could result
from an iron-deficient diet, excess blood loss, chronic
disease (i.e. cancer), or a parasitic infection of the gut
(Roberts and Manchester 1995). The notable expansion
of the diploë also occurs in response to anaemia, as
the body attempts to produce more red blood cells
to compensate for the decreased amount of iron in
the system (Roberts and Manchester 1995). These
observations are notably common in archaeological
remains (Walker et al. 2009).
SK 4657–The Warrior Grave 4307
The remains of a single articulated individual were
excavated from the elaborate grave. The body was
supine and fully extended, orientated NW (head) to SE
(feet). Although largely undisturbed, the upper skeleton
demonstrated some post-depositional movement. The
skull had been displaced from its original anatomical
position, and was located to the left of the body
approximately 0.23m from the mandible and vertebral
column. The left upper arm (humerus) had been
dislocated from the left shoulder (scapula), and moved
approximately 0.52m from its original position. The
116 North Bersted, West Sussex
cause of these deflections from the correct anatomical
position could be the result of the weight of the
shield/helmet/bronze artefacts on the left forearm
once the body had started to decompose and/or it is
also feasible the upper body could have been raised at
the time of burial (e.g. perhaps on a pillow).
The preservation of these remains was again poor.
During excavation, it was noted that all bones were
very soft and brittle, with areas of primarily trabecular
bone (i.e. vertebrae, ribs, pelvis, hands and feet) little
more than stains in the soil. These areas were block-
lifted for later excavation in attempt to recover the
maximum bone fragment size, however this had little
success. Most severely affected were the vertebrae and
ribs. It was also apparent that the elements of the left
side of the lower body (i.e. pelvis, femur and tibia)
were stained green and much better preserved, the
result of the close proximity of the bronze artefacts.
Portions of all areas of the body were present for
analysis, and were assessed for their varying degrees of
completeness.
Sex
The sex of the individual was determined to be male,
based on several sexually dimorphic osteological
characteristics, most notably aspects of the cranium,
mandible and pelvis. This finding was supported
through the presence of robust muscle markings on
the elements of the arms and legs, as well as metric
analyses of the maximum diameter of the femoral head
(49.5mm). This measurement was compared against
the set standards, which suggest that any measurement
of the femoral head greater than 47.5mm indicates a
male individual, while less than 42.5mm supports a
female sex (Bass 1995).
Age
The estimation of age at death was based on few
observations, as preservation only allowed assessment
of the degree of dental attrition (Brothwell 1981) and
the surface morphology of the auricular surface of the
left ilium (Lovejoy et al. 1985). The degree of dental
wear was notably uneven between the left and the right
side of the mouth, with the right side first molar wear
being more pronounced (perhaps the direct result of
a condition described below), and suggesting an age
of between 25–35 years. The left auricular surface was
present, although slightly damaged, and suggested an
age of approximately 35–45 years (Lovejoy et al. 1985).
The degree of cranial suture closure supports the
determination that these are the remains of an older
adult, as the majority of sutures were almost completely
obliterated. Although not a specific indication of age,
suture fusion is a general indication of advanced age
(O’Connell 2004). In summary, it is estimated that this
individual was most likely between the ages of 30–45
at the time of death.
Stature
Measurements taken at the time of excavation showed
that he was 1.57m (approximately 5’3”) tall. Poor
preservation did not allow for comparison using
standardized osteological stature calculations.
Pathology
Osteological investigation highlighted several
pathological alterations, to both cranial and post
cranial elements. The cranial abnormalities were mostly
dental. Periodontal disease was identified along the
alveolar processes of the mandible and maxilla, which
has arisen from an inflammation of the tissues around
the teeth, commonly resulting from poor dental health.
Grooves observed on the canines, premolars and first
molars were identified as linear enamel hypoplasia.
These deficiencies of the enamel are created during
the time of dental development within the jaws. They
are formed in response to systemic stresses affecting
the body during childhood, stresses such as an acute
illness (e.g. high fever), a nutritional deficiency, or
weaning (Roberts and Manchester 1995).
A bony projection with a modified facet
(articulation) was found on the anterior surface of the
right mandibular condyle. The cause of this projection
is unknown, but may be osteoarthritic. It is likely to
have disrupted the ‘normal’ movement of the lower
jaw, and is the probable cause for the uneven tooth
wear observed on the first molars. An additional non-
pathological dental observation was recorded; namely
the complete absence of third molars (i.e. wisdom
teeth), a trait which can be inherited genetically.
The other cranial alteration identified was cribra
orbitalia (i.e. moderate macroporosity was observed on
the roofs of the orbits), which is a skeletal indicator of
anaemia. As previously described, this is the result of
iron deficiency within the body, commonly the result
of nutritional inadequacy or severe blood loss (Roberts
and Manchester 1995). Such occurrences are among
the most frequently observed in archaeological skeletal
remains (Walker et al. 2009).
The observed postcranial pathological alterations
highlighted several indications of wear and tear.
Severe osteoarthritis (e.g. large claw-like osteophytes)
was present on adequately preserved vertebrae (i.e.
the upper cervical vertebrae bodies - neck). Evidence
for habitual activity was also identified from two
main regions of the body: the upper and lower limbs.
Many strong muscle and ligamental attachments were
recorded, primarily to the bones of the legs. Most
notably, the head and linea aspera of the femora, the
patellae, and the proximal tibiae demonstrated bony
growths at areas of muscle and ligament attachments.
There is a possibility these are the result of consistent
horse riding (Molleson 2007), as the muscles and
ligaments of the legs are placed under great strain
while gripping the horse.
The upper limbs (humeri) demonstrated marked
asymmetry, with the right humerus considerably more
developed (more robust) than the left. This hypertrophy
suggests this individual frequently used the right arm
 North Bersted, West Sussex 117

for repetitive and/or heavy exercise, indicating he was using a sieve stack of 10mm, 5mm, and 2mm mesh
right handed. In the context of the grave goods, it is sizes. For ease of sorting, the remains were considered
feasible this repetitive movement could be related to in terms of those over the size of 10mm and 5mm,
weapon training/use. and those under 5mm for the purposes of weighing.
Ultimately, these pathologies suggest this individual The bone recovered from each sieve (10mm, 5mm
survived a period of disease or malnutrition during both and 2mm) was weighed. The relative weights of the
childhood (linear enamel hypoplasia) and adulthood 10mm, 5mm and smaller than 5mm fractions were
(anaemia). His post-cranial skeleton suggests that he recorded, along with the maximum fragment size, and
led a very physically active lifestyle, reflected by the colour of the burnt bone for each deposit (Table 33).
amount of wear and tear (i.e. osteoarthritis and strong The degree of bone fragmentation can be inferred by
muscle attachments) observed. Ultimately the elements the weight of bone in each category when compared
of his upper and lower limbs have modified themselves to the fragment size. The vast majority of bone was
in response to repetitive and/or habitual activities. 5mm in size or smaller, making element identification
It is worth noting that there was no evidence for impossible in many instances. This greatly decreased the
trauma (injury), healed or otherwise, on any skeletal amount of retrievable demographic and pathological
element. data from the remains.
As demonstrated by Table 32, the deposits of
CREMATED BONE human bone varied greatly in quantity, ranging from
Burnt human remains were recovered from fifteen 21g to 925g. Half of the contexts contained less
contexts (14 features) across the excavated areas (Table than 100g of burnt bone (4087, 4280, 4970, 4971,
32). Four of these were dated: burial 4929 (5093) was 5093, 5579 and 7250), while the other contexts
found with an Early Bronze Age Biconical urn; burial contained quantities substantially more than 100g.
5033 (5198) was found with an urn base and burial McKinley (1993) investigated the amount of burnt
7115 (7250) with three fragmentary Middle Bronze bone expected from the cremation of complete adult
Age urns. One un-urned cremation burial 4701 (4859) individuals using information gained from modern
was radiocarbon dated to the Middle Bronze Age crematoria. These values were found to range between
(1393–1264 cal BC (KIA 41460)). An additional 36 1001.5g to 2442.5g, with an average of 1625.9g. All
features contained burnt animal bone (Table 44). contexts of burnt bone from this site are lower than
All of the remains were whole-earth recovered, this expected weight range. It is, however, nonetheless
commonly in a series of 0.02m spits. During the post- suggested that the majority of these deposits do in
excavation processing, the samples were floated and fact represent human cremation burials. It has been a
wet-sieved to a 1mm mesh size, with all burnt bone frequently noted practice to deposit only some of the
and other associated residues separated for further calcined bone from a cremated individual, representing
analysis. The burnt bone from each context was sorted a symbolic/token interment (McKinley 2006). It is
Table 32: Inventory of burnt human remains
Cut Deposit Date Colour Wt (g) Max frag size (mm) Age Sex ,GHQWLÀHGHOHPHQWV
2726 2987 Buff-white / 319 55 Adult Cranial, vertebrae, upper
blue-grey limb, hands, feet
4037 4087 White 33 41 Cranial, femur
4044 4097 White 134 18 Adult Cranial, tooth root, scapula,
upper limb
4217 4280 White 46 27 Adult Cranial, tooth crown, phalanx
4701 4859 MBA White 473 27 Adult Cranial, tooth crowns/roots,
(1393-1264 Cal BC) vertebrae
(KIA 41460)
4703 4861 White 636 57 Adult Cranial, teeth, vertebrae,
upper and lower limbs
4711 4869 White 806 56 Adult M?? Cranial, teeth, vertebrae,
upper and lower
4809 4970 White 21 30 Tooth crown
4810 4971 White 34 20 Cranial
Cranial, tooth roots,
4929 5092 EBA (urn) White 110 16 Adult
phalanges
4929 5093 Buff-white 84 20 Adult Cranial, tooth roots, vertebrae
Cranial, upper limb, ribs,
5033 5198 MBA (urn) white 611 45 Adult M??
hands, feet
Cranial, tooth roots,
5306 5579 MBA (pottery) White 92 19 Adult vertebrae, upper limb, hand
7049 7176 BA? (pottery) buff 925 38.9 adult cranial, teeth, phalanges
7115 7250 MBA (urns) buff 24 26.6 cranial
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