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Invasion of Italy and death
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Attila and Hun tradition in the medieval Hungarian Royal Court

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

"Atilla" and "Attila the Hun" redirect here. For other uses, see Attila (disambiguation), Atilla
(disambiguation), and Attila the Hun (disambiguation).

Attila

King Attila (Chronicon Pictum, 1358)

King and chieftain of the Hunnic Empire

Reign 434–453

Predecessor Bleda and Ruga

Successor Ellac, Dengizich, Ernak

Born Unknown date, c. 406[1]: 208 [2]: 202

 Died c. March 453 (aged 46–47)

Spouse Kreka and Ildico

Father Mundzuk

Attila (/əˈtɪlə/ ə-TIL-ə[3] or /ˈætɪlə/ AT-il-ə;[4] fl. c. 406–453), frequently called Attila the Hun,
was the ruler of the Huns from 434 until his death, in March 453. He was also the leader of
an empire consisting of Huns, Ostrogoths, Alans, and Bulgars, among others,
in Central and Eastern Europe.
As nephews to Rugila, Attila and his elder brother Bleda succeeded him to the throne in
435, ruling jointly until the death of Bleda in 445. During his reign, Attila was one of the
most feared enemies of the Western and Eastern Roman Empires. He crossed
the Danube twice and plundered the Balkans but was unable to take Constantinople. In
441, he led an invasion of the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire, the success of which
emboldened him to invade the West.[5] He also attempted to conquer Roman Gaul (modern
France), crossing the Rhine in 451 and marching as far as Aurelianum (Orléans), before
being stopped in the Battle of the Catalaunian Plains.
He subsequently invaded Italy, devastating the northern provinces, but was unable to
take Rome. He planned for further campaigns against the Romans but died in 453. After
Attila's death, his close adviser, Ardaric of the Gepids, led a Germanic revolt against
Hunnic rule, after which the Hunnic Empire quickly collapsed. Attila lived on as a character
in Germanic heroic legend.[6][7]
Etymology

A painting of Attila riding a pale horse, by

French Romantic artist Eugène Delacroix (1798–1863)
Many scholars have argued that the name Attila derives from East
Germanic origin; Attila is formed from the Gothic or Gepidic noun atta, "father", by means
of the diminutive suffix -ila, meaning "little father", compare Wulfila from wulfs "wolf" and -
ila, i.e. "little wolf".[8]: 386 [9]: 29 [10]: 46 The Gothic etymology was first proposed
by Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm in the early 19th century.[11]: 211 Maenchen-Helfen notes that
this derivation of the name "offers neither phonetic nor semantic difficulties", [8]: 386 and
Gerhard Doerfer notes that the name is simply correct Gothic. [9]: 29 Alexander Savelyev and
Choongwon Jeong (2020) similarly state that Attila's name "must have been Gothic in
origin."[12] The name has sometimes been interpreted as a Germanization of a name
of Hunnic origin.[9]: 29–32
Other scholars have argued for a Turkic origin of the name. Omeljan
Pritsak considered Ἀττίλα (Attíla) a composite title-name which derived from Turkic
*es (great, old), and *til (sea, ocean), and the suffix /a/.[13]: 444 The stressed back
syllabic til assimilated the front member es, so it became *as.[13]: 444 It is a nominative, in form
of attíl- (< *etsíl < *es tíl) with the meaning "the oceanic, universal ruler".[13]: 444 J. J.
Mikkola connected it with Turkic āt (name, fame).[11]: 216
As another Turkic possibility, H. Althof (1902) considered it was related to
Turkish atli (horseman, cavalier), or Turkish at (horse) and dil (tongue).[11]: 216 Maenchen-
Helfen argues that Pritsak's derivation is "ingenious but for many reasons
unacceptable",[8]: 387 while dismissing Mikkola's as "too farfetched to be taken
seriously".[8]: 390 M. Snædal similarly notes that none of these proposals has achieved wide
acceptance.[11]: 215–216
Criticizing the proposals of finding Turkic or other etymologies for Attila, Doerfer notes that
King George VI of the United Kingdom had a name of Greek origin, and Süleyman the
Magnificent had a name of Arabic origin, yet that does not make them Greeks or Arabs: it
is therefore plausible that Attila would have a name not of Hunnic origin. [9]: 31–32 Historian
Hyun Jin Kim, however, has argued that the Turkic etymology is "more probable". [14]: 30
M. Snædal, in a paper that rejects the Germanic derivation but notes the problems with the
existing proposed Turkic etymologies, argues that Attila's name could have originated from
Turkic-Mongolian at, adyy/agta (gelding, warhorse) and Turkish atlı (horseman, cavalier),
meaning "possessor of geldings, provider of warhorses".[11]: 216–217
Historiography and source

Figure of Attila in a museum in Hungary

The historiography of Attila is faced with a major challenge, in that the only complete
sources are written in Greek and Latin by the enemies of the Huns. Attila's contemporaries
left many testimonials of his life, but only fragments of these remain. [15]: 25 Priscus was
a Byzantine diplomat and historian who wrote in Greek, and he was both a witness to and
an actor in the story of Attila, as a member of the embassy of Theodosius II at the Hunnic
court in 449. He was obviously biased by his political position, but his writing is a major
source for information on the life of Attila, and he is the only person known to have
recorded a physical description of him. He wrote a history of the late Roman Empire in
eight books covering the period from 430 to 476. [16]
Only fragments of Priscus' work remain. It was cited extensively by 6th-century
historians Procopius and Jordanes,[17]: 413 especially in Jordanes' The Origin and Deeds of
the Goths, which contains numerous references to Priscus's history, and it is also an
important source of information about the Hunnic empire and its neighbors. He describes
the legacy of Attila and the Hunnic people for a century after Attila's death. Marcellinus
Comes, a chancellor of Justinian during the same era, also describes the relations
between the Huns and the Eastern Roman Empire.[15]: 30
Numerous ecclesiastical writings contain useful but scattered information, sometimes
difficult to authenticate or distorted by years of hand-copying between the 6th and 17th
centuries. The Hungarian writers of the 12th century wished to portray the Huns in a
positive light as their glorious ancestors, and so repressed certain historical elements and
added their own legends.[15]: 32
The literature and knowledge of the Huns themselves was transmitted orally, by means of
epics and chanted poems that were handed down from generation to
generation.[17]: 354 Indirectly, fragments of this oral history have reached us via the literature
of the Scandinavians and Germans, neighbors of the Huns who wrote between the 9th and
13th centuries. Attila is a major character in many Medieval epics, such as
the Nibelungenlied, as well as various Eddas and sagas.[15]: 32 [17]: 354
Archaeological investigation has uncovered some details about the lifestyle, art, and
warfare of the Huns. There are a few traces of battles and sieges, but the tomb of Attila
and the location of his capital have not yet been found. [15]: 33–37
Early life and background
Main article: Huns

Huns in battle with the Alans. An 1870s engraving

after a drawing by Johann Nepomuk Geiger (1805–1880).
The Huns were a group of Eurasian nomads, appearing from east of the Volga, who
migrated further into Western Europe c. 370[18] and built up an enormous empire there.
Their main military techniques were mounted archery and javelin throwing. They were in
the process of developing settlements before their arrival in Western Europe, yet the Huns
were a society of pastoral warriors[17]: 259 whose primary form of nourishment was meat and
milk, products of their herds.
The origin and language of the Huns has been the subject of debate for centuries.
According to some theories, their leaders at least may have spoken a Turkic language,
perhaps closest to the modern Chuvash language.[13]: 444 According to the Encyclopedia of
European Peoples, "the Huns, especially those who migrated to the west, may have been
a combination of central Asian Turkic, Mongolic, and Ugric stocks".[19]
Attila's father Mundzuk was the brother of kings Octar and Ruga, who reigned jointly over
the Hunnic empire in the early fifth century. This form of diarchy was recurrent with the
Huns, but historians are unsure whether it was institutionalized, merely customary, or an
occasional occurrence.[15]: 80 His family was from a noble lineage, but it is uncertain whether
they constituted a royal dynasty. Attila's birthdate is debated; journalist Éric Deschodt and
writer Herman Schreiber have proposed a date of 395. [20][21] However, historian Iaroslav
Lebedynsky and archaeologist Katalin Escher prefer an estimate between the 390s and
the first decade of the fifth century.[15]: 40 Several historians have proposed 406 as the
date.[1]: 92 [2]: 202
Attila grew up in a rapidly changing world. His people were nomads who had only recently
arrived in Europe.[22] They crossed the Volga river during the 370s and annexed the
territory of the Alans, then attacked the Gothic kingdom between the Carpathian
mountains and the Danube. They were a very mobile people, whose mounted archers had
acquired a reputation for invincibility, and the Germanic tribes seemed unable to withstand
them.[17]: 133–151 Vast populations fleeing the Huns moved from Germania into the Roman
Empire in the west and south, and along the banks of the Rhine and Danube. In 376, the
Goths crossed the Danube, initially submitting to the Romans but soon rebelling against
Emperor Valens, whom they killed in the Battle of Adrianople in 378.[17]: 100 Large numbers
of Vandals, Alans, Suebi, and Burgundians crossed the Rhine and invaded
Roman Gaul on December 31, 406, to escape the Huns.[15]: 233 The Roman Empire had been
split in half since 395 and was ruled by two distinct governments, one based in Ravenna in
the West, and the other in Constantinople in the East. The Roman Emperors, both East
and West, were generally from the Theodosian family in Attila's lifetime (despite several
power struggles).[23]: 13
The Huns dominated a vast territory with nebulous borders determined by the will of a
constellation of ethnically varied peoples. Some were assimilated to Hunnic nationality,
whereas many retained their own identities and rulers but acknowledged the suzerainty of
the king of the Huns.[23]: 11 The Huns were also the indirect source of many of the Romans'
problems, driving various Germanic tribes into Roman territory, yet relations between the
two empires were cordial: the Romans used the Huns as mercenaries against the
Germans and even in their civil wars. Thus, the usurper Joannes was able to recruit
thousands of Huns for his army against Valentinian III in 424. It was Aëtius, later Patrician
of the West, who managed this operation. They exchanged ambassadors and hostages,
the alliance lasting from 401 to 450 and permitting the Romans numerous military
victories.[17]: 111 The Huns considered the Romans to be paying them tribute, whereas the
Romans preferred to view this as payment for services rendered. The Huns had become a
great power by the time that Attila came of age during the reign of his uncle Ruga, to the
point that Nestorius, the Patriarch of Constantinople, deplored the situation with these
words: "They have become both masters and slaves of the Romans". [17]: 128
Campaigns against the Eastern Roman Empire

The Empire of the Huns and subject tribes at the time

of Attila
The death of Rugila (also known as Rua or Ruga) in 434 left the sons of his
brother Mundzuk, Attila and Bleda, in control of the united Hun tribes. At the time of the
two brothers' accession, the Hun tribes were bargaining with Eastern Roman
Emperor Theodosius II's envoys for the return of several renegades who had taken refuge
within the Eastern Roman Empire, possibly Hunnic nobles who disagreed with the
brothers' assumption of leadership.
The following year, Attila and Bleda met with the imperial legation at Margus (Požarevac),
all seated on horseback in the Hunnic manner, [24] and negotiated an advantageous treaty.
The Romans agreed to return the fugitives, to double their previous tribute of 350 Roman
pounds (c. 115 kg) of gold, to open their markets to Hunnish traders, and to pay a ransom
of eight solidi for each Roman taken prisoner by the Huns. The Huns, satisfied with the
treaty, decamped from the Roman Empire and returned to their home in the Great
Hungarian Plain, perhaps to consolidate and strengthen their empire. Theodosius used
this opportunity to strengthen the walls of Constantinople, building the city's first sea wall,
and to build up his border defenses along the Danube.
The Huns remained out of Roman sight for the next few years while they invaded
the Sassanid Empire. They were defeated in Armenia by the Sassanids, abandoned their
invasion, and turned their attentions back to Europe. In 440, they reappeared in force on
the borders of the Roman Empire, attacking the merchants at the market on the north bank
of the Danube that had been established by the treaty of 435.
Crossing the Danube, they laid waste to the cities of Illyricum and forts on the river,
including (according to Priscus) Viminacium, a city of Moesia. Their advance began at
Margus, where they demanded that the Romans turn over a bishop who had retained
property that Attila regarded as his. While the Romans discussed the bishop's fate, he
slipped away secretly to the Huns and betrayed the city to them.
While the Huns attacked city-states along the Danube, the Vandals (led by Geiseric)
captured the Western Roman province of Africa and its capital of Carthage. Africa was the
richest province of the Western Empire and a main source of food for Rome.
The Sassanid Shah Yazdegerd II invaded Armenia in 441.[citation needed][25]
The Romans stripped the Balkan area of forces, sending them to Sicily in order to mount
an expedition against the Vandals in Africa. This left Attila and Bleda a clear path through
Illyricum into the Balkans, which they invaded in 441. The Hunnish army sacked Margus
and Viminacium, and then took Singidunum (Belgrade) and Sirmium. During 442,
Theodosius recalled his troops from Sicily and ordered a large issue of new coins to
finance operations against the Huns. He believed that he could defeat the Huns and
refused the Hunnish kings' demands.
Attila responded with a campaign in 443. [26] For the first time (as far as the Romans knew)
his forces were equipped with battering rams and rolling siege towers, with which they
successfully assaulted the military centers of Ratiara and Naissus (Niš) and massacred
the inhabitants. Priscus said "When we arrived at Naissus we found the city deserted, as
though it had been sacked; only a few sick persons lay in the churches. We halted at a
short distance from the river, in an open space, for all the ground adjacent to the bank was
full of the bones of men slain in war." [27]
Advancing along the Nišava River, the Huns next took Serdica (Sofia), Philippopolis
(Plovdiv), and Arcadiopolis (Lüleburgaz). They encountered and destroyed a Roman army
outside Constantinople but were stopped by the double walls of the Eastern capital. They
defeated a second army near Callipolis (Gelibolu).
Theodosius, unable to make effective armed resistance, admitted defeat, sending
the Magister militum per Orientem Anatolius to negotiate peace terms. The terms were
harsher than the previous treaty: the Emperor agreed to hand over 6,000 Roman pounds
(c. 2000 kg) of gold as punishment for having disobeyed the terms of the treaty during the
invasion; the yearly tribute was tripled, rising to 2,100 Roman pounds (c. 700 kg) in gold;
and the ransom for each Roman prisoner rose to 12 solidi.
Their demands were met for a time, and the Hun kings withdrew into the interior of their
empire. Bleda died following the Huns' withdrawal from Byzantium (probably around 445).
Attila then took the throne for himself, becoming the sole ruler of the Huns. [28]
Solitary kingship

A reconstruction of Attila by George S. Stuart, Museum of

Ventura County.
In 447, Attila again rode south into the Eastern Roman Empire through Moesia.
The Roman army, under Gothic magister militum Arnegisclus, met him in the Battle of the
Utus and was defeated, though not without inflicting heavy losses. The Huns were left
unopposed and rampaged through the Balkans as far as Thermopylae.
Constantinople itself was saved by the Isaurian troops of magister militum per
Orientem Zeno and protected by the intervention of prefect Constantinus, who organized
the reconstruction of the walls that had been previously damaged by earthquakes and, in
some places, to construct a new line of fortification in front of the old. Callinicus, in his Life
of Saint Hypatius, wrote:
The barbarian nation of the Huns, which was in Thrace, became so great that more than a
hundred cities were captured and Constantinople almost came into danger and most men
fled from it. ... And there were so many murders and blood-lettings that the dead could not
be numbered. Ay, for they took captive the churches and monasteries and slew the monks
and maidens in great numbers.
In the west
 The general path of the Hun forces in the invasion
of Gaul
In 450, Attila proclaimed his intent to attack the Visigoth kingdom of Toulouse by making
an alliance with Emperor Valentinian III. He had previously been on good terms with
the Western Roman Empire and its influential general Flavius Aëtius. Aëtius had spent a
brief exile among the Huns in 433, and the troops that Attila provided against
the Goths and Bagaudae had helped earn him the largely honorary title of magister
militum in the west. The gifts and diplomatic efforts of Geiseric, who opposed and feared
the Visigoths, may also have influenced Attila's plans.
However, Valentinian's sister was Honoria, who had sent the Hunnish king a plea for
help—and her engagement ring—in order to escape her forced betrothal to a Roman
senator in the spring of 450. Honoria may not have intended a proposal of marriage, but
Attila chose to interpret her message as such. He accepted, asking for half of the western
Empire as dowry.
When Valentinian discovered the plan, only the influence of his mother Galla
Placidia convinced him to exile Honoria, rather than killing her. He also wrote to Attila,
strenuously denying the legitimacy of the supposed marriage proposal. Attila sent an
emissary to Ravenna to proclaim that Honoria was innocent, that the proposal had been
legitimate, and that he would come to claim what was rightfully his.
Attila interfered in a succession struggle after the death of a Frankish ruler. Attila
supported the elder son, while Aëtius supported the younger. (The location and identity of
these kings is not known and subject to conjecture.) Attila gathered his vassals—
Gepids, Ostrogoths, Rugians, Scirians, Heruls, Thuringians, Alans, Burgundians, among
others—and began his march west. In 451, he arrived in Belgica with an army
exaggerated by Jordanes to half a million strong.
On April 7, he captured Metz he also captured Strasbourg . Other cities attacked can be
determined by the hagiographic vitae written to commemorate their bishops: Nicasius was
slaughtered before the altar of his church in Rheims; Servatus is alleged to have
saved Tongeren with his prayers, as Saint Genevieve is said to have saved
Paris.[29] Lupus, bishop of Troyes, is also credited with saving his city by meeting Attila in
person.[5][30]
Aëtius moved to oppose Attila, gathering troops from among the Franks, the Burgundians,
and the Celts. A mission by Avitus and Attila's continued westward advance convinced the
Visigoth king Theodoric I (Theodorid) to ally with the Romans. The combined armies
reached Orléans ahead of Attila, thus checking and turning back the Hunnish advance.
Aëtius gave chase and caught the Huns at a place usually assumed to be near
Catalaunum (modern Châlons-en-Champagne). Attila decided to fight the Romans on
plains where he could use his cavalry.[31]
The two armies clashed in the Battle of the Catalaunian Plains, the outcome of which is
commonly considered to be a strategic victory for the Visigothic-Roman alliance.
Theodoric was killed in the fighting, and Aëtius failed to press his advantage, according to
Edward Gibbon and Edward Creasy, because he feared the consequences of an
overwhelming Visigothic triumph as much as he did a defeat. From Aëtius' point of view,
the best outcome was what occurred: Theodoric died, Attila was in retreat and disarray,
and the Romans had the benefit of appearing victorious.
Invasion of Italy and death

Attila is besieging Aquileia (Chronicon Pictum, 1358)

Raphael's The Meeting between Leo the Great

and Attila depicts Leo, escorted by Saint Peter and Saint Paul, meeting with
the Hun emperor outside Rome.
Attila returned in 452 to renew his marriage claim with Honoria, invading and ravaging Italy
along the way. Communities became established in what would later become Venice as a
result of these attacks when the residents fled to small islands in the Venetian Lagoon. His
army sacked numerous cities and razed Aquileia so completely that it was afterwards hard
to recognize its original site.[32]: 159 Aëtius lacked the strength to offer battle, but managed to
harass and slow Attila's advance with only a shadow force. Attila finally halted at the River
Po. By this point, disease and starvation may have taken hold in Attila's camp, thus
hindering his war efforts and potentially contributing to the cessation of invasion. [33]
Emperor Valentinian III sent three envoys, the high civilian officers Gennadius Avienus and
Trigetius, as well as Pope Leo I, who met Attila at Mincio in the vicinity of Mantua and
obtained from him the promise that he would withdraw from Italy and negotiate peace with
the Emperor.[34] Prosper of Aquitaine gives a short description of the historic meeting, but
gives all the credit to Leo for the successful negotiation. Priscus reports that superstitious
fear of the fate of Alaric gave him pause—as Alaric died shortly after sacking Rome in 410.
Italy had suffered from a terrible famine in 451 and her crops were faring little better in
452. Attila's devastating invasion of the plains of northern Italy this year did not improve
the harvest.[32]: 161 To advance on Rome would have required supplies which were not
available in Italy, and taking the city would not have improved Attila's supply situation.
Therefore, it was more profitable for Attila to conclude peace and retreat to his
homeland.[32]: 160–161
Furthermore, an East Roman force had crossed the Danube under the command of
another officer also named Aetius—who had participated in the Council of Chalcedon the
previous year—and proceeded to defeat the Huns who had been left behind by Attila to
safeguard their home territories. Attila, hence, faced heavy human and natural pressures
to retire "from Italy without ever setting foot south of the Po".[32]: 163 As Hydatius writes in
his Chronica Minora:
The Huns, who had been plundering Italy and who had also stormed a number of cities,
were victims of divine punishment, being visited with heaven-sent disasters: famine and
some kind of disease. In addition, they were slaughtered by auxiliaries sent by the
Emperor Marcian and led by Aetius, and at the same time, they were crushed in their
[home] settlements ... Thus crushed, they made peace with the Romans. [35]
Death

The Huns, led by Attila, invade Italy (Attila, the

Scourge of God, by Ulpiano Checa, 1887)
In the Eastern Roman Empire, Emperor Marcian succeeded Theodosius II, and stopped
paying tribute to the Huns. Attila withdrew from Italy to his palace across the Danube,
while making plans to strike at Constantinople once more to reclaim tribute. [36]
However, he died in the early months of 453.
The conventional account from Priscus says that Attila was at a feast celebrating his latest
marriage, this time to the beautiful young Ildico (the name
suggests Gothic or Ostrogoth origins).[32]: 164 In the midst of the revels, however, he suffered
severe bleeding and died. He may have had a nosebleed and choked to death in a stupor.
Or he may have succumbed to internal bleeding, possibly due to ruptured esophageal
varices. Esophageal varices are dilated veins that form in the lower part of the esophagus,
often caused by years of excessive alcohol consumption; they are fragile and can easily
rupture, leading to death by hemorrhage. [37]
Another account of his death was first recorded 80 years after the events by Roman
chronicler Marcellinus Comes. It reports that "Attila, King of the Huns and ravager of the
provinces of Europe, was pierced by the hand and blade of his wife".[38] One modern
analyst suggests that he was assassinated,[39] but most reject these accounts as no more
than hearsay, preferring instead the account given by Attila's contemporary Priscus,
recounted in the 6th century by Jordanes:
On the following day, when a great part of the morning was spent, the royal attendants
suspected some ill and, after a great uproar, broke in the doors. There they found the
death of Attila accomplished by an effusion of blood, without any wound, and the girl with
downcast face weeping beneath her veil. Then, as is the custom of that race, they plucked
out the hair of their heads and made their faces hideous with deep wounds, that the
renowned warrior might be mourned, not by effeminate wailings and tears, but by the
blood of men. Moreover a wondrous thing took place in connection with Attila's death. For
in a dream some god stood at the side of Marcian, Emperor of the East, while he was
disquieted about his fierce foe, and showed him the bow of Attila broken in that same
night, as if to intimate that the race of Huns owed much to that weapon. This account the
historian Priscus says he accepts upon truthful evidence. For so terrible was Attila thought
to be to great empires that the gods announced his death to rulers as a special boon.
His body was placed in the midst of a plain and lay in state in a silken tent as a sight for
men's admiration. The best horsemen of the entire tribe of the Huns rode around in circles,
after the manner of circus games, in the place to which he had been brought and told of
his deeds in a funeral dirge in the following manner: "The chief of the Huns, King Attila,
born of his sire Mundiuch, lord of bravest tribes, sole possessor of the Scythian and
German realms—powers unknown before—captured cities and terrified both empires of
the Roman world and, appeased by their prayers, took annual tribute to save the rest from
plunder. And when he had accomplished all this by the favor of fortune, he fell, not by
wound of the foe, nor by treachery of friends, but in the midst of his nation at peace, happy
in his joy and without sense of pain. Who can rate this as death, when none believes it
calls for vengeance?"
When they had mourned him with such lamentations, a strava, as they call it, was
celebrated over his tomb with great reveling. They gave way in turn to the extremes of
feeling and displayed funereal grief alternating with joy. Then in the secrecy of night they
buried his body in the earth. They bound his coffins, the first with gold, the second with
silver and the third with the strength of iron, showing by such means that these three
things suited the mightiest of kings; iron because he subdued the nations, gold and silver
because he received the honors of both empires. They also added the arms of foemen
won in the fight, trappings of rare worth, sparkling with various gems, and ornaments of all
sorts whereby princely state is maintained. And that so great riches might be kept from
human curiosity, they slew those appointed to the work—a dreadful pay for their labor; and
thus sudden death was the lot of those who buried him as well as of him who was
buried.[40]: 254–259
Descendants
Attila's sons Ellac, Dengizich and Ernak, "in their rash eagerness to rule they all alike
destroyed his empire".[40]: 259 They "were clamoring that the nations should be divided among
them equally and that warlike kings with their peoples should be apportioned to them by lot
like a family estate".[40]: 259 Against the treatment as "slaves of the basest condition" a
Germanic alliance led by the Gepid ruler Ardaric (who was noted for great loyalty to
Attila[40]: 199) revolted and fought with the Huns in Pannonia in the Battle of Nedao 454
AD.[40]: 260–262 Attila's eldest son Ellac was killed in that battle. [40]: 262 Attila's sons "regarding the
Goths as deserters from their rule, came against them as though they were seeking
fugitive slaves", attacked Ostrogothic co-ruler Valamir (who also fought alongside Ardaric
and Attila at the Catalaunian Plains[40]: 199), but were repelled, and some group of Huns
moved to Scythia (probably those of Ernak). [40]: 268–269 His brother Dengizich attempted a
renewed invasion across the Danube in 468 AD, but was defeated at the Battle of
Bassianae by the Ostrogoths.[40]: 272–273 Dengizich was killed by Roman-Gothic
general Anagast the following year, after which the Hunnic dominion ended. [8]: 168
Attila's many children and relatives are known by name and some even by deeds, but
soon valid genealogical sources all but dried up, and there seems to be no verifiable way
to trace Attila's descendants. This has not stopped many genealogists from attempting to
reconstruct a valid line of descent for various medieval rulers. One of the most credible
claims has been that of the Nominalia of the Bulgarian khans for
mythological Avitohol and Irnik from the Dulo clan of the Bulgars.[41]: 103 [14]: 59, 142 [42] The
Hungarian Árpád dynasty also claimed to be a direct descendant of Attila. [43] Medieval
Hungarian chronicles from the Hungarian royal court like Gesta Hungarorum, Gesta
Hunnorum et Hungarorum, Chronicon Pictum, Buda Chronicle, Chronica
Hungarorum claimed that the Árpád dynasty and the Aba clan are the descendants of
Attila.[44]
Appearance and character

Mór Than's 19th century painting of The Feast of

Attila, based on a fragment of Priscus
There is no surviving first-hand account of Attila's appearance, but there is a possible
second-hand source provided by Jordanes, who cites a description given by Priscus.[45][46]
He was a man born into the world to shake the nations, the scourge of all lands, who in
some way terrified all mankind by the dreadful rumors noised abroad concerning him. He
was haughty in his walk, rolling his eyes hither and thither, so that the power of his proud
spirit appeared in the movement of his body. He was indeed a lover of war, yet restrained
in action, mighty in counsel, gracious to suppliants and lenient to those who were once
received into his protection. Short of stature, with a broad chest and a large head; his eyes
were small, his beard thin and sprinkled with grey; and he had a flat nose and swarthy
skin, showing evidence of his origin.[40]: 182–183
Some scholars have suggested that these features are typically East Asian, because in
combination they fit the physical type of people from Eastern Asia, so Attila's ancestors
may have come from there.[46][47]: 202 Other historians have suggested that the same features
may have been typical of some Scythian people.[48][49]
Later folklore and iconography
Further information: Attila in popular culture
The name has many variants in several languages: Atli and Atle in Old Norse; Etzel
in Middle High German (Nibelungenlied); Ætla in Old English; Attila, Atilla, and Etele
in Hungarian (Attila is the most popular); Attila, Atilla, Atilay, or Atila in Turkish; and Adil
and Edil in Kazakh or Adil ("same/similar") or Edil ("to use") in Mongolian.

King Attila on the throne (Chronicon Pictum, 1358)

Attila and Hun tradition in the medieval Hungarian Royal Court
The basic premise of the Hungarian medieval chronicle tradition that the Huns, i.e.
the Hungarians coming out twice from Scythia, the guiding principle of the chronicles was
the Hun-Hungarian continuity.[50] The Hungarian state founder royal dynasty, the Árpád
dynasty claimed to be a direct descendant of the great Hun leader Attila. [43][51][52] Medieval
Hungarian chronicles claimed that Grand Prince Árpád of Hungary was the descendant of
Attila.[44]
In the 401st year of Our Lord’s birth, in the 28th year since the arrival of the Hungarians in
Pannonia, according to the custom of the Romans, the Huns, namely the Hungarians
exalted Attila as king above themselves, the son of Bendegúz, who was before among the
captains. And he made his brother Buda a prince and a judge from the River Tisza to the
River Don. Calling himself the King of the Hungarians, the Fear of the World, the Scourge
of God: Attila, King of the Huns, Medes, Goths and Danes…
— Mark of Kalt: Chronicon Pictum[53]
Árpád, Grand Prince of the Hungarians says in the Gesta Hungarorum:
The land stretching between the Danube and the Tisza used to belong to my forefather,
the mighty Attila.
— Anonymus: Gesta Hungarorum[54]
King Matthias of Hungary (1458–1490) was happy to be described as "the second
Attila".[55] The Chronica Hungarorum by Johannes Thuróczy set the goal of glorifying Attila,
which was undeservedly neglected, moreover, he introduced the famous "Scourge of God"
characterization to the later Hungarian writers, because the earlier chronicles remained
hidden for a long time. Thuróczy worked hard to endear Attila, the Hun king with an effort
far surpassing his predecessor chroniclers. He made Attila a model for his victorious ruler,
King Matthias of Hungary who had Attila's abilities, with this he almost brought "the
hammer of the world" to life.[50]

Meeting of Attila with Pope Leo (Chronicon Pictum, 1358)

Legends about Attila and the sword of Mars
Jordanes embellished the report of Priscus, reporting that Attila had possessed the "Holy
War Sword of the Scythians", which was given to him by Mars and made him a "prince of
the entire world".[56][57]
Lampert of Hersfeld's contemporary chronicles report that shortly before the year 1071,
the Sword of Attila had been presented to Otto of Nordheim by the exiled queen of
Hungary, Anastasia of Kiev.[58] This sword, a cavalry sabre now in the Kunsthistorisches
Museum in Vienna, appears to be the work of Hungarian goldsmiths of the ninth or tenth
century.[59]
Legends about Attila and his meeting with Pope Leo I
An anonymous chronicler of the medieval period represented the meeting of Pope Leo and
Atilla as attended also by Saint Peter and Saint Paul, "a miraculous tale calculated to meet
the taste of the time"[60] This apotheosis was later portrayed artistically by the Renaissance
artist Raphael and sculptor Algardi, whom eighteenth-century historian Edward
Gibbon praised for establishing "one of the noblest legends of ecclesiastical tradition". [61]
According to a version of this narrative related in the Chronicon Pictum, a mediaeval
Hungarian chronicle, the Pope promised Attila that if he left Rome in peace, one of his
successors would receive a holy crown (which has been understood as referring to
the Holy Crown of Hungary).
Attila in Germanic heroic legend
Some histories and chronicles describe Attila as a great and noble king, and he plays
major roles in three Norse texts: Atlakviða,[62] Volsunga saga,[63] and Atlamál.[62] The Polish
Chronicle represents Attila's name as Aquila.[64]
Frutolf of Michelsberg and Otto of Freising pointed out that some songs as "vulgar fables"
and made Theoderic the Great, Attila and Ermanaric contemporaries, when any reader of
Jordanes knew that this was not the case.[65] This refers to the so-called historical poems
about Dietrich von Bern (Theoderic), in which Etzel (German for Attila) is Dietrich's refuge
in exile from his wicked uncle Ermenrich (Ermanaric). Etzel is most prominent in the
poems Dietrichs Flucht and the Rabenschlacht. Etzel also appears as Kriemhild's second
noble husband in the Nibelungenlied, in which Kriemhild causes the destruction of both the
Hunnish kingdom and that of her Burgundian relatives.
Early modern and modern reception
In 1812, Ludwig van Beethoven conceived the idea of writing an opera about Attila and
approached August von Kotzebue to write the libretto. It was, however, never written. [66] In
1846, Giuseppe Verdi wrote the opera, loosely based on episodes in Attila's invasion of
Italy.
In World War I, Allied propaganda referred to Germans as the "Huns", based on a 1900
speech by Emperor Wilhelm II praising Attila the Hun's military prowess, according
to Jawaharlal Nehru's Glimpses of World History.[67] Der Spiegel commented on 6
November 1948, that the Sword of Attila was hanging menacingly over Austria.[68]
American writer Cecelia Holland wrote The Death of Attila (1973), a historical novel in
which Attila appears as a powerful background figure whose life and death deeply affect
the protagonists, a young Hunnic warrior and a Germanic one.
In modern Hungary and in Turkey, "Attila" and its Turkish variation "Atilla" are commonly
used as a male first name. In Hungary, several public places are named after Attila; for
instance, in Budapest there are 10 Attila Streets, one of which is an important street
behind the Buda Castle. When the Turkish Armed Forces invaded Cyprus in 1974, the
operations were named after Attila ("The Attila Plan"). [69]
The 1954 Universal International film Sign of the Pagan starred Jack Palance as Attila.
See also
 Onegesius
 Bleda
 Mundzuk
Notes
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York: Robert Appleton Company. Archived from the original on 7 July 2014. Retrieved 18 May 2014.
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Encyclopedia of Groups, Cultures, and Contemporary Issues. Routledge.
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1–50.
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1458–90) was happy to be described as 'the second Attila', and the tradition of identifying the Hungarians
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strengthened in his reign, would continue for hundreds of years.
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Kinship". Hungarians and Europe in the Early Middle Ages: An Introduction to Early Hungarian History.
Bodoczky, Nicholas (translator). Budapest: Central European University Press. p. 425. ISBN 978-963-
9116-48-1.
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Ages. Cambridge University Press. p. 245. ISBN 978-0-521-63998-9.
66. ^ Thayer, Alexander Wheelock (1991) [1921]. Forbes, Elliot (ed.). Thayer's Life of Beethoven (Revised
1967 ed.). Princeton University Press. p. 524. ISBN 978-0-691-02717-3. ... I could not refrain from the
lively wish to possess an opera from your unique talent .... I should prefer one from the darker periods,
Attila, etc., for instance, ...
67. ^ Nehru, Jawaharlal (1934). Glimpses of World History. London: Penguin Books India (published 30
March 2004). p. 919. ISBN 978-0-14-303105-5.
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remote-controlled "New Look"] (Online). Vol. 45/1948 (in German). Vol. 45. Der Spiegel. 6 November
1948. Archived from the original on 20 May 2014. Retrieved 20 May 2014.
69. ^ Martin, Elizabeth, ed. (December 2006). A Dictionary of World History (2nd ed.). Oxford University
Press. p. 41. ISBN 978-0-19-920247-8. The invasion, which was likened to the action of Attila the Hun,
put into effect Turkey's scheme for the partition of Cyprus (Atilla Plan).

Sources
 Frazee, Charles A. (2002). Two Thousand Years Ago: the World at the Time of
Jesus. William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0-8028-4805-5.
 Heather, Peter (2010). Empires and Barbarians: The Fall of Rome and the Birth of
Europe. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-975272-0.
 Heather, Peter (2007). The Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History of Rome and the
Barbarians. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-532541-6.
External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Attila.

Wikiquote has quotations related to Attila.

  Hodgkin, Thomas (1911). "Attila" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 2 (11th ed.). pp. 885–
886.
 Works about Attila at Open Library
 Works about Attila at Project Gutenberg
 Works by or about Attila at Internet Archive

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
 Omeljian Pritsak

Born 7 April 1919

Luka, Sambir County, West Ukrainian People's

Republic

Died 29 May 2006 (aged 87)

Boston, Massachusetts, U.S.

Nationality Ukrainian

Citizenship American

Occupation(s) Academic, professor, historian, linguist, medievalist

Known for First Mykhailo Hrushevsky Professor of Ukrainian

History at Harvard University, founder and first
director of the Harvard Ukrainian Research Institute,
founder of the journal Harvard Ukrainian Studies,
founder of the Oriental Institute of the National
Academy of Sciences in Kyiv, founder of the journal
Skhidnyi svit (The Oriental World)

Title Mykhailo Hrushevsky Professor of Ukrainian

History at Harvard University (1975)

Academic background

Education Polish “First Gymnasium” of Ternopil’, University

of Lviv, Shevchenko Scientific Society, Academy of
Sciences of Ukraine in Kyiv, Humboldt University
of Berlin, University of Göttingen

Alma mater University of Lviv, University of Göttingen, Harvard

University
 Academic Ivan Krypiakevych, Ahatanhel Yukhymovych

advisors Krymsky

Influences Roman Jakobson, Viacheslav Lypynsky

Academic work

Era 20th century

Discipline Medieval studies, Ukrainian history

Institutions University of Hamburg, University of Washington,

Harvard University

Main interests Oriental, especially Turkic, sources for the history of

Kyivan Rus'

Notable works The Origin of Rus'

Omeljan Yosypovych Pritsak (Ukrainian: Омелян Йосипович Пріцак; 7 April 1919,

Luka, Sambir County, West Ukrainian People's Republic – 29 May 2006, Boston) was the
first Mykhailo Hrushevsky Professor of Ukrainian History at Harvard University and the
founder and first director (1973–1989) of the Harvard Ukrainian Research Institute.[1]
Career[edit]

Pritsak's matura certificate (1936)

From 1921 till 1936 he lived in Ternopil, where he graduated the state Polish
gymnasium.[2] Pritsak began his academic career at the University of Lviv in interwar
Poland where he studied Middle Eastern languages under local orientalists and became
associated with the Shevchenko Scientific Society and attended its seminar on Ukrainian
history led by Ivan Krypiakevych. After the Soviet annexation of Galicia, he moved
to Kyiv where he briefly studied with the premier Ukrainian orientalist, Ahatanhel Krymsky.
During World War II, Pritsak was taken to the west as a Ostarbeiter.[2] Following the war,
he studied at the universities in Berlin and Göttingen, receiving a doctorate from the latter,
before teaching at the University of Hamburg.
During his European period Pritsak initiated the establishment of the International
Association of Ural – Altaic Studies. In 1958–1965 he served as its President and Editor-
in-Chief of the Ural–Altaische Jahrbücher in 1954–1960.[3]
In the 1960s, he moved to the United States, where he taught at the University of
Washington for a while, before moving to Harvard at the invitation of the
prominent linguist, Roman Jakobson, who was interested in proving the authenticity of the
twelfth century "Song of Igor" through the use of oriental sources.
In 1973 he founded the Harvard Ukrainian Research Institute at Harvard. Two years later
he became the first Mykhailo Hrushevsky Professor of Ukrainian History (1975). In 1977
he started the journal, Harvard Ukrainian Studies.
In 1988 he cofounded the International Association of Ukrainianists, established
in Naples and became its Executive Board member and Head of Archeographic
Commission.[3]
In 1989, he retired from his Harvard professorship. After the emergence of an independent
Ukraine in 1991, Pritsak returned to Kyiv where he founded the Oriental Institute of the
National Academy of Sciences and became its first Director (since 1999 – Honorary
Director). Also he re-established the journal Skhidnyi svit (The World of the Orient). Pritsak
spent his final years back in the United States and died in Boston at the age of 87.[1][4]
Main interests[edit]
Pritsak was a medievalist who specialized in the use of oriental,[1] especially Turkic,
sources for the history of Kievan Rus', early modern Ukraine, and the European Steppe
region. He was also a student of Old Norse and was familiar with Scandinavian sources for
the history of Kievan Rus'. His magnum opus, The Origin of Rus', only one volume of
which has appeared in English (1981), inclines toward, but does not totally adopt,
a Normanist interpretation of Rus' origins. He saw Kievan Rus' as a multi-ethnic polity.[2][5]
In addition to the early Rus', Pritsak's works focused on Eurasian nomads and steppe
empires such as those created by the Bulgars, Khazars, Pechenegs, and Kipchaks.
However, he firmly rejected the "Eurasian" approach to Ukrainian and Russian history and
would have nothing to do with its Russian nationalist postulates. [citation needed]
Ukrainian historian[edit]
Unlike his predecessors Mykhailo Hrushevsky, Dmytro Doroshenko, and Ivan
Krypiakevych, who wrote national histories or histories of the Ukrainian people, Pritsak
followed the Ukrainian historian of Polish background, Vyacheslav Lypynsky, in proposing
the ideal of writing a "territorialist" history of Ukraine that would include the Polish, Turkic,
and other peoples who have inhabited the country from ancient times. This idea was later
taken up by his younger contemporary Paul Robert Magocsi, who was for some time an
associate of the Harvard Ukrainian Institute.
Pritsak sought to improve quality and extent of Ukrainian studies at Harvard University. He
supported establishing three different chairs for Ukrainian studies in the university:
Ukrainian history, Ukrainian literature and Ukrainian philology.[6]
Omeljan Pritsak Research Center for Oriental Studies[edit]
In 2009 Omeljan Pritsak Research Center for Oriental Studies named in honour of the
Professor was founded in 2009. It is based on an extensive library and archive collection
of Omeljan Pritsak, which he made a pledge to transfer to Kyiv-Mohyla Academy after his
death. The heritage, collected by Omeljan Pritsak for 70 years contains manuscripts,
printed editions, publications, historical sources, archival documents and artistic and
cultural monuments on philosophy, linguistics, world history, Oriental Studies, Slavic
Studies, Scandinavian Studies, archeology, numismatics, philosophy etc. [7] Thus it was
brought to the National University of Kyiv-Mohyla Academy in 2007. Research center as
well as the library and the archive collection are now open to the public. [8]
Politics[edit]
Pritsak was a political conservative and during his youth in eastern Galicia under
the Polish Republic, and later also during the Cold War was a supporter of the
conservative "Hetmanite" or monarchist movement among Ukrainians. This led him to
criticize Hrushevsky's political radicalism and historical populism, although, ironically, he
claimed that Hrushevsky's "school" of history was being continued at Harvard. Also during
the Cold War, Pritsak became prominent in the movement towards Ukrainian-Jewish
reconciliation.[citation needed] Pritsak often was invited to brief Pope John Paul II on developments
in Central and Eastern Europe.[4]
Published works[edit]
 The origins of the Old Rus' weights and monetary systems: Two studies in Western
Eurasian metrology and numismatics in the seventh to eleventh centuries. Cambridge,
Massachusetts: Distributed by Harvard University Press for the Harvard Ukrainian
Research Institute, 1998.
 From Kievan Rus' to modern Ukraine: Formation of the Ukrainian nation (with Mykhailo
Hrushevski and John Stephen Reshetar). Cambridge, Massachusetts: Ukrainian
Studies Fund, Harvard University, 1984.
 Khazarian Hebrew documents of the tenth century. (with Golb, Norman Ithaca: Cornell
University Press, 1982.
 "The Polovcians and Rus'" (Journal Article in Archivum Eurasiae medii aevi), 1982.
 The origin of Rus'. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Distributed by Harvard University Press
for the Harvard Ukrainian Research Institute, 1981.
 Studies in medieval Eurasian history London: Variorum Reprints, 1981.
 On the writing of history in Kievan Rus. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Ukrainian Studies
Fund, Harvard University, 1980.
 "The Khazar Kingdom's Conversion to Judaism." (Journal Article in Harvard Ukrainian
studies, 1978)
 The Pechenegs: A Case of Social and Economic Transformation (Journal Article in
Archivum Eurasiae medii aevi), 1975
 "Two Migratory Movements in the Eurasian Steppe in the 9th-11th Centuries".
(Conference Paper in Proceedings : Proceedings of the 26th International Congress of
Orientalists, New Delhi 1964, Vol. 2)
 The Decline of the Empire of the Oghuz Yabghu (Journal Article in Annals of the
Ukrainian Academy of Arts and Sciences in the United States), 1952.
 Die Bulgarische Fürstenliste, Wiesbaden 1955.
References[edit]
 1. ^ Jump up to:a b c Woloschuk, Peter T. (11 June 2006). "Omeljan Pritsak, scholar of Ukrainian, Turkic
studies, 87". Obituary. The Ukrainian Weekly. Retrieved 14 October 2017.
2. ^ Jump up to:a b c Flier, Michael S.; Frye, Richard N.; Grabowicz, George G.; Szporluk, Roman; Keenan,
Edward L. (14 May 2009). "Omeljan Pritsak". Harvard Gazette. Retrieved 14 October 2017.
3. ^ Jump up to:a b "Omeljan Pritsak « Інститут сходознавства". oriental-studies.org.ua. Retrieved 2020-
01-25.
4. ^ Jump up to:a b "Omeljan Pritsak, 87, professor, linguist". The Washington Times. July 27, 2006.
Retrieved 14 October 2017.
5. ^ "Omeljan Pritsak « Інститут сходознавства". oriental-studies.org.ua. Retrieved 14 October 2017.
6. ^ Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies (1980). Journal of Ukrainian Studies. Canadian Institute of
Ukrainian Studies. [Toronto : Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies].
7. ^ "Omelian Pritsak Memorial Library". al.ukma.edu.ua. Retrieved 2020-01-24.
8. ^ "Omeljan Pritsak Research Center for Oriental Studies". www.ukma.edu.ua. Retrieved 2020-01-24.

Further reading[edit]
 Keenan, Edward L. "Omeljan Pritsak (1919–2006): [Obituary]", Kritika: Explorations in
Russian and Eurasian History, Vol. 7, No. 4. (2006), pp. 931–936.
 Oleksander Dombrovsky, "Pamiati Omeliana Pritsaka (Spohady)," [In Memory of
Omeljan Pritsak: Recollections] Ukrainskyi istoryk, XLIII, 1-3 (2006), pp. 228–37 (in
Ukrainian)
 Omeljan Pritsak, noted Ukrainian studies scholar, dead at 87
 Hajda, Lubomyr A. (1979). "Omeljan Pritsak: A Biographical Sketch". Eucharisterion:
Essays presented to Omeljan Pritsak on his Sixtieth Birthday by his Colleagues and
Students (1979-1980). Harvard Ukrainian Studies. Vol. 3/4. Harvard Ukrainian
Research Institute. pp. 1–6. JSTOR 41035815.
 Thomas M. Prymak, "The Generation of 1919: Pritsak, Luckyj, and Rudnytsky," in The
Ukrainian Weekly http://www.ukrweekly.com/uwwp/the-generation-of-1919-pritsak-
luckyj-and-rudnytsky/

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University of Lviv
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Coordinates: 49°50′26″N 24°01′20″E
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Ivan Franko National

University of Lviv

Львівський національний університет імені Івана Франка

Latin: Universitas Leopoliensis

Former names Universität Lemberg

Uniwersytet Jana Kazimierza
(John Casimir University)

Motto in English Educated citizens – glory of the Motherland

Type Public

Established 20 January 1661; 363 years ago

Founder King of Poland

John II Casimir Vasa

President Volodymyr Melnyk[1]

Students 11,649

Location Lviv

Ukraine
 Specialty programs 111

Blue and gold

Colors

Website https://www.lnu.edu.ua/en/

University rankings

Global – Overall

QS World[2] 1201-1400
(2023)

THE World[3] 1201–1500th

(2023)

Regional – Overall

QS Emerging Europe and Central Asia[4] 191 (2022)

The Ivan Franko National University of Lviv (Ukrainian: Львівський національний

університет імені Івана Франка, romanized: Lvivskyi natsionalnyi universytet imeni Ivana
Franka) is a public university in Lviv, Ukraine.
The university is the oldest institution[citation needed] of higher learning in continuous operation in
present-day Ukraine, dating from 1661 when John II Casimir, King of Poland, granted it its
first royal charter. Over the centuries, it has undergone various transformations,
suspensions, and name changes that have reflected the geopolitical complexities of this
part of Europe. The present institution can be dated to 1940. It is located in the historic city
of Lviv in Lviv Oblast of Western Ukraine.
History[edit]
Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth[edit]
The university was founded on 20 January 1661, when King John II Casimir in Polish Jan
II Kazimierz Waza of Poland granted a charter to the city's Jesuit Collegium, founded in
1608, giving it "the honor of an academy and the title of a university". In 1589, the Jesuits
had tried to found a university earlier, but did not succeed. Establishing another seat of
learning in the Kingdom of Poland was seen as a threat by the authorities
of Kraków's Jagiellonian University, which did not want a rival and stymied the Jesuits'
plans for the following years.
According to the Treaty of Hadiach (1658), an Orthodox Ruthenian academy was to be
created in Kyiv and another one in an unspecified location. The Jesuits suspected that it
would be established in Lwów/Lviv on the foundations of the Orthodox Brotherhood's
school, and used this as a pretext for obtaining a royal mandate that elevated their college
to the status of an academy (no city could have two academies).[5][6] King John II Casimir
was a supporter of the Jesuits and his stance was crucial. The original royal charter was
subsequently confirmed by another decree issued in Częstochowa on 5 February 1661.
In 1758, King Augustus III issued a decree, which described the Collegium as an
academy, equal in fact status to the Jagiellonian University, with two faculties, those
of Theology and Philosophy.
Austrian rule[edit]
In 1772, the city of Lwów was annexed by Austria (see: Partitions of Poland). Its German
name was Lemberg and hence that of the university. In 1773 the Suppression of the
Society of Jesus by Rome (Dominus ac Redemptor) was soon followed by the partition of
the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth which meant that the university was excluded from
the Commission of National Education reform. It was renamed Theresianum by the
Austrians, i.e. a State Academy. On 21 October 1784, the Austrian Emperor Joseph
II signed an act of foundation of a secular university. [7] He began to Germanise the
institution by bringing German-speaking professors from various parts of the empire. The
university now had four faculties. To theology and philosophy were added those
of law and medicine. Latin was the official language of the university, with Polish and
German as auxiliary. Literary Slaveno-Rusyn (Ruthenian/Ukrainian) of the period had been
used in the Studium Ruthenium (1787–1809), a special institute of the university for
educating candidates for the Uniate (Greek-Catholic) priesthood.[8]
In 1805, the university was closed, as Austria, then involved in the Napoleonic wars, did
not have sufficient funds to support it. Instead, it operated as a high school. The university
was reopened in 1817.[7] Officially Vienna described it as an "act of mercy", but the actual
reasons were different. The Austrian government was aware of the pro-Polish stance of
the Russian Emperor Alexander I and the Austrians wanted to challenge it. However, the
quality of the university's education was not considered high. Latin was replaced by
German and most professors were regarded as ''mediocre''. The few good ones regarded
their stay in Lemberg as a springboard to other centres. [citation needed]
In 1848, when the pan-European revolution reached Lemberg (see: Revolutions of 1848),
students of the university created two organizations: "The Academic Legion" and "the
Academic Committee" both of which demanded that the university be Polonized. The
government in Vienna answered with force, and on 2 November 1848, the centre of the
city was shelled by the troops led by General Hammerstein striking the buildings of the
university, especially its library. A curfew was called and the university was temporarily
closed. Major demand for Ukrainians was the education of teachers and promotion of
Ukrainian culture through Ukrainian courses at the university and to this end, a committee
for the Defense of Ukrainian Education was created. [9]: 58
It was reopened in January 1850, with only limited autonomy. After a few years the
Austrians relented and on 4 July[citation needed] 1871 Vienna declared Polish and Ruthenian
(Ukrainian) as the official languages at the university. [10] Eight years later this was changed.
The Austrian authorities declared Polish as the main teaching medium with Ruthenian and
German as auxiliary. Examinations in the two latter languages were possible as long as
the professors used them. This move created unrest among the Ruthenians (Ukrainians),
who were demanding equal rights. In 1908, a Ruthenian student of the philosophy
faculty, Miroslaw Siczynski, had assassinated the Polish governor of Galicia, Andrzej
Kazimierz Potocki [pl].[citation needed]
Meanwhile, the University of Lemberg thrived, being one of two Polish language
universities in Galicia, the other one was the Jagiellonian University in Kraków. Its
professors were famous across Europe, with such renowned names as Wladyslaw
Abraham, Oswald Balzer, Szymon Askenazy, Stanislaw Zakrzewski, Zygmunt
Janiszewski, Kazimierz Twardowski, Benedykt Dybowski, Marian
Smoluchowski and Ludwik Rydygier.
In the 1870s, Ivan Franko studied at Lemberg University. He entered world history as a
well-known Ukrainian scholar, public figure, writer, and translator. In 1894, the newly
founded Chair of World History and the History of Eastern Europe was headed by
Professor Mykhailo Hrushevskyi (1866–1934), an outstanding scholar of Ukrainian History,
founder of the Ukrainian Historical School, and author of the ten-volume "History of
Ukraine-Rus'", hundreds of works on History, History of Literature, Historiography, and
Source Studies. In 1904, a special summer course in Ukrainian studies was organized in
Lviv, primarily for Eastern Ukrainian students. [9]: 124
The number of students grew from 1,732 in 1897 to 3,582 in 1906. Poles made up around
75% of the students, Ukrainians 20%, other nationalities 5%. [6] In mid-December 1910,
Ukrainian women students at Lviv University established a Student Union's women's
branch, their twenty members meeting regularly to discuss current affairs. In July 1912,
they met with their Jewish counterpart branch to discuss the representation of women in
the student body of the university.[9]: 64
Second Polish Republic[edit]

The main building of the University of Lviv was constructed

to house the Diet of Galicia and Lodomeria
During the Interbellum period, the region was part of the Second Polish Republic and the
university was known as "Jan Kazimierz University" [6][11] (Polish: Uniwersytet Jana
Kazimierza), in honor of its founder, King John II Casimir Vasa. The decision to name the
school after the king was taken by the government of Poland on 22 November 1919. [12]
In 1920, the university was rehoused by the Polish government in the building formerly
used by the Sejm of the Land,[12] which has since been the university's main location. Its
first rector during the Second Polish Republic was the famous poet, Jan Kasprowicz.
Lwów was the second most important academic center in inter-war Poland.[13] The Jan
Kazimierz University was the third biggest university [14] in the country after the University of
Warsaw and the Jagiellonian University in Kraków. It was one of the most influential
scholarly institutions of the Second Polish Republic, notable for its schools of mathematics
(Stefan Banach, Hugo Steinhaus), logics (Kazimierz Twardowski), history and law (Oswald
Balzer), anthropology (Jan Czekanowski), and geography (Eugeniusz Romer).[12][6][15]
The university's library acquired, among others, the collection of Witold Kazimierz
Czartoryski [pl] and 1,300 old Polish books from the 16th and 17th century, previously
belonging to Józef Koziebrodzki. By September 1939, it expanded to 420,000 volumes,
including 1,300 manuscripts, 3,000 diplomas and incunables, and possessed
14,000 numismatic items.[16]
In 1924 the Philosophy Faculty was divided into Humanities and Mathematics and Biology
Departments, thus there were now five faculties. In the 1934/35 academic year, the
breakdown of the student body was as follows:

 Theology – 222 students

 Law – 2,978 students
 Medicine – 638 students (together with the Pharmaceutical Section, which had 263
students)
 Humanities – 892 students
 Mathematics and Biology – 870 students
Altogether, during the academic year 1934/35, there were 5900 students at the university,
consisting by religious observance of:

 3793 Roman Catholics (64.3%)

 1211 Jews (20.5%)
 739 Ukrainian Greek-Catholics (12.5%)
 72 Orthodox (1.2%)
 67 Protestants (1.1%)
Ukrainian professors were required to take a formal oath of allegiance to Poland; most of
them refused and left the university in the early 1920s. The principle of "Numerus clausus"
had been introduced after which Ukrainian applicants were discriminated against –
Ukrainian applications were capped at 15% of the intake, whereas Poles enjoyed a 50%
quota at the time.[17]
World War II[edit]
After the German invasion of Poland and the accompanying Soviet invasion in September
1939, the Soviet administration permitted classes to continue. Initially, the school worked
in the pre-war Polish system.[13] On 18 October, however, the Polish rector,
Professor Roman Longchamps de Bérier, was dismissed and replaced by Mykhailo
Marchenko [uk], a Ukrainian historian transferred from the Institute of Ukrainian
History in Kyiv,[13][18] grandfather of Ukrainian journalist and dissident Valeriy Marchenko. His
role was to Ukrainize and Sovietize the university.[19][13] At the beginning of January 1940,
the official name of the university was changed to Ivan Franko Lviv State
University.[13] Ukrainian was introduced as the language of instruction. [20] Polish professors
and administrative assistants were increasingly fired [13][18] and replaced by cadres
specializing in Marxism, Leninism, political economics, as well as Ukrainian and Soviet
literature, history, and geography. This was accompanied by the closure of departments
seen as related to religion, free-market economics, capitalism, or the West in general. All
academics specializing in Polish geography, literature, and history were
dismissed.[13] Marchenko was released from his post in Spring 1940 and arrested in June
1941.[18] From 1939 to 1941, the Soviets killed 17 and imprisoned 37 academics from the
University of Jan Kazimierz.[13]
After Lviv was occupied by the Nazi Germany in June 1941, the Germans closed the
University of Ivan Franko[13] and killed over 20 Polish professors (as well as members of
their households and guests, increasing the total number of victims to above
forty).[13][21][22] The victims included lecturers from the University of Lviv and other local
academic institutions. Among the killed was the last rector of the University of Jan
Kazimierz, Roman Longchamps de Berier, his three sons,[13] and the former Polish prime
minister and a polytechnic professor, Kazimierz Bartel.[23][a] The underground University of
Jan Kazimierz was established in Autumn 1941. [13]
In the summer of 1944, the advancing Red Army, assisted by the Polish Home
Army forces (locally implementing Operation Tempest), pushed the Wehrmacht out of
Lviv.[24][25] and the university reopened.[7] Due to post-war border changes, the Polish
population of the city was expelled[26][27] and most of Polish academics from the University of
Jan Kazimierz relocated to Wrocław (former Breslau), where they filled positions in the
newly established Polish institutions of higher learning.[28][29] The buildings of the university
had survived the war undestroyed, however, 80% of its pre-war student and academic
body was gone.[30] The traditions of Jan Kazimierz University have been duplicated at
the University of Wrocław, which replaced the pre-war University of Breslau after the
German inhabitants of that city had been expelled following Stalin's establishing
Germany's eastern border farther to the west.
Ukrainian SSR[edit]
This section needs expansion. You
can help by adding to it. (May
2021)

In 1964, a monument dedicated to Ivan Franko was built in front of the university. [31]
Independent Ukraine[edit]

Ivan Franko University main building (2005)

The proclamation of the independence of Ukraine in 1991 brought about radical changes
in every sphere of university life.[7] Professor, Doctor Ivan Vakarchuk, a renowned scholar
in the field of theoretical physics, was rector of the university from 1990 to 2013. Meeting
the requirements arising in recent years new faculties and departments have been set up:
the Faculty of International Relations and the Faculty of Philosophy (1992), the Faculty of
Pre-Entrance University Preparation (1997), the Chair of Translation Studies and
Comparative Linguistics (1998). Since 1997 the following new units have come into
existence within the teaching and research framework of the university: the Law College,
The Humanities Centre, The Institute of Literature Studies, The Italian Language and
Culture Resource Centre. The teaching staff of the university has increased amounting to
981, with scholarly degrees awarded to over two-thirds of the entire teaching staff. There
are over one hundred laboratories and working units as well as the Computing Centre
functioning here. The Zoological, Geological, Mineralogical Museums together with those
of Numismatics, Sphragistics, and Archeology are stimulating the interests of students. [17]
Faculties[edit]
 Faculty of Applied Mathematics and Informatics[32]
 Faculty of International Relations[33]
 Faculty of Biology[34]
 Faculty of Journalism[35]
 Faculty of Chemistry[36]
 Faculty of Law[37]
 Faculty of Economics[38]
 Faculty of Mechanics and Mathematics[39]
 Faculty of Electronics[40]
 Faculty of Philology[41]
 Faculty of Foreign Languages[42]
 Faculty of Philosophy[43]
 Faculty of Geography[44]
 Faculty of Physics[45]
 Faculty of Geology[46]
 Faculty of Preuniversity Training[47]
 Faculty of History[48]
 Department of Pedagogy[49]
 Department of Law[50]
Research divisions and facilities[edit]

University Library

 Scientific Research Department[51]

 Zoological museum[52]
 University Library[53]
 Journal of Physical Studies[54]
 The Institute of Archaeology[55]
 Ukrainian journal of computational linguistics[56]
 Media Ecology Institute[57]
 Modern Ukraine[58]
 Institute for Historical Research[59]
 Regional Agency for Sustainable Development[60]
 Botanical Garden[61]
 NATO Winter Academy in Lviv[62]
 Scientific technical & educational center of low temperature studies [63]
University management[edit]
 Rector Volodymyr Melnyk, Doctor of Philosophy, Professor, Corresponding Member of
the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine;[64]
 First Vice-Rector Andriy Gukalyuk, Candidate of Economic Sciences, Associate
Professor;
 Vice-Rector for Research Roman Hladyshevsky, Corresponding Member of the
National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, Doctor of Chemical Sciences, Professor;
 Vice-rector for scientific and pedagogical work and social issues and development
Volodymyr Kachmar, Candidate of Historical Sciences, Associate Professor;
 Vice-rector for scientific and pedagogical work and informatization Vitaliy Kukharsky,
Candidate of Physical and Mathematical Sciences, Associate Professor;
 Vice-rector for administrative and economic work Vasyl Kurlyak, Candidate of Physical
and Mathematical Sciences, Associate Professor. [64]
International cooperation[edit]
During 2016–2017, the university signed 15 cooperation agreements and two double
degree agreements, two agreements were extended. In total, 147 agreements have been
signed with higher education institutions from 38 countries.
The university is involved in signing the Magna Charta Universitatum. In 2000, the
university became a co-founder of the European College of Polish and Ukrainian
Universities (Lublin, Poland). Agreements with Alecu Russo State University of
Bălți (Bălți, Moldova) and the Krakow Pedagogical Academy (Poland) have been
extended.
Students of the faculty of Geography, History and the faculty of International Relations
undergo internships in Poland, Germany, Austria, Hungary, the Czech Republic,
and Slovakia. Employees of the faculty of Mechanics, Mathematics, Philology, Chemistry,
Faculty of International Relations and Applied Mathematics and Informatics worked in
higher education institutions in Poland, Colombia, France, Switzerland, and Austria on a
contract basis. Many graduates continue their studies in higher education institutions in
the United States, Poland, Germany, Austria, Britain, and France. In 2016, Ivan Franko
National University of Lviv held 5 international summer schools.
In 2016, active international cooperation was established with foreign partners. The
university has conducted bilateral research with the University of Vienna (Austria), Kaunas
University of Technology (Lithuania), the US Civilian Research and Development
Foundation, and the Hiroshima Institute of Technology (Japan), funded by the Ministry of
Education and Science of Ukraine.
In recent years, researchers at the university have been conducting experiments funded
by international organizations, including the Max Planck Institute for Biophysical
Chemistry (Germany), Harvard Medical School (USA), Novartis Institute for Biomedical
Research (USA), and the Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies at the University of
Alberta, International Center for Diffraction Data (USA), Andrew W. Mellon
Foundation (USA), Trust Educational Foundation for Tree Research (USA), Material.
Phases. Data. System company (Switzerland).
An agreement has been signed with CrossRef, which allows the DOI to be assigned to
university publications. The university, with the financial support of the Ministry of
Education and Science of Ukraine, has a national contact point of the EU Framework
Program "Horizon 2020" in the thematic areas "Future and latest technologies" and
"Inclusive, innovative and smart society".
Notable alumni[edit]
 Roman Aftanazy (1914–2004), historian of culture, librarian, heritage rescuer
 Kazimierz Ajdukiewicz (1890–1963), philosopher, mathematician and logician, a
pioneer of categorial grammar
 Marta Barandii (b. 1984), Ukrainian member activist and lawyer
 Piotr Ignacy Bieńkowski (1865–1925), classical scholar and archaeologist, professor of
the Jagiellonian University
 Julia Brystiger (1902–1975), political militant, member of the security apparatus of
the Polish People's Republic
 Józef Białynia Chołodecki (1852–1934), historian of Lviv.
 Marianna Dushar, anthropologist and food writer.
 Ivan Franko (1856–1916), poet and linguist, reformer of the Ukrainian language
 Ludwik Fleck (1896–1961), medical doctor and biologist who developed in the 1930s
the concept of thought collectives
 Stanisław Głąbiński (1862–1941) politician, professor and rector (1908–1909) of the
university, lawyer and writer
 Georgiy R. Gongadze (1969–2000), Georgian and Ukrainian journalist
 Mark Kac (1914–1984), mathematician, pioneer of modern probability theory
 Wiktor Kemula (1902–1985), chemist
 Yevhen Konovalets (1891–1938) leader of the Organization of Ukrainian
Nationalists between 1929 and 1938.
 Emil Korytko (1813–1839), Polish philologist and ethnologist who worked in
the Slovene Lands
 Stanisław Kot (1885–1975), scientist and politician, member of the Polish Government
in Exile
 Tadeusz Kotarbiński (1881–1981), philosopher, mathematician, logician
 Hersch Lauterpacht (1897–1960), lawyer and Developer of the legal concept of
"Crimes Against Humanity" in the Nuremberg Trials and writer of "An International Bill
of the Rights of Man"
 Pinhas Lavon (1904–1976), Israeli politician
 Raphael Lemkin (1900–1959), lawyer who introduced the term "genocide", an author
of the United Nations' Convention on Genocide
 Antoni Łomnicki (1881–1941), mathematician
 Jan Łukasiewicz (1878–1956), mathematician
 Stanisław Maczek (1892–1994), commander of the First Polish Armoured Division, the
last Commander of the First Polish Army Corps under Allied Command
 Kazimierz Michałowski (1901–1981), archeologist and Egyptologist
 Semyon Mogilevich (1946–), economist and mafia boss
 Bohdan Ihor Antonych (1909–1937), prominent Ukrainian writer
 Jan Parandowski (1895–1978), writer, essayist, and translator, expert on classical
antiquity
 Stepan Popel (1909–1987), Ukrainian chess player and linguist
 Maciej Rataj (1884–1940), Polish politician, acting president
 Jaroslav Rudnyckyj (1910–1995), Ukrainian Canadian linguist, lexicographer, folklorist
 Ivan L. Rudnytsky (1919–1984), Canadian historian of Ukraine, political
scientist, Public intellectual
 Leon Reich (1879–1929), lawyer and member of the Sejm of Poland
 Józef Schreier (1909–1943), mathematician
 Bruno Schulz (1892–1942), novelist and painter
 Markiyan Shashkevych (1811–1843), Ukrainian poet
 Zoia Skoropadenko (1978–), Ukrainian artist
 Josyf Slipyj (1892–1984), head of the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church
 Louis B. Sohn (1914–2006), international law scholar and advisor, helped create
the International Court of Justice, advisor to United States State Department, chaired
professor at Harvard University and University of Georgia law schools in the United
States
 Leonid Stein (1934–1973), grandmaster and Soviet Chess Champion
 Hugo Steinhaus (1887–1982), mathematician, educator, and humanist
 Julian Stryjkowski (1905–1996), Polish-Jewish journalist and writer
 Irena Turkevycz-Martynec (1899–1983), Ukrainian Opera Soprano
 Stefania Turkewich (1898–1977), Ukrainian composer, pianist, and musicologist
 Stanislaw Ulam (1909–1984) He participated in the Manhattan Project, originated the
Teller–Ulam design of thermonuclear weapons, discovered the concept of the cellular
automaton, invented the Monte Carlo method of computation, and suggested nuclear
pulse propulsion.
 Yuri Velykanovych (1910–1938), journalist, volunteer of the International Brigades
 Aizik Isaakovich Vol'pert (1923–2006), mathematician and chemical engineer
 Rudolf Weigl (1883–1957), biologist and inventor of the first effective vaccine
for epidemic typhus
 Władysław Witwicki (1878–1948), psychologist, philosopher, translator and artist
 Mariya Lyudkevych (b. 1948), writer and poet
 Ihor Kobrin (1951–2023), film director
 Liubomyr Zubach (b. 1978), Ukrainian politician
Notable professors[edit]
 Henryk Arctowski (1871–1958) - oceanographer, Antarctica explorer
 Szymon Askenazy (1866–1935) - historian, diplomat and politician, founder of
the Lwów-Warsaw School of History
 Herman Auerbach (1901–1942) - mathematician
 Stefan Banach (1892–1945) - mathematician, one of the moving spirits of the Lwów
School of Mathematics, father of functional analysis
 Oswald Balzer (1858–1933) - historian of law and statehood
 St. Józef Bilczewski (1860–1923) - archbishop of the city of Lwów of the Latins
 Franciszek Bujak (1921–1941) - historian
 Leon Chwistek (1884–1944) - Avant-garde painter, theoretician of modern art, literary
critic, logician, philosopher and mathematician
 Antoni Cieszyński (1882–1941) - physician, dentist and surgeon
 Matija Čop (1797–1835) - Slovene philologist and literary theorist
 Jan Czekanowski (1882–1965) - anthropologist, statistician and linguist
 Władysław Dobrzaniecki (1897–1941) - physician and surgeon
 Stanisław Głąbiński (1862–1941) - politician, rector (1908–1909), lawyer and writer
 Yakiv Holovatsky (1814–1888) - poet
 Mykhailo Hrushevsky (1866–1934) - historian, organizer of scholarship, leader of the
pre-revolution Ukrainian national movement, head of Ukraine's parliament,
first president of Ukraine, who wrote an academic book titled: "Bar Starostvo: Historical
Notes: XV-XVIII" about the history of Bar, Ukraine.[65]
 Stefan Inglot (1902–1994) - historian.
 Zygmunt Janiszewski (1888–1920), mathematician,
 Antoni Kalina (1846–1905) - ethnographer and ethnologist.
 Ignacy Krasicki (1735–1801) - writer and poet, senator, Bishop of
Warmia and Archbishop of Gniezno and Primate of Poland
 Jerzy Kuryłowicz (1895–1978) - linguist
 Karolina Lanckorońska (1898–2002) - historian and art historian, Polish World War
II resistance fighter
 Jan Łukasiewicz (1878–1956) - logician and philosopher
 Ignác Martinovics (1755–1795) - physicist, Franciscan, Hungarian revolutionary
 Stanisław Mazur (1905–1981) - mathematician
 Jakub Karol Parnas (1884–1949) - (Russian: Яков Оскарович Парнас or Yakov
Oskarovich Parnas). A Jewish-Polish–Soviet biochemist author of notable studies on
carbohydrates metabolism in mammals. Glycolysis, a major metabolic mechanism, is
universally named Embden-Meyerhoff-Parnas pathway after him.
 Eugeniusz Romer (1871–1954) - cartographer
 Eugeniusz Rybka (1898–1988) - astronomer, deputy director of the International
Astronomical Union,
 Stanisław Ruziewicz (1881–1941) - mathematician
 Wacław Sierpiński (1882–1969) - mathematician, known for contributions to set
theory, number theory, theory of functions and topology
 Marian Smoluchowski (1872–1917) - scientist, pioneer of statistical physics, creator the
basis of the theory of stochastic processes, mountaineer
 Hugo Steinhaus (1887–1972), mathematician
 Szczepan Szczeniowski (1898-1979) - physicist, author of numerous papers on cosmic
rays,
 Kazimierz Twardowski (1866–1938), philosopher and logician, head of the Lwów-
Warsaw School of Logic
 Tadeusz Boy-Żeleński (1874–1941) - gynecologist, writer, poet, art critic, translator of
French literary classics and journalist
 Rudolf Weigl (1883-1957) - biologist, epidemiologist
 Aleksander Zawadzki (1798-1868) - naturalist
 Viktor Pynzenyk (born 1954) - economist and politician
Other[edit]
 Włodzimierz Dzieduszycki (1825–1899), landowner, naturalist, political activist,
collector and patron of arts
 Stanisław Lem (1921–2006), satirical, philosophical, and science fiction writer
 Ignacy Jan Paderewski (1860–1941) virtuoso pianist, composer, diplomat and
politician, the third Prime Minister of Poland
 János Bolyai (1802–1860) The founder of noneuclidean (absolute) geometry. The
highest figure of Hungarian mathematics worked at the University of Lviv from 1831 to
1832.
See also[edit]
 List of early modern universities in Europe
 Massacre of Lwów professors
 Ukrainian Free University
Notes[edit]
1. ^ The extent to which Ukrainian nationalists may have been involved in identifying and selecting some of
the victims is still a matter of debate, as Polish historian Adam Redzik wrote, while a group of Ukrainian
nationalist students most likely helped to prepare the lists of Polish academics, it is unlikely they expected
or knew about their intended purposes (i.e., the executions).[13]

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Literature[edit]
 Academia Militans. Uniwersytet Jana Kazimierza we Lwowie, red. Adam Redzik,
Kraków 2015, ss. 1302.
 Ludwik Finkel, Starzyński Stanisław, Historya Uniwersytetu Lwowskiego, Lwów 1894.
 Franciszek Jaworski, Uniwersytet Lwowski. Wspomnienie jubileuszowe, Lwów 1912.
 Adam Redzik, Wydział Prawa Uniwersytetu Lwowskiego w latach 1939–1946, Lublin
2006
 Adam Redzik, Prawo prywatne na Uniwersytecie Jana Kazimierza we Lwowie,
Warszawa 2009.
 Józef Wołczański, Wydział Teologiczny Uniwersytetu Jana Kazimierza 1918–1939,
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 Universitati Leopoliensi, Trecentesimum Quinquagesimum Anniversarium Suae
Fundationis Celebranti. In Memoriam. Praca zbiorowa. Polska Akademia Umiejętności,
Kraków 2011, ISBN 978-83-7676-084-1
 External links[edit]
 History of the University of Lviv to 1945 (in Polish)

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