Real Life Statistical Problems

1. Define statistics and statistical

questions.
2. Poses problems that can be solved by
statistics.
Inferential Statistics: Methods used to
Statistics: Statistics is a mathematical science
determine something about a population on the
that includes collecting, organizing and
basis of a sample.
analyzing data in such a way that meaningful
conclusions can be drawn from them.

Alternate definition (Statistics): An area of

Alternate Definition (Inferential Statistics): the
applied mathematics concerned with data
practice of using sampled data to draw
collection analysis, interpretation, and
conclusions or make predictions about a larger
presentation. It generally deals with the
sample data sample or population.
collection of data, tabulation, and interpretation
of numerical data, and on how data can be used
to solve complex problems.

Statistical question: Is one that can be

answered by collecting data that varies from
each other. This means that, not all the values
of the data are the same.
Descriptive Statistics: Methods of organizing,
summarizing, and presenting data in an
Population – Entire set of objects
measurements obtained from all
Individuals or objects of interest.
Alternate definition (Population): A

informative way. collection of a set of individual objects

or events whose properties are to be
Alternate Definition (Descriptive Statistics): analyzed.
focuses on describing and analyzing a dataset's Sample - A portion, or part, of the
main features and characteristics without population of interest.
making any generalizations to a larger
population.
 Alternate definition (Sample): It is the Qualitative (Categorical): it measures data
subset of a population. represented by a name or symbol. Information
or questions that are answerable by YES or NO.
There are two types of data:
quantitative (numerical) and qualitative
(categorical).

Examples of Numerical Data:

A. Discrete Data

1. Number of boys and girls in grade 7 per

section Sunflower

2. The result of rolling 3 dice

3. The number of books in the shelves

B. Continuous Data

1. The heights of all grade 7 students

Data: refers to observations and measurements 2. Age of people

which have been collected in some way, often
through research. We have quantitative and 3. Distance travelled by an airplane overtime

qualitative data.

Quantitative (Numerical): Data that is recorded

as numbers. It has subcategories namely
Discrete (can count finitely) and Continuous
(can take values from infinite range) data.

Variable: Are the characteristics or attributes
that you are observing, measuring & recording
data for. The value of a variable varies from one
subject to another. We have independent and
dependent variable.
Independent variable: also known as the
predictor variable, it is the one that potentially
influences, affects or predicts the other variable.
Dependent variable: known as the outcome
variable) is the one that is potentially
influenced, affected or predicted.
Statistical question will ask a question where
the answer can vary. Once data is collected and
analyzed, the answer can provide an
explanation of the information.
Non-statistical question will have data, but the
results will not vary. There will only be one
answer.
A constant has a fixed numerical value.
A variable is an item of interest that can take on
many different numerical values.
variables are any characteristics that
can take on different values, such as
height, age, temperature, or test scores.
A statistical question:
Expects a variety of answers.
Includes a specific population.
Has variability in the responses.
Variability is the number of different answers
you hear.
Nominal – consist of categories in each of which
the number of respective observations is
recorded. The categories are in no logical order
and have no particular relationship. The
categories are said to be mutually exclusive
since an individual, object, or measurement can
be included in only one of them.
Ordinal – contain more information. Consists of
distinct categories in which order is implied.
Values in one category are larger or smaller than
values in other categories (e.g. rating-excelent,
good, fair, poor)
Interval – is a set of numerical measurements in
which the distance between numbers is of a
known, constant size.
Ratio – consists of numerical measurements
where the distance between numbers is of a
known, constant size, in addition, there is a
nonarbitrary zero point.
DATA GATHERING
DATA COLLECTION
is the systematic process of gathering,
measuring, and recording data for research,
analysis, or decision-making.
- It involves collecting data from various sources,
such as surveys, interviews, observations,
experiments, documents, or existing databases,
to obtain relevant and reliable information.
The ultimate goal is to ensure that the collected
data is reliable, valid, and representative of the
target population or subject of interest.
A measurement can be reliable without being
valid. However, if a measurement is valid, it is
usually also reliable.
Both reliability and validity are crucial
considerations in research to ensure the
trustworthiness and meaningfulness of the
collected data and measurements.
Primary Data Collection Methods
 - It involves the collection of original data to-face interviews, telephone calls, mail, or
directly from the source or through online platforms.
direct interaction with the respondents.

- It is raw data a type of information that is

obtained directly from the first-hand source that
is specifically tailored to their research
objectives.

The primary data collection method is further

classified into two types. They are:

Quantitative Data Collection Methods and

Qualitative Data Collection Methods

– Qualitative methods involve collecting

numerical data to analyze and measure
relationships, patterns, and trends.

They allow for generalization and drawing

conclusions based on statistical evidence,
making them useful for testing hypotheses,
identifying patterns, and making predictions.
Qualitative Data Collection Methods:
These methods focus on objective and
measurable aspects of a topic. Some common Qualitative methods focus on gathering non-

quantitative methods include: Surveys and numerical data to understand a topic’s deeper

Questionnaires, & Experiments. meaning, context, and subjectivity. They aim to

explore social phenomena and human behavior
Surveys and Questionnaires:
and understand human interactions.

Some common methods are: Interviews, Focus

Researchers design structured questionnaires Groups, Observations, Case Studies, and
or surveys to collect data from individuals or Ethnography.
groups. These can be conducted through face-
Interviews:
It involves direct interaction between the
researcher and the respondent. They can be
conducted in person, over the phone, or
through video conferencing. It can be with
individuals or groups help gather detailed
gain detailed insights into their characteristics,
behaviors, and context.
Ethnography:
It includes immersing oneself in a particular

insights, opinions, and experiences. Interviews social group or culture to understand their

can be structured (with predefined questions), behaviors, practices, and beliefs through

semi-structured (allowing flexibility), or participant observation and interviews.

unstructured (more conversational).

Focus Groups:

It involves bringing together a small group of

individuals to engage in a guided discussion on a
specific topic to understand their perspectives
and shared experiences. This method helps in
understanding opinions, perceptions, and
experiences shared by the participants.
Published Sources:
Observations:
Researchers refer to books, academic journals,
Researchers observe and record behaviors, magazines, newspapers, government reports,
actions, or events in their natural setting. This and other published materials that contain
method is useful for gathering data on human relevant data.
behavior, interactions, or phenomena without
Online Databases:
direct intervention. There are different types of
observation, including the structured, Numerous online databases provide access to a
naturalistic and, participant observation, wide range of secondary data, such as research
articles, statistical information, economic data,
and social surveys.
Case Studies:

It involves conducting an in-depth investigation

Government and Institutional Records:
of a specific individual, group, or organization to
Government agencies, research institutions, and Unstructured (Open Responses) – use when the
organizations often maintain databases or responses could be quite varied and you can’t
records that can be used for research purposes. decide what the responses might be.

Publicly Available Data:

Data shared by individuals, organizations, or

communities on public platforms, websites, or
social media can be accessed and utilized for
research.

Past Research Studies:

Previous research studies and their findings can

serve as valuable secondary data sources.

Importance of Data Collection

It provides valuable insights and supports

decision-making. It helps understand trends,
patterns, and relationships.

- Informed decision-making
- Problem identification and solution
- Effective planning and policy
development
- Progress monitoring
- Research and innovation
- Evidence-based decision-making

TYPES OF QUESTIONS

Structured (Closed Response) – use when the

response falls into easily defined categories. Observation - this is done directly or indirectly.

Rating scales are structured questions too.

Registration - this utilizes existing records of file.
Experimentation. This is done by making or
conducting scientific inquiry.

Focus Group Discussion: involves gathering

people from similar backgrounds or experiences
together to discuss a specific topic of interest.
Ways to deliver questionnaires

Structured interviews are used to collect

information with regards to the quantity or
numerical value of the research subjects.

Structured interviews are mostly used in

quantitative observation.

Unstructured interview is usually applied to

qualitative data collection because it pays
attention to describing the research subjects.

Unstructured interview relies on spontaneity

and follow up questioning in order to gather
detailed information from the research subject.
FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

A frequency distribution shows the frequency of

repeated items in a graphical form or tabular
form. It gives a visual display of the frequency of
items or shows the number of times they
occurred.

After data collection, we have to show data in a

Types of Frequency Distribution Table
meaningful manner for better understanding.
Organize the data in such a way that all its There are two types of frequency distribution

features are summarized in a table. This is tables: Grouped and Ungrouped frequency

known as frequency distribution. distribution tables. Types of Frequency

Distribution Table

Ungrouped Frequency Distribution Table: In the

ungrouped frequency distribution table, we
don't make class intervals, we write the
accurate frequency of individual data.
When to Use Ungrouped Frequency We can find frequency distribution by the
Distributions? following steps:

Ungrouped frequency distributions can be
useful when you want to see how often each
individual value occurs in a dataset.
Ungrouped frequency distributions work best
with small datasets in which there are only a
few unique values.
Grouped Frequency Distribution Table
- First of all, calculate the range of the
data set.
- Next, divide the range by the number of
the group you want your data in and
then round up.
- After that, use class width to create
groups
- Finally, find the frequency for each
group.

To arrange a large number of observations or

data, we use grouped frequency distribution
table. In this, we form class intervals to tally the
frequency for the data that belongs to that
particular class interval.

How to find frequency distribution for Grouped

Data?
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=ReW4MPqXTvA

MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY OF

Why are frequency distributions important?
UNGROUPED DATA

A well-structured frequency distribution makes

Organized data is easier to read and interpret.
possible a detailed analysis of the structure of
the population with respect to given One way to organize data is by using
characteristics. Therefore, the groups into which tables/frequency tables.
the population break down can be determined.
A frequency table is a tally of the number of
CREATING BAR GRAPHS times a data value occurs.

A bar graph is a graphical representation of
information. It uses bars that extend to different
heights to depict value. Bar graphs can be
created with vertical bars, horizontal bars,
grouped bars (multiple bars that compare
values in a category), or stacked bars (bars
containing multiple types of information).
It shows clear and definite information about a
set of data.
The table is constructed by tallying or counting
the number of times a data value occurs.
The number of occurrences of a data value is
called its frequency.
Ungrouped data are data that are not organized,
or if arranged, could only be from highest to
lowest, or lowest to highest.
MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY

Measures of central tendency is also called

measures of location. These measures of central
tendency are called the “mean,” “median,” and
“mode.”

Grouped data are data formed by aggregating

individual observations of a variable into groups,
so that a frequency distribution of these groups
serves as a convenient means of summarizing or
analyzing the data.

A frequency distribution table for grouped data

is known as a grouped frequency distribution
table.

It is based on the frequencies of class intervals.

Cumulative frequency means the sum of

frequencies of the class and all the classes
below it.