Changing urban patterns and urbanization

Cities and their urban structures

Key terms
Multiple nuclei model – Cities have more than one centre.

Sector model – The city is divided into various zones, with the inner city zone
expanding outwards from the CBD using transport routes.

Concentric zone model – This model divides a city into multiple rings consisting of
the inner poor portions of the city and the outer wealthy portions of the city.

Third world city – The model forms in developing countries and results in a dual city
structure, with one traditional and one modern city centre

The modern American/Western city is a specific urban settlement model, based on the
unique characteristics of American cities that evolved between 1850 and 1910. These
cities differ significantly from European cities, making them a useful reference for
understanding the structure of urban settlements. However, it's important to note that
these models may not always be the same as urban settlements themselves, as they
change and evolve over time. Therefore, the modern American city is a valuable model for
understanding the structure of urban settlements in real-life.

2.1.1 The characteristics of westernised cities

Let’s take a look at the characteristics that are present in modern American or
westernised cities in the table below.

Table 1: The characteristics of a westernised city.

Multi-centred Westernised cities are formed similarly to the multi-nuclei model.

Westernised cities consist of vast areas of urban sprawl and

Spread out
suburban residential areas.

Central business district The CBD is located downtown.

 People living in or near this type of city depend on public and
Transport dependent private transport to move around. These means of transport
include buses, trams, trains and private cars.

Decentralisation occurs as people and businesses move away

Decentralisation
from the CBD and towards the suburbs.

Owing to decentralisation, there is growth in suburban areas,

Suburbanisation
known as suburbanisation.

Edge cities, or self-contained cities, form on the outskirts of the

Edge cities
main city.

Segregation occurs as neighbourhoods form due to the socio-

Segregation
economic standing of the individuals living in the area.

2.2 The Third World city

Whereas the westernised city structure generally forms in developed, modern
countries, the Third World city structure is formed in developing countries. These
developing countries are usually located in South America, Africa or Southeast Asia.
These countries may be located far from each other but the cities established in
these Third World countries all have two factors in common. These factors are:

1. They have a dual city structure because of their colonial history. This results in
the formation of one traditional city centre and one modern city centre.
2. It is common to find informal settlements in these cities.

2.2.1 The time periods evident in Third World city structures

When discussing Third World cities, it is necessary to discuss the different periods in
history that these cities have experienced. This is because each of these periods has
had a major effect on the structure of the city. These historical periods are as follows:

3. Indigenous/pre-colonial/pre-industrial period

4. Colonial era
5. Third World cities
 6. Globalisation of cities in the developing world

Now that you know the names of the main time periods that have affected Third
World city structures, watch the video below to learn more about them.

This is the original settlement established in the area prior to

Indigeno colonialism or industrialisation. These original settlements usually
us/pre- consisted of complacent spaces that are designed for fortification and
colonial trade, meaning that land use was either mixed or didn't exist. During
period this period in time, the wealthy individuals lived in the city and poor
individuals lived outside of the city.

Many settlements established during this time were influenced by the

architecture of the colonising country. These city structures were
Colonial usually centred on trade and created separate areas for the colonialists
period and the local people to live in. It was always evident which areas the
colonists lived in because these areas would be more desirable and be
built around gardens and attractive features.

These cities developed after the colonial era and were generally
Third densely populated with high rates of urbanisation. This growth in
World urbanisation led to the establishment of many informal settlements
cities and trading that occurred on the streets to attract as many customers
as possible.

Globalisation is still occurring in many cities today and is the process

Globalisa
that results in many cities around the world looking very similar and
tion
sharing similar characteristics and structure

South African cities have a unique model due to their colonial and apartheid past,
influencing their structures and architecture. This older architecture contrasts with
the modern, westernized city model. The turbulent past of racial segregation still
influences city structures today, as unnatural land use structures created through
apartheid policies continue to shape the city's structure. The turbulent past directly
affects the city structures present in South Africa today.

The major apartheid policy that still affects the structure of cities today is the Group
Areas Act. This act sought to separate the various racial groups into their own
designated areas. This resulted in the following structural characteristics:

• Each racial group was only allowed to trade and conduct business in their
own urban area.
 • The central business district was used and occupied by white businesses.
• The outlying areas and townships were less desirable and were occupied by
the black and coloured population.
• These outlying areas experienced very little retail and commercial
development.
• Rows of small houses and hostels were built in these outlying areas.

Take a look at the figure below. This provides a visual representation of a typical
apartheid city which divided its functions and services along racial lines instead of
the usual deciding factors of environmental, physical or economic factors.

. Conclusion
Well done on reaching the end of this lesson. This lesson built on the models of
urban structure. You have already learnt that urban settlements follow basic models
which create their general structure and pattern. These models determine how the
individuals living in the urban settlement interact with the various land-use zones in
the settlement.

The models of urban structure that you learnt about are as follows:

• The concentric zone model, otherwise known as the Burgess model

• The sector model, otherwise known as the Hoyt or Hoyt-Sector model

• The multiple nuclei model, otherwise known as the Harris and Ullman model
Once you were able to identify these three basic models of urban structure, you
were then introduced to three more urban settlement structures that are observed
more often in practice. These structures were:

• The modern westernised city

• The Third World city

• The South African city

Changing urban pattern

2.1 The reasons behind changing patterns and land use

A discussion on the patterns and structures of an urban settlement wouldn’t be
complete without looking at the reasons and forces affecting the patterns evident in
the urban settlement and how the land is used. Two major forces influence the
pattern and land use in an urban settlement, owing to how they influence how
people and businesses move within a settlement. These two forces are:

7. Centripetal forces
8. Centrifugal forces

2.1.1 Centripetal forces

Before diving into a detailed discussion on what a centripetal force is, let’s first take a
look at what the word ‘centripetal’ means.

Key terms
Centripetal – Moving or tending to move towards a centre.

Centripetal force – The force that pulls an object that is moving in a

circle towards the centre of the circle.

By taking a look at these two definitions, it is clear that a centripetal force has one
main function: to attract. In the case of the South African urban structure, the
centripetal force attracts people and business to the city centre.

So how does this centripetal force ensure that it attracts business and people?
Unlike the definition of a centripetal force, an urban settlement is not moving in a
circle so there must be other factors in place which ensure that individuals are
attracted to the centre of the city. Let’s take a look at what these forces of attraction
are.

• Site attraction: By now you should know that the site of a settlement is the
actual location in which the settlement is established. This means that the
force of site attraction is merely setting out that businesses and individuals
are attracted to the actual location of the city centre.
• Function convenience: This factor works hand in hand with site attraction.
Generally speaking, people are more attracted to convenience (remember the
central places model and theory?). Just as the central place theory set out,
people are more attracted to convenience, which means functional
convenience refers to how convenient it would be for businesses and
individuals to work in the centre of the city.
 • Functional magnetism: This factor is all about the functions performed by
the business in the city’s centre. Essentially, this factor refers to the concept of
businesses with similar functions being attracted to each other and being
established in similar areas in a settlement.
• Functional prestige: This factor looks at the prestige and social standing that
is associated with establishing a business or living in the city’s centre. If the
address for the city centre can improve your status, then of course you would
want to live or work there

Centrifugal forces
Centrifugal forces are the forces of inertia that keep an object moving outward in a
circular direction. They can be seen in situations like driving in a car, where the body
wants to move in its original direction, causing jerking or whiplash. In a city center,
the centrifugal force forces people to move away from the center, acting as the
opposite of the centripetal force that attracts people to the center. This force is
similar to how the body wants to move away from a suddenly stopped car, causing a
jerking feeling or whiplash. forces are the forces of inertia that keep an object
moving outward in a circular direction. They can be seen in situations like driving in a
car, where the body wants to move in its original direction, causing jerking or
whiplash. In a city center, the centrifugal force forces people to move away from the
center, acting as the opposite of the centripetal force that attracts people to the
center. This force is similar to how the body wants to move away from a suddenly
stopped car, causing a jerking feeling or whiplash.
• Spatial force: This is all about the space that is available in the city’s centre. If
there is not enough space in the city due to overcrowding and congestion,
people will choose to move away from the city to places that provide them
with more space.
• Site force: Once again, this is all about the actual location of the city’s centre.
Sometimes individuals and businesses need a specific kind of site for their
business to run efficiently. If they can’t find this special site, they will be forced
to look outside of the city centre.
• Situational force: This is all about the surrounding environment in the city
centre. When looking at the environment in the city, you will be looking at
factors such as noise, pollution and decay of the city centre. These can all be
viewed as negative situational factors that people and businesses actively
move away from.
• Economic force: Money speaks and when the point of working or living in the
city centre is to make money or gain status, then money speaks even louder.
City centres often have issues such as high rents, rates and taxes which forces
people to move to areas outside of the city centre.
 • Status force: You know that people often move to the city centre for the
status that it affords them or their business, but what happens when there is
no status attached to the location? Well, when a city centre is viewed as old or
dangerous, people will move away from the city centre in search of safer,
more vibrant and more exciting areas
Urban renewal and the change of urban patterns
Urban renewal refers to the process of modifying land or buildings in an urban
settlement to improve their appeal and attract more people and businesses. This
process can occur when a city's central buildings no longer attract people and
businesses. However, it is important to consider the challenges and opportunities
associated with urban renewal, such as the need for governments and
municipalities to consider alternative solutions beyond simply demolishing old
buildings. By addressing these issues, cities can adapt and become more attractive
and suitable for modern use.

Invasion and succession – The process where a neighbourhood changes when a

social group succeeds another group in a residential area. In other words, the
residential area is taken over by another group

The case of the abandoned home

The city of Urbanville used to be a trendy, high-end location where young families
and entrepreneurial go-getters would buy and rent apartments to be close to their
workplaces and prestigious schools. That all changed when the schools closed down
and were taken over by various businesses and industries. The city centre no longer
held the appeal that it used to and the young families and vibrant entrepreneurs
slowly started to move away from the CBD and towards the suburbs surrounding
the city, where the newer business and school districts were being established. What
was once a young, energetic and vibrant residential space within the CBD was now
old and unkempt.

That is, until a property developer and ABC Properties realised the unique
opportunity that existed in this old residential area. After all, all the older businesses
and industries still functioned in the CBD so there were many people near this
residential space. Establishing a new residential area probably wouldn’t work so ABC
Properties decided to take a new approach – to renew the area by taking the
residential homes that were located near the commercial centres and changing
them into businesses.

The old houses and apartments were demolished or renovated to make space for
businesses such as doctor’s rooms, hair salons, cafes and shops – everything a
business person needs near their workplace. Suddenly the old residential area was
once again filled with young, vibrant entrepreneurs and business people.

Application to the urban profile

Urbanisation patterns in South Africa

Urbanisation in South Africa

The world is constantly undergoing urbanisation and South Africa, as a developing
country, is experiencing rapid urbanisation that is slowly changing how land in
South Africa is used. It is even predicted that by the year 2050, the populations of
cities such as Johannesburg, Durban and Cape Town will grow by 12%. As a result of
this growth, towns, cities and even suburban areas around South Africa are growing
and changing. Let’s take look at a few changes that are occuring in South Africa
because of this urbanisation:

• Inner city areas that were previously deemed unsafe and unattractive are
being developed, renewed and revitalised. This is due to the growing demand
for residential space in cities. This has resulted in residential apartments and
lofts being built in interesting locations such as old storage warehouses, old
buildings and even old silos.
• As people migrate towards the cities, rural depopulation occurs. This has led
to a decrease in the size of the populations living in small country towns and
rural areas.
 • The suburban areas around South Africa's main cities are growing. There is
evidence of urban sprawl, both formally (with suburban formal housing) and
informally (through informal settlements). Although governments make it a
priority to build houses for all, informal settlements continue to grow.

• Semi-gration is an interesting new move to small-town living. While young

people are moving into cities, the older generations are more attracted to the
small-town country lifestyle and semi-grate to small towns for a quieter
lifestyle.
• Boomed areas and secure lifestyle estates have gained popularity in recent
years. This is because these areas generally only grant access to residents and
their visitors. This is an attractive benefit for people looking for a safer
environment.
• Land redistribution is taking place under the government's land reform
policy. This means that the government gives land to disadvantaged and poor
communities. Land restitution also forms part of this, in which land taken
away during the apartheid era is slowly but surely being given back to the
original owners. This mainly affects rural areas, but also has an impact on
urban areas which causes changing patterns and land use
The land in many South African cities has made a move towards being used more
intensively. Large plots of land used to be what attracted buyers to an area but now
these large plots are being subdivided into smaller and smaller stands that allow for
a larger population to live in an area. This has resulted in the process of
densification, which is defined as an increase in the number of dwellings and
people in an area.

All of these changes in the urban patterns and land uses in South Africa are a result
of the processes of urban decay, succession and invasion and the resulting urban
renewal as these rundown and decayed cities are renewed.

The face of South Africa’s urban settlements is constantly changing through

urbanisation. What do you think the next big changes to settlements in South Africa
will be?

2.2 Recent urbanisation patterns in South Africa

You already know that urbanisation can be classified as the physical growth of
towns, cities and other urban areas. Although urbanisation means that services and
infrastructure should be more cost-effective to deliver, there is the question of
whether cities have the capacity to accommodate everyone. Can cities really cope?
The rate of urbanisation in post-apartheid South Africa is not the fastest it has ever
been; however, South Africa's urban settlements do continue to grow. Two forms of
migration can be seen in South Africa's urbanisation.

9. Circular migration: This is when people move to the city in search of work
and return to their homes, villages and families from time to time.
10. International migration: This is the movement of people across state borders.
South Africa has mainly attracted immigrants from Africa, Asia and India
South Africa is experiencing rapid urbanisation, with 66% of its population living in rural
settlements and around 20 million in major economic centers and large cities. By 2050,
80% of the country's population is expected to be urbanized, with an average rate of 1,97%
per year. This means that if South Africa's population is 57 million, over 1 million people
will move to urban areas annually. Cities are growing at a rate of 2% per year, with larger
areas like Johannesburg, Cape Town, and Durban growing the most. Smaller towns may
attract migrant workers, but they tend to move to larger urban settlements.

Cape Town experiences approximately 50,000 people moving from the Eastern Cape to its
16 000 households annually. This migration has led to an increase in urbanization rates
due to migrant workers from other African countries. Many migrant workers maintain
connections with their rural relatives and return home for weddings, funerals, and festive
seasons. They often support their family members in poorer rural communities by sending
money and food home.

The problem with rapid urbanisation

Issues related to rapid urbanisation

2.1.1 Lack of planning
Cities often emerge rapidly due to rapid population growth, leading to increased demand
for services, work opportunities, and homes. However, these cities often struggle to
accommodate the growing number of residents due to inadequate planning. This can
result in informal settlements and incompatible building uses, inadequate or missing
services like water, electricity, and sewerage. Additionally, poorly built low-cost houses
can negatively impact community members.

2.1.2 Housing shortages

Between 1996 and 2001, the number of households sharing a single room doubled due to
the growing urban population and high costs of land and homes. This leads to housing
shortages, increased informal settlements, shanty towns, homelessness, and street
dwellers. Overcrowding in apartments also contributes to inadequate service delivery and
deteriorating living conditions. The growing urban population has resulted in a bleak and
unsustainable urban environment.

2.1.3 Overcrowding
Informal settlements and shanty towns have crowded living conditions due to close-knit
shacks and single-room households, leading to social problems and increased crime.
Overcrowding also affects classrooms, hospitals, and prisons due to increased resource
pressure. Cities are already crowded, but as populations increase, buildings can house up
to six people per room, leading to slums and oversubscription of public services, resulting
in a shortage of schools, hospitals, and office spaces, leading to high rental costs.

2.1.4 Traffic congestion

Traffic congestion is a slow, idling flow of traffic during peak travel times, leading to
increased travel times, increased air pollution, and time-consuming traffic jams. It also
causes delays, anger, frustration, and parking shortages. In larger cities, about 4.3 million
drivers get stuck in traffic jams daily, affecting the central business district and affecting
public transportation.

2.1.5 Problems with service delivery

Cities provide basic human needs like water, waste removal, electricity, and sanitation, as
well as social services like clinics, parks, and museums. However, infrastructure for these
services is often outdated and poorly maintained, leading to issues like power cuts, water
cuts, cable theft, and wastage of funds. This is particularly problematic in larger cities
where businesses and homes have access to broadband.

2.1.6 Pollution
Linked to traffic congestion is the concept of pollution. This is pollution from the
emissions that come from vehicles and different industries, as well as noise pollution
and waste accumulation. This causes damage to the urban vegetation and animals.
The pollution of urban water systems also causes damage to the health of humans,
animals and vegetation.

2.1.7 Urban decay

South African cities have created the Metropolitan Spatial Development Framework
(MSDF) to guide planning for an improvement in our urban future. These are the
problems facing our cities:

• Urban sprawl
 • Apartheid legacy
• Separation of work and home
• Unequal access to resources and services
• Inadequate public transport
• Uncoordinated local government
As cities are continuously growing, the challenge of making urban settlements
better places for everybody to live in becomes increasingly more important. To
create cities that are more inviting and more livable, urban planners need to focus
on the following things:

• Planning greener, healthier cities for cleaner air and water

• Ensuring environmental protection with urban growth
• Transportation that is effective and environmentally friendly
• Including open spaces and parks in all urban areas
• Ensuring cities have sustainable systems

Tax incentives are now offered by the South African Government to any property
owners in urban city development zones like inner-city Johannesburg. The urban
development zone tax incentive forms part of a national scheme that encourages
inner-city urban renewal. Under this scheme, any commercial, industrial or
residential property owner is allowed to claim a tax allowance of 100%, covering the
cost of inner city property refurbishment and renovation