Working with maps

2.1 Revisiting scale

You know that a map is a reduced representation of an area on the surface of the
Earth. In order to reduce areas into maps, different map scales are used. The
relationship between the area on the ground in real life and what is represented
on a map can be shown in different ways:

• Word scale
• Ratio scale
• Line scale
.1.1 Word scale
The map distance and the ground distance it represents are written in a word
format. For example, 1 cm represents 500 m. This means that 1 centimeter on the
map represents 500 meters in real life in the mapped area.

Worked Example 1
Let's look at this example of using a word scale to calculate the distance in real
life from a map where the word scale is as follows:

1 cm on the map represents 50 000 cm in real life.

You measure a distance of 2.3cm on the map. What is the real life distance?
Provide the answer in kilometers.

2.3×50000=115000𝑐𝑚 in real life

Remember that we need to divide by 100 000 to convert centimeters to

kilometers.

115000÷100000=1.15𝑘𝑚 in real life

Worked Example 2
Let's look at this example of using a ratio scale to calculate the distance in real life
from a map where the scale is as follows:

1:50 000

You measure a distance of 4.3 cm on the map. What is the real life distance?
Provide the answer in meters.

4.3×50000=215000𝑐𝑚 in real life

Remember that we need to divide by 100 to convert centimeters to meters.

215000÷100=2150𝑚 in real life

2.1.3 Line scale

The relationship between the map scale distance and the actual ground distance
is shown as a scale bar. This can be seen in figure below.

Worked Example 3
Let's look at this example of using a line scale to calculate the distance in real life
from a map where the scale is as follows:

You measure a distance of 3.7 cm on the map. What is the real life distance?
Provide the answer in kilometers. Please bear in mind that on this line scale, 1cm
on the map = 1km in real life.

3.7×1=3.7km3.7×1=3.7𝑘𝑚 in real life.

There is no need to convert this number because the scale amount was provided
in kilometers and the answer was required in kilometers too.

2.1.4 Large and small scale maps

Large scale maps show a lot of detail over a small area and small scale maps show
a little detail over a large area. An example would be a 1:10 000 orthophoto map
that will have a larger scale than a 1:50 000 topographic map.

2.2 Contours and cross sections

You will remember that a contour line is a line joining places on a map that are
the same height above sea level. The vertical distance between consecutive
contours is always the same and is referred to as the contour interval.
Contour lines will also give you an indication of what the cross section of the
specific area would look like.
Contour lines that are spaced further apart indicate a gradual slope. Whereas
contour lines that are closer together indicate a more steep slope. Each of these
instances can be seen in the figure below. Make sure you are familiar with
reading and interpreting contour lines in order to analyse and visualise the way
the area would look in real life.

2.2.1 Cross sections

This is an example of how contour lines are used to draw the cross section of the
landscape. You can see how the contour lines that are closer together indicate a
steep slope and the contour lines that are further apart show a gentle slope.
Interpreting maps and photographs
2.1 What do maps and photos show us?

Maps and photos show both physical or natural features of the landscape as well
as constructed or human-made features. Some maps are designed for a specific
purpose and could leave out certain features, like a physical feature being left out
of a political map. However, photographs are always true representations of
reality. They will include both physical and constructed features.

You have learnt a little bit about using maps and photographs before, as well as
how to read and interpret them. These are skills that are very important in
geography. Reading a map involves looking at and absorbing the information
that the map and photo are presenting to you. Interpreting takes it a step further.
By interpreting maps and photos, you make sense of the information that you
have gained from reading them. The more you practice these skills, the easier it
will become for you as a learner of geography to read and interpret the maps and
photos that you are given.

We can read a lot of information from maps and photographs. We can also use
our map skills that we have learnt to analyse and interpret the less obvious
information on maps and photographs. Although this information may be less
obvious, it does not mean that it is less important.

So, how do geographers use maps and photographs to obtain more than just the
obvious information on them?

We pay attention to the following points:

• physical features like relief (hills, plains, terraces), drainage (rivers, stream
patterns) and also climate and vegetation.
• constructed features like settlements (towns, villages, farms, homesteads)
and communications (roads, railways, pipelines, power lines) as well as land
use (residential, industrial and agricultural).

2.1.1 Interpreting a map

Use the map below, showing an impression of the annual average temperatures
across the world. Use the information you interpret from it to answer the
questions below. These are examples of the types of questions you should be able
to answer when given a map to interpret. The model answers can be seen under
the questions.
Worked Example 1
1. How cold are the coldest areas and what colour are they represented by?

2. How cold are the warmest areas and what colour are they represented by?

3. Explain what the terms 'areas of extreme temperatures' and 'areas of mild
temperatures' means.

4. Use the temperature key shown on the map to explain the types of clothes one
would need to adjust in their wardrobe if they were moving from Madagascar to
Europe.

1. -5 to 4 degrees, represented by the colour dark blue

2. 25 to 28 degrees, represented by the colour red

3. Extreme temperatures are either extremely warm or extremely cold most of

the time, while mild temperatures are neither too hot nor too cold.

4. The weather is cooler in Europe than in Madagascar on average, so more winter

and autumn clothing would be required

2.2 Interpreting a photograph

In addition to using maps to obtain information about the landscape, we can also
turn to photographs and learn how to interpret them so that they can show us
what real landscapes look like.
Geographers use the following sources:

• horizontal landscape photographs

• oblique aerial photographs
• vertical aerial photographs
• orthophoto maps (accurate vertical images with contours and other data
added to them)
You will see more in landscape photographs taken near ground level or at ground
level when you apply your knowledge of geography to them.

Photographs are very important tools for mapping. We mainly use two different
types of photos in geography which are horizontal photos and aerial photos.
You'll remember that a horizontal photo is a photo taken at ground level or a
horizontal angle. An aerial photo is a photo taken from above or from an airplane
flying in a straight path overhead which is looking down at the ground from the
air. Aerial photographs are important tools for mapmaking because they are easy
to read, they provide a lot of detail, they are used for future planning and
development and they enable geographers to analyse and interpret geographical
changes over time when looking at and comparing the same area.

2.2.1 Which natural features are more interesting when tracking changes
over time?
When analysing a specific area in order to identify the changes that have taken
place over time, it is often interesting to note the changes that have taken place
in the natural environment, as these are sometimes less obvious. Read through
the table below that explains the natural features that can change over time, the
branch of geography that they are significant for, as well as what they can help us
with.

Feature Geographical branch How it can help

• forecasting
weather
• flood risks and
Weather (fronts, Climatology (synoptic maps,
predictions
cyclones, etc). remote sensing).
• climate
change
studies
• planning
Landforms (mountains, Geomorphology (creating
construction
hills, valleys, rivers, topographical maps,
and
lakes). orthophoto maps).
developments
 • slope
management
• flood risks and
predictions
• protection of
habitats
Vegetation
Biogeography (the natural • nature
(distribution and
environment). conservation
types).
• plant
inventories
• engineering
and
development
Soil (types and • agriculture
Biogeography.
mapping). and forestry
• studying
erosion
patterns
• forecasting
the weather
• studying
climate
change
Ocean (currents and Oceanography and
• studying
temperatures). climatology.
global
warming
• habitat and
fishery
conservation
• management
of water
resources
• agriculture
• desalination
and salination
Surface and Hydrology and projects
underground water. geomorphology. • water storage
and dams
• potential of
underground
water systems
• aquifers
• agriculture
Investigating satellite images and aerial photographs
2.1 What is a satellite image?

Satellite imagery refers to images of the Earth's surface that are captured by
satellites orbiting the planet. These images can show various aspects of the
Earth's surface, including land use, vegetation cover, bodies of water and human
settlements. They can be used to track changes in the environment over time,
monitor weather patterns and even identify potential natural disasters.

2.2 What is vertical aerial photography?

Vertical aerial photography, on the other hand, refers to images that are captured
from an airplane or helicopter, looking straight down at the Earth's surface. These
images provide high-resolution, detailed views of the landscape, which can be
used to create maps and to identify features that may not be visible from ground
level.

2.3 How are these two concepts related?

Both satellite imagery and vertical aerial photography are essential tools in
geography as they provide valuable information that can be used to analyze and
understand the Earth's surface. They allow geographers to identify patterns,
make predictions and develop strategies for addressing issues related to the
environment, land use and urban planning. As a Grade 12 geography learner,
understanding how these tools work and their applications can help you to better
understand the Earth's surface and the processes that shape it.

For the sake of this lesson, we will be referring to satellite imagery and aerial
photography as interchangeable concepts. This is because all the maps in South
Africa are created using vertical aerial photographs and satellite imagery. Until
the year 2009, these photographs were made on film from large cameras
mounted on airplanes. Since then, new technology has been introduced in which
newer cameras that have digital remote sensors have been used to produce
digital images that help to serve as aerial photographs and satellite images.

Make sure you understand these very important key terms. They will help you in
interpreting different maps and images.
 Key terms
greyscale – a way of printing photographs using only black ink to
show a range of shades of grey between black and white.

derelict – land that was previously used but is now abandoned,

neglected or overgrown.

periodic – occurring from time to time, for example, seasonal

floods or unusually high tides.

2.4 Interpreting these images

To help us to interpret what satellite imagery and aerial photographs are showing
us we need to look for eight clues about the visual elements that they contain.
These are:

1. tone
2. texture
3. shadows
4. shape
5. size
6. colour
7. pattern
8. association.
Let's explore each one of these elements in turn.

2.4.1 Tone
On grayscale as well as on colour photographs, tone can give us clues about the
surface material that we are looking at.

• Light areas suggest and crops or grass in a dry season as well as a surface
being concrete. Many big buildings have roofs that have been painted
white, which is also something to consider.
• On grayscale photographs, dark tones suggest forests, parks and
woodlands. They can also suggest dense bush or freshly plowed farmland.
• Reflections of sunlight can help us to identify water surfaces of varying
tones. The surfaces of dams can appear light or dark and we use the
surrounding area to help us decipher what we are looking at.
• Tracks, footpaths and dirt roads are usually lighter than their surrounding
vegetation and this makes them easier to identify.
.4.2 Texture
The smoothness or coarseness of an area on a photograph is key to how the land
is being used.

• Roofs of buildings have a smooth texture and this, along with their shape,
makes them easier to identify.
• Grass will look smoother than a forest or a field of crops. A sports field will
appear smoother than natural vegetation. Plowed farmland will appear
coarser than a fairway of a golf course.
• Mixed savanna vegetation will appear coarser than plowed cropland which
has a smoother texture.
• An older pine plantation will appear smoother than a newly planted one.
• Mixed tones and textures help us to identify natural vegetation. They are
also a clue to marshland, periodic swamps or land that has been deserted
and left to go derelict.
2.4.3 Shadows
Sometimes when looking at an aerial or satellite photograph, shadows can give
us clues about the heights of buildings or trees. This only matters when a photo
has been taken at anytime other than 12:00 because at midday, shadows will
appear much shorter. Shadows can also give clues as to the time of day the
photograph was taken as well as the season in which the photograph was taken.

• A long shadow next to a building will indicate that it has a tall section like a
mast, a tower or a chimney.
• A long/wide shadow of a building compared to other buildings shows that
they are taller than the surrounding area.
• Oftentimes churches that have towers or spires will be longer in shadow
than the surrounding buildings.
• Shadows on the surface of the roofs can also tell us what kind of building it
is. A school building can sometimes have a darker tone which shows that it
has a pitched roof whereas a wider shadow on a building shows that it
might have a flatter roof.
• Shadows can also show the time of day at which the photograph was
taken. If you can identify the direction in which the shadow in the
photograph is pointing it can also help us to figure out the orientation of
the photograph along with the angle of the shadow and we can use this to
figure out the time of day as well as the season that the photo was taken
in.

2.4.4 Shape
Many features on satellite photographs can be easily recognised by their shapes.

• Most rectangular shapes that you can identify are some kind of building.
 • Roads will be longer and narrower features with regular shapes that are
straight or curved.
• Footpaths will appear narrower and more irregular.
• Sports fields will be easy to identify because they have a regular shape and
pattern of lines. In cricket and athletics, as well as in tennis, you can identify
the regular pattern that the pitch or court will contain.

2.4.5 Size
Comparing the sizes of different features will give us more clues. Bigger
rectangles can be shops, malls or warehouses and will often be found on the
main roads of the CBD. Small rectangles are usually homes and buildings in
residential areas.

• Wider roads can be considered to be highways or main roads while

narrower roads indicate smaller, less-populated areas.
• Small buildings can indicate lower-income areas while bigger houses can
indicate bigger properties and may indicate a wealthy area.
In the aerial photograph below, the wider roads are clearly distinguishable from
the narrower roads, indicating main roads and roads in the suburban areas

2.4.6 Colour
When you are provided with a colour aerial photograph or satellite image, the
colour will be a very good guide to help you to find out what vegetation you are
looking at.

• Dry grass and ripe crops will be lighter brown rather than lighter green.
• Woodlands, forest areas and trees will appear darker green and have a
rough a texture.
• Water will appear in a range of different colours from whites to darker
blues and greens depending on the light that reflects from their surface
2.4.7 Pattern
Being able to identify patterns in maps, aerial photographs and satellite images
can also provide you with really good information. Planted forests and orchards
will have a regular spatial arrangement of trees and will be unlike a natural
wooded area.

• Croplands often show a pattern of plowed furrows and ridges.

• The curved lines of contour plowing can help us to identify the gradient of
the area we are looking at as well as the soil quality in this part of the land
and give us a clue as to the scale of the agriculture and types of crops
taking place.
 • Several playing fields together will help us to understand there might be a
recreation club, a school or some other type of recreational area present. A
soccer club's fields can be seen in the image below:

2.4.8 Association
By looking at land areas, you can see how buildings or features on them are
associated with each other. Similar or related land-use areas will often be found
together.

• Tennis courts will often be found next to a playing field at sports clubs and
next to schools.
• Sports stadiums and shopping malls often have large car parks.
• Places of worship, shops and parks will often be found near residential
areas.
• Factories and warehouses can often be found near railway lines or main
roads, suggesting that these services are used to transport goods

Mapwork Practise

2.1 Why do we practise map work?

Map work practice is crucial for you as a Grade 12 geography learner because it
will help you to develop the critical thinking and analytical skills necessary to
understand complex geographical concepts.

Maps are visual representations of spatial information that allow you to visualize
and interpret various data sets. Through map work, you can identify patterns and
relationships between different geographical features, which helps you to
understand the interactions between physical and human environments.
Additionally, map work practice helps you to develop your spatial reasoning and
navigation skills, which are essential for future careers in geography, urban
planning and environmental management. Overall, map work practice is an
essential tool that enables you to explore and understand the world around you.

In the past few lessons, we have explored some map work skills that you
encountered earlier on in the year. These include:

• Working with scale.

• Contours and cross-sections.
• Map and photo interpretation.
• Investigating the information in satellite images and aerial photographs.
In this lesson, you will have the opportunity to put these skills into practise by
completing a number of worked examples adapted from previous exams and
test papers. As you work through each example, try to imagine how you would
answer this in an assessment. Try your best and then use the model answers to
mark your work.

Be honest with yourself about how much revision you will need to complete
before your upcoming exams