CBSE (CLASS X) The Rise of Nationalism in Europe

NEW WORDS

Absolutist Literally, a government or system of rule that has no restraints on the

power exercised.
Utopian A vision of a society that is so ideal that it is unlikely to actually exist
Plebiscite A direct vote by which all the people of a region are asked to accept
or reject a proposal.
Suffrage The right to vote.
Conservatism A political philosophy that stressed the importance of tradition,
established institutions and customs, and preferred gradual
development to quick change.
Feminist Awareness of women’s rights and interests based on the belief of the
social, economic and political equality of the genders.
Ideology System of ideas reflecting a particular social and political vision.
Ethnic Relates to a common racial, tribal, or cultural origin or background
that a community identifies with or claims.
Allegory When an abstract idea (for instance, greed, envy, freedom, liberty) is
expressed through a person or a thing. An allegorical story has two
meanings, one literal and one symbolic.

QUESTIONS-ANSWERS

I. INTRODUCTION

1. Explain the theme of Frederic Sorrieu’s Painting?

Ans. → In 1848, FrédéricSorrieu, a French artist, prepared a series of four prints
visualising his dream of a world made up of ‘democratic and social Republics’, as
he called them.
→ The first print shows the peoples of Europe and America – men and women of all
ages and social classes – marching in a long train, and offering homage to the
statue of Liberty as they pass by it. On the earth in the foreground of the image lie
the shattered remains of the symbols of absolutist institutions.
→ In Sorrieu’s utopian vision, the peoples of the world are grouped as distinct
nations, identified through their flags and national costume.
→ Leading the procession, way past the statue of Liberty, are the United States and
Switzerland, which by this time were already nation-states. France, identifiable by
the revolutionary tricolour, has just reached the statue.
→ She is followed by the peoples of Germany, bearing the black, red and gold flag.
Interestingly, at the time when Sorrieu created this image, the German peoples did
not yet exist as a united nation – the flag they carry is an expression of liberal

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hopes in 1848 to unify the numerous German-speaking principalities into a nation-

state under a democratic constitution.
→ Following the German peoples are the peoples of Austria, the Kingdom of the
Two Sicilies, Lombardy, Poland, England, Ireland, Hungary and Russia. From the
heavens above, Christ, saints and angels gaze upon the scene.

2. What is Nation- state?

Ans. → During the 19th century, nationalism emerged as a force which brought about
sweeping changes in the political and moral world of Europe.
→ It resulted into 'Nation-States' in place of the multinational dynastic empires of
Europe.
→ It was a concept of modern states having centralized powers exercising sovereign
control over their own territory.
→ In a nation state, people living in it develop a sense of common identity and shared
history.
→ This commonness was developed through struggles, actions of leaders and the
struggles of the common people.
→ This has given every nation state a single or a common language, common culture
or tradition and an identity with that particular territory and do and die feeling.

3. What steps did the French revolutionaries take to create a sense of collective
identity among the French people?
Ans. → From the very beginning, the French revolutionaries introduced various measures
and practices that could create a sense of collective identity amongst the French
people.
→ The ideas of la patrie (the fatherland) and le citoyen (the citizen) emphasized the
notion of a united community enjoying equal rights under a constitution.
→ A new French flag, the tricolour, was chosen to replace the former royal standard.
→ The Estates General was elected by the body of active citizens and renamed the
National Assembly.
→ New hymns were composed, oaths taken and martyrs commemorated, all in the
name of the nation.
→ A centralised administrative system was put in place and it formulated uniform
laws for all citizens within its territory.
→ Internal customs duties and dues were abolished and a uniform system of weights
and measures was adopted.
→ Regional dialects were discouraged and French, as it was spoken and written in
Paris, became the common language of the nation.

4. Explain the Napoleon code of 1804.

Ans. Napoleon incorporated revolutionary principles in the administrative field to make the
whole system more rational and effective. His civil code of 1804 was known as
Napoleonic Code.

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→ First, he did away with all the privileges based on birth. Everyone became equal
before the law. He abolished the feudal system and freed peasants from serfdom
and manorial duties.
→ He secured the right to property.
→ Peasants, artisans, workers and new businessmen found a new-found freedom as
guild restrictions were removed in towns also.
→ Uniform laws, standardised weights and measures, a common national currency
facilitated the movement and exchange of goods and capital from one region to
another.

5. How did the local people in the areas conquered by Napoleon react to French
rule? Explain.
Ans. A mixed reaction was observed in the areas conquered by Napoleon.

→ Initially, in places like Holland and Switzerland and certain cities like Brussels,
Mainz, Milan, and Warsaw, the French armies were welcomed as the messengers
of the idea of liberty and freedom.
→ However, the initial warmth soon turned into hatred as people realized that the
new administrative arrangements did not protect their political liberties and
freedom.
→ The policies introduced by the government including increased taxation,
censorship, and forced conscription outweighed the advantages of administrative
changes.

II. THE MAKING OF NATIONALISM IN EUROPE

6. What were the major political features during mid-eighteenth century in

Europe?
Ans. → In the mid-eighteenth-century Europe there were no ‘nation-states’ as we know
them today.
→ The countries such as Germany, Italy and Switzerland, which we know today were
divided into kingdoms, duchies and cantons whose rulers had their autonomous
territories.
→ Eastern and Central Europe were under autocratic monarchies within the territories
of which lived diverse peoples. They did not see themselves as sharing a collective
identity or a common culture. Often, they even spoke different languages and
belonged to different ethnic groups.
→ The Habsburg Empire that ruled over Austria-Hungary, for example, was a
patchwork of many different regions and peoples. It included the Alpine regions –
the Tyrol, Austria and the Sudetenland – as well as Bohemia, where the
aristocracy was predominantly German-speaking. It also included the Italian-
speaking provinces of Lombardy and Venetia.
→ In Hungary, half of the population spoke Magyar while the other half spoke a

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variety of dialects. In Galicia, the aristocracy spoke Polish.

→ Besides these three dominant groups, there also lived within the boundaries of the
empire, a mass of subject peasant peoples Bohemians and Slovaks to the north,
Slovenes in Carniola, Croats to the south, and Roumans to the east in
Transylvania.
→ Such differences did not easily promote a sense of political unity. The only tie
binding these diverse groups together was a common allegiance to the emperor.

7. What were the social composition of mid- eighteenth century of Europe?

Ans. → Socially and politically, a landed aristocracy was the dominant class on the
continent.
→ The members of this class were united by a common way of life that cut across
regional divisions. They owned estates in the countryside and also town-houses.
→ They spoke French for purposes of diplomacy and in high society. Their families
were often connected by ties of marriage.
→ This powerful aristocracy was, however, numerically a small group. The majority
of the population was made up of the peasantry.
→ To the west, the bulk of the land was farmed by tenants and small owners, while in
Eastern and Central Europe the pattern of landholding was characterized by vast
estates which were cultivated by serfs.
→ In Western and parts of Central Europe the growth of industrial production and
trade meant the growth of towns and the emergence of commercial classes whose
existence was based on production for the market.

8. What did Liberal Nationalism Stand for?

Ans. → Ideas of national unity in early-nineteenth-century Europe were closely allied to
the ideology of liberalism.
→ The term ‘liberalism’ derives from the Latin root liber, meaning free. For the new
middle classes liberalism stood for freedom for the individual and equality of all
before the law.
→ Politically, it emphasised the concept of government by consent. Since the French
Revolution, liberalism had stood for the end of autocracy and clerical privileges, a
constitution and representative government through parliament.
→ Nineteenth-century liberals also stressed the inviolability of private property. Yet,
equality before the law did not necessarily stand for universal suffrage.
→ Men without property and all women were excluded from political rights. Only for
a brief period under the Jacobins did all adult males enjoy suffrage.
→ However, the Napoleonic Code went back to limited suffrage and reduced women
to the status of a minor, subject to the authority of fathers and husbands.
→ Throughout the nineteenth and early twentieth century’s women and non-
propertied men organized opposition movements demanding equal political rights.

9. Why was Zollverein formed?

Ans. → In 1834, the customs union of Zollverein was formed at the initiative of Prussia

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and was joined by most of the German states.

→ The union abolished tariff barriers and reduced the number of currencies from
over thirty to two.
→ The creation of a network of railways further stimulated mobility, harnessing
economic interests to national unification.
→ A wave of economic nationalism strengthened the wider nationalist sentiments
growing at the time.
→ Varied currencies and weights and measures were obstacles to economic growth,
so the creation of a unified economic territory allowing the unhindered movement
of goods, people and capital was needed. So, Zollverein was formed.

10. Write a note on conservatism?

Ans. → Conservatism is a political philosophy that stressed the importance of tradition,
established institutions and customs and preferred gradual development to quick
change.
→ European Conservatism After the defeat of Napoleon in 1815 European
Governments were driven by Conservatism. Conservatives were people who
believed that established, traditional institutions of state and society like the
monarchy church, social hierarchies, property and the family should be preserved.
→ Change in Ideas of Conservatism:
→ But after the rule of Napolean the basic ideas of conservatism were changed. Most
conservatives did not want to return to the society of pre-revolutionary days.
→ They realised the changes initiated by Napoleon - strengthened the traditional
institutions like the monarchy in reality.
→ They understood that a modern army, an efficient bureaucracy, a dynamic
economy, the abolition of feudalism and serfdom could strengthen the autocratic
monarchies in Europe. Thus, the conservatives of that time accepted the changes
which were in favour of their interests.

11. Describe the Congress of Vienna.

Ans. → In 1815, the European powers met at Vienna and tried to transform all the changes
that came about in Europe during Napoleon’s era.
→ The four major proposals/features of the Vienna Congress were :
1) The Bourbon dynasty, which had been deposed during the French Revolution, was
restored to power and France lost the territories it had annexed.
2) A series of states were set up on the boundaries of France to prevent the French
expansion in future. Thus, the kingdom of the Netherlands, which included
Belgium, was set up in the North and Genoa was added to Piedmont in the South.
3) Prussia was given important new territories on its. Western frontiers, while Austria
was given control of Northern Italy.
4) The German confederation of 39 states that had been set up by Napoleon was left
untouched.
12. Who headed The Congress of Vienna of 1815?
Ans. → Austrian chancellor Duke Metternich

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13. Why secret societies did sprang of in Europe after Congress of Vienna?
Ans. → During the years following 1815, the fear of repression drove many liberal
nationalists underground.
→ Secret societies sprang up in many European states to train revolutionaries and
spread their ideas.
→ To be revolutionary at this time meant a commitment to oppose monarchical forms
that had been established after the Vienna Congress, and to fight for liberty and
freedom.
→ Most of these revolutionaries also saw the creation of nation-states as a necessary
part of this struggle for freedom.

14. Write a short note on Giuseppe Mazzini.

Ans. → Giuseppe Mazzini was an Italian revolutionary, born in Geneva on June 22, 1807
in a middle class family.
→ He was a patriot, political activist, writer, founder of young Italy and played very
important role in liberal nationalism who strived to found a unified democratic
republic of Italy.
→ He was one of the three revolutionaries who made a significant contribution in
Italian unification. His efforts led to the unification of Italy. He believed in single
unified republic instead of being a patchwork of small state kingdoms.
→ So in 1830, he joined the revolutionary Carbonari (a Young Italy), whose basic
principle was the union of the several states and kingdoms into one republic.
→ In 1831, at the age of 24 he was sent into exile for attempting a revolution in
Liguria. He founded underground societies like Young Italy in Marseilles, and
Young Europe in Berne.
→ To evoke people's reaction Mazzini wrote several essays that voiced the injustice
to the working class such as the peasants, professionals, artist, and intellectuals.
→ He was elected as a member of Constituent Assembly and acquired the
responsibilities of framing a constitution for the roman public.

III. THE AGE OF REVOLUTIONS: 1830-1848

15. Write a short note on July revolution in France of 1830.

Ans. → The first upheaval took place in France in July 1830.
→ The Bourbon kings who had been restored to power during the conservative
reaction after 1815, were now overthrown by liberal revolutionaries, who installed
a constitutional monarchy with Louis Philippe at its head.
→ Metternich once remarked, “When France sneezes, the rest of Europe catches
cold”.
→ The July Revolution sparked an uprising in Brussels which led to Belgium
breaking away from the United Kingdoms of the Netherlands.

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16. Write a note on the Greek war of independence.

Ans. The Greek War of independence:
→ It's an event that mobilized nationalist feelings among the educated elite across
Europe. Greece had been part of the Ottoman Empire since the fifteenth century.
→ This was a successful war of independence waged by Greek revolutionaries
between 1821 and 1829 against the Ottoman Empire.
→ The growth of revolutionary nationalism in Europe sparked off a struggle for
independence amongst the Greeks.
→ Nationalists in Greece got support from other Greeks living in exile and also from
many West Europeans who had sympathies for ancient Greek culture.
→ Poets and artists lauded Greece as the cradle of European civilization and
mobilized public opinion to support its struggle against a Muslim empire.
→ The English poet Lord Byron organized funds and later went to fight in the war,
where he died of fever in 1824.
→ Finally, the Treaty of Constantinople of 1832 recognized Greece as an
independent nation.

17. What was Romanticism? How did romanticism seek to develop a particular form
of Nationalist movement?
Ans. → Romanticism refers to a cultural movement which developed a particular form of
nationalist movement.
→ Romantic artists and poets criticized the glorification of reason and science and it
focused on emotions, intuitions, feelings etc.
→ Its main aim was to create collective and rich heritage as the basis of forming
nation.
→ It was through folk songs, poetry, dances that the true spirit of nation was
popularized.
→ The recovery of folk lore was considered as a part of rekindling national spirit and
feelings among people.
→ This message through folk lore collection gathered large audiences mainly poor
and illiterate.

18. How did nationalism develop through culture in Europe? Explain

Ans. → The development of nationalism in Europe was not only the result of war and
territorial expansion.
→ Culture played an important role in creating the idea of the nation in Europe. The
following examples state the fact
1. Art, poetry, stories and music helped express and shape nationalist feelings in-
Europe.
2. Romanticism, a cultural movement in Europe developed a particular form of
nationalist sentiment. Romantic artists and poets criticised the glorification of
science and reason. They tried to create a sense of a shared collective heritage as
the basis of a nation. They gave importance on emotions, intuitions and mystical

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feelings.
3. German philosopher Johann Gottfried Herder claimed that true German culture
was to be discovered among the common people (das volk) in their folk song, folk
poetry and folk dances.
4. Vernacular languages and folklores strengthen the national spirit.
5. In Poland Karol Kurpinski cekbrated the national struggle through opera and
music.
6. Allegory of Germania and Marianne developed national feelings among citizens.

19. Explain the role of languages developing Nationalist sentiment in Europe?

Ans. Role of Language in Europe:
→ Language was a great unifying factor. The French revolutionaries discouraged
regional dialects and encouraged the use of French language as the common
language of the nation.
→ The use of English language contributed to the creation of United Kingdom.
→ In Poland, the use of vernacular language helped in dissemination of nationalist
messages to people.
→ Use of Polish language by clerics in church and religious gatherings came to be
seen as a symbol of struggle against the Russian domination.
→ The Grimm brothers of Germany published a dictionary of German language to
oppose French domination and to create a German identity.

20. Describe the revolt led by Silesian weavers against contractors in 1845.
Ans. → The cause of the ‘Silesian Weavers’ uprising was due to the cheating of the
weavers by the contractors. In 1845, the weavers raised a revolt against the
contractors as the contractors drastically reduced their payments.
→ The viewpoint of the journalist Wilhelm Wolff for this uprising was - a large
crowd of weavers reached the house of the contractor and demanded higher
wages. They were not treated well, so a group of the crowd entered the
contractor’s house forcibly and destroyed the furniture, windowpanes and
plundered it. The contractor fled with his family to a neighbouring village but did
not get shelter.
→ After 24 hours, he returned back with army and eleven weavers were shot dead.
This shows that the viewpoint of the journalist was based against the weavers and
in favour of the contractor. He did not understand the misery of the weavers
properly.

21. Explain the 1848 revolution of the liberals in Europe. What were the political,
social and economic ideas supported by the liberals?
Ans. → The 1848 revolution of the liberals refers to the various national movements
pioneered by educated middle classes alongside the revolts of the poor,
unemployed and starving peasants and workers in Europe. While in countries like
France, food shortages and widespread unemployment during 1848 led to popular

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uprisings, in other parts of Europe (such as Germany, Italy, Poland and the Austro-
Hungarian Empire), men and women of the liberal middle classes came together to
voice their demands for the creation of nation-states based on parliamentary
principles. The political, social and economic ideas supported by the liberals were:
→ Politically, they demanded constitutionalism with national unification, nation-state
with written constitution and parliamentary administration.
→ Socially, they wanted to rid society of its class-based partialities and birth rights.
Serfdom and bonded labour had to be abolished.
→ Economically they demanded freedom of markets and right to property. Abolition
of state imposed restrictions on the movements of goods and capital.

22. Write a note on Frankfurt parliament.

Ans. Frankfurt Parliament:
→ The German middle class decided to vote for an all - German National Assembly
in 1848, and hence came to Frankfurt.
→ Around 1831 persons were elected. They comprised the National Assembly.
→ The assembly decided to organize Frankfurt Parliament in the church of St. Paul.
Thus, on 18th May, 1848 the famous Frankfurt Parliament was convened.
→ The assembly decided that the German nation would be a monarchy controlled by
Parliament, and offered this term to the Prussian King. But he rejected it and
joined other monarchs to oppose the elected assembly.
→ The parliament faced strong opposition from aristocracy and military. The
Parliament was dominated by the middle class who resisted the demands of
workers and artisans. As a result of this the middle class lost their mass support.
→ Ultimately, the monarchy and military combined together with aristocracy, won
over the liberal nationalist middle class and the assembly was forced to disband.
→ Therefore, the Frankfurt Parliament is famous in history as a failure of liberalism
and victory of monarchy.

IV. THE MAKING OF GERMANY AND ITALY

23. Who was Otto Von Bismarck? Explain his role in unification of Germany.
Ans. Otto von Bismarck, was the architect of the process of unification who carried out the
process with the help of the Prussian army and bureaucracy.
→ Bismarck helped in instilling a sense of nationalism among the masses.
→ Prussia, under his leadership entered into three wars for over seven years for
national unification, which resulted in Prussian victory.
→ Bismarck helped in proclaiming the new German empire headed by William I of
Prussia.
24. Briefly trace the process of German unification.
Ans. → German Unification was a long and complicated process. In the beginning of the
19th century Germany was not a unified country but a collection of 39 autocratic
states.

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→ The Frankfurt Parliament was the 1st major step towards the unification of
Germany.
→ Otto von Bismark, the chief minister of Prussia was the chief architect of German
Nation. This process was carried out with the help of the Prussian Army and
Bureaucracy.
The other stages are :-
I. The liberal initiatives of nation were repressed by the monarchy and large land
lords (Junkers) of Prussia. From then on Prussia took the leadership to unify
Germany.
II. Bismark was convinced that the unification of Germany could only be
achieved by the princes not by the common people.
III. He wanted to achieve his aim by merging Prussia into Germany. In 1867,
Bismark became the chancellor of North Confederation.
IV. Bismark's main objective was to unify Germany and was accomplished by
three (3) wars with ''Austria, Denmark, and France,'' which were fought in a
brief of 7 years.
V. These wars ended with the victory of Prussia which helped in completing the
German unification.
On 18th January 1871, in the royal palace of Versailles the King of Prussia, ''Kaiser
William I'' was crowned as the German Emperor.

25. Briefly trace the process of unification of Italy.

Ans. The process of unification of Italy:
1) In the mid-nineteenth century, Italy comprised of 7 states out of which only
Sardinia-Piedmont was a princely state. There wasn't even a common form of the
Italian language.
2) In 1830, Giuseppe Mazzini established a secret society called Young Italy and
bring about a revolutionary uprising but failed.
3) Chief Minister Cavour diplomatically joined SardiniaPiedmont, in an alliance with
France. It defeated the Austrian forces.
4) Armed volunteers led by Giuseppe Garibaldi also supported the troops and they
marched into South Italy and the Kingdom of Two Sicilies. They got the support
of the peasants there.
5) In 1861, Victor Emmanuel ll was declared the king of unified Italy. However,
most of the Italians were unaware of the idea of liberal-nationalist ideology.

26. Write a note on Count Camillo Cavour.

Ans. → Giuseppe Mazzini was an Italian revolutionary.
→ He was born in 1807. He became a member of the secret society of the Carbonari.
→ When he was 24 years old, he was sent into exile in 1831 for attempting a
revolution in Liguria.
→ After that, he founded two more underground societies; first Young Italy in
Marseilles and then Young Europe in Berne.
→ Mazzini believed that God had intended nations to be the natural units of mankind.
So Italy had to be forged into a single unified republic instead of being a

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patchwork of small state kingdoms.

→ Following in the footsteps of Mazzini, many secret societies were set up Germany,
France, Switzerland and Poland. The Conservatives feared Mazzini and described
him as ‘the most dangerous enemy of our social order’.

27. What was the impact of the Act of union on Scotland?

Ans. → The Act of Union of 1707 had a major impact on the Scottish people.
→ The Catholic clans that inhabited Scotland faced terrible repression when they
tried to assert their freedom.
→ The Scottish highlanders were were forbidden to speak their Gaelic language.
→ They were not allowed to wear their national dresses.
→ A large number of people were driven out of their homeland.

28. Describe in brief the process by which the British Nation came into existence?
Ans. → In Britain the formation of the nation-state was not the result of a sudden upheaval
or revolution. It was the result of a long-drawn-out process. There was no British
nation prior to the eighteenth century.
→ The primary identities of the people who inhabited the British Isles were ethnic
ones – such as English, Welsh, Scot or Irish.
→ All of these ethnic groups had their own cultural and political traditions. But as the
English nation steadily grew in wealth, importance and power, it was able to
extend its influence over the other nations of the islands.
→ The English parliament, which had seized power from the monarchy in 1688 at the
end of a protracted conflict, was the instrument through which a nation-state, with
England at its centre, came to be forged.
→ The Act of Union (1707) between England and Scotland that resulted in the
formation of the ‘United Kingdom of Great Britain’ meant, in effect, that England
was able to impose its influence on Scotland. The British parliament was
henceforth dominated by its English members.
→ The growth of a British identity meant that Scotland’s distinctive culture and
political institutions were systematically suppressed.
→ The Catholic clans that inhabited the Scottish Highlands suffered terrible
repression whenever they attempted to assert their independence.
→ The Scottish Highlanders were forbidden to speak their Gaelic language or wear
their national dress, and large numbers were forcibly driven out of their homeland.

29. Who were Marianne and Germania? What was the importance of the way in
which they were portrayed?
Ans. → Marianne was the name given to the French nation; which was projected as the
female figure.
→ Similarly, Germania was the name given to the German motherland.
→ Marianne is a popular Christian name for a woman. Her characteristics were
drawn from those of Liberty and Republic; the red cap, the tricolour, the cockade.
→ Her statues were erected in public squares and her images were marked on coins

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and stamps; to persuade the people to identify with it.

→ Germania wears a crown of oak leaves. The German oak stands for heroism.

30. Why did Nationalist tensions emerge in Balkans?

Ans. The nationalist tensions emerge in the Balkans because of these reasons:
→ Geographically and ethnically diverse region: The Balkans consisted of regions of
modern day Romania, Bulgaria, Albania , Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia-
Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia and Montenegro and their inhabitants were broadly
known as Slaves was geographically and ethnically diverse region compare to
modern day.
→ When the Ottoman Empire collapsed, it initiated nationalism in the Balkans states.
Soon the feeling of nationalism spread and the situation became very unstable.
The Ottoman Empire tried to control the situation by strengthening itself through
modernization and internal reforms but fails to do it.
→ Gradually, its European nations got separated and fought for independence and
political rights.
→ In the race to expand their territories and to impose their supremacy on each other,
Slavic nationalities quickly got into severe clashes. As a result, the Balkan area
became an area of intense conflict.
→ During this period there was intense rivalry among the European powers over
trade and colonies as well as naval and military might.
→ These rivalries were very evident in the way the Balkan problem unfolded. Each
power-Russia, Germany, England, Austria, Hungary was keen on countering the
hold of other powers over the Balkans, and extending its own control over the
area. This led to continued series of wars in the region and finally, the First World
War broke out in 1914.

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