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BUDDHISM

A. Historical Background
1 Evolution of Buddhism: Buddhism has existed for over
2,500 years without experiencing drastic schisms. Different
branches adapted to local cultures but maintain generally
good relations.

2. Life of Siddhartha Gautama: Born in Lumbini, Nepal,

Siddhartha was raised in luxury but left his princely life in
search of truth and liberation. He renounced his family,
practiced asceticism, and ultimately attained enlightenment
under the Bodhi tree.

3. The Middle Path: Siddhartha advocated for a balanced

approach, avoiding extremes of self-indulgence and
self-denial, leading to the concept of the Middle Path.

4. Enlightenment: Siddhartha achieved enlightenment by

overcoming temptations and distractions, symbolized by his
victory over Mara, the embodiment of evil forces.

5, Teachings and Death: Siddhartha preached his

teachings during the reign of King Bimbisara and died in
Kushinagar. His final words emphasized the impermanence
of life and the importance of individual effort for salvation.

6. Legacy and Councils: After Siddhartha's death, his

teachings were compiled during the First Buddhist Council.
His remains were divided among his disciples, and stupas
were built to honor him, becoming objects of devotion for
Buddhists.
 B. Sacred Scriptures
1. Sacred Scriptures: The Pali Canon, also known as the
Tipitaka or Tripitaka, is the primary scripture of Theravada
Buddhism. It is the earliest and most complete collection of
Buddhist writings.

2. Origin: After Siddhartha's death, the First Buddhist

Council was convened to orally recite his teachings. The Pali
Canon was later written down during the Fourth Buddhist
Council in 29 B.C.E. in Sri Lanka.

3. Content: The Pali Canon is divided into three "baskets"

(pitakas) containing teachings on discipline (vinaya),
discourses (sutta), and doctrine (abhidhamma).

C. Beliefs and Doctrines

1. Salvation: Buddhism focuses on ethics and
self-understanding for salvation, without the need for a
supreme being's assistance.

2. Absence of God or Savior: Buddhism differs from other

religions by lacking a belief in God or a savior figure.

3. Anatman (No-Soul): Buddhism rejects the concept of an

eternal, indestructible soul (atman) and teaches that there is
no permanent essence or self (anatman).

4. Impermanence: The belief in anitya/anicca asserts that

all conditioned things are impermanent and subject to
change.

5. Five Aggregates: Human existence is composed of five

aggregates (khandas) – physical form, feelings, perception,
mental formations, and consciousness – without a
permanent soul.

D. Worship and Observances

1. Four Noble Truths: Central teachings include recognizing
suffering, its cause in desire, cessation of suffering, and the
path to its cessation, known as the Noble Eightfold Path.

2. First Noble Truth: Identifies suffering (dukkha) as a

fundamental aspect of existence, encompassing birth,
sickness, old age, and death.

3. Second Noble Truth: States that craving or desire

(tanha) is the cause of suffering.

4. Third Noble Truth: Asserts that the cessation of craving

leads to the cessation of suffering.

5. Fourth Noble Truth: Prescribes the Noble Eightfold Path

as the way to end suffering, emphasizing moderation and
avoiding extremes.

6. Law of Dependent Origination: Teaches

interconnectivity of all things and the cycle of cause and
effect.

7. Impermanence: Buddhism asserts the impermanence of

all phenomena and the possibility of attaining nirvana, a
state of liberation.

8. The Sangha: Refers to the monastic community

established by Siddhartha, with ordained monks and nuns
following strict codes of conduct and laypeople supporting
them.
 E. Subdivisions
1. Salvation in Buddhism: Attainment of salvation relies on
individual actions without assistance from supreme beings.

2. Worship and Offerings: Lay Buddhists offer gifts to

Siddhartha and the sangha during worship days, guided by
Siddhartha's teachings.

3. Stupas: Commemorative monuments housing sacred

relics associated with Siddhartha and revered monks and
nuns.

4. Significance of Stupas: Stupas symbolize Siddhartha's

body, speech, and mind, depicting the path to enlightenment.

5, Pilgrimage: Buddhists aspire to visit holy shrines,

including Siddhartha's birthplace, enlightenment site, first
sermon site, and place of parinirvana, believing it may lead
to rebirth in a blissful world if they die during the pilgrimage.

F. Selected Issues
1. War is considered evil in Buddhism, but historical
instances of monks engaging in conflict exist. Some monks
advocate non-violence, while others support military
solutions in civil conflicts. Buddhists may defend their
nations but are encouraged to seek peaceful resolutions.

2. Women in Buddhism: Siddhartha allowed women to

participate in the sangha. In Buddhism, both sexes are seen
as equally relevant in society, sharing equal responsibilities.
Women in the sangha were recognized for their potential and
value as teachers of the dharma.
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MAHAYANA BUDDHISM

A. Historical Background
1. Mahayana Buddhism: A variation of Buddhism claiming
to be truer to Buddha's teachings, with different schools and
customs.

2. Origins: Emerged around the third century B.C.E.,

influenced by the Mahasamghika school and the Second
Buddhist Council.

3. New Beliefs: Mahayana Buddhists believed Buddha

taught secret principles, was a celestial being, and wasn't
the only Buddha.

B. Sacred Scriptures
1. Sacred Texts in Mahayana Buddhism: Mahayana
Buddhism recognizes the Tripitaka, consisting of the Sutra
Pitaka (Discourse), Vinaya Pitaka (Discipline), and
Abhidharma Pitaka (Ultimate).

2. Lotus Sutra: Considered a key Mahayana text, it

emphasizes the idea that everyone has the potential for
enlightenment, regardless of their background or status.

C. Beliefs and Doctrines

1. Buddha in Mahayana Buddhism: Mahayana Buddhism
recognizes Siddhartha Gautama, born in present-day Nepal,
as the historical Buddha. He attained enlightenment at 35
and preached until his death at 80. Mahayana also
acknowledges other contemporary Buddhas.
2. Concept of Trikaya: Mahayana teaches the concept of
trikaya, which refers to the three bodies of the Buddha:
dharmakaya, sambhogakaya, and nirmanakaya. This
doctrine is central in Mahayana but has limited emphasis in
Theravada Buddhism.

3. Bodhisattvas: Mahayana emphasizes the role of

bodhisattvas, enlightened beings who delay entering nirvana
to assist others in their quest for enlightenment. Unlike
Theravada, Mahayana teaches that attaining nirvana should
be shared with all beings.

4. Bhumis and Paramitas: Bodhisattvas must pass through

ten bhumis or "grounds" to achieve Buddhahood. These
bhumis are associated with paramitas or "perfections," which
include accumulating merits and attaining wisdom. The goal
is liberation from the cycle of rebirth.

D. Worship and Observances

1. Worship of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas: In Buddhist
temples, worshippers pay respect to Buddhas and
bodhisattvas like Avalokiteshvara, Manjushri, and Amitabha
through prayers, chants, offering vegetarian food, and
lighting incense. Mahayana temples feature a more
elaborate layout with additional figures of disciples and
bodhisattvas.

2. Rituals and Offerings: Devotional rituals in Mahayana

Buddhism can be elaborate, involving offerings and homage
to divine beings. Worshippers recite chants and undertake
pilgrimages to sacred sites. Offerings of food and incense
are common practices.
3. Meditation: Meditation is fundamental in Buddhism, with
Theravada and Zen Buddhism emphasizing it as the primary
means to attain liberation. Mahayana Buddhism also
incorporates meditation but allows for more diverse practices
influenced by local culture.

4. Symbolism: Important symbols in Mahayana Buddhism

include the lotus symbolizing purity, the eight-spoke wheel
representing the dharma, and various hand gestures known
as mudras. These symbols play significant roles in rituals
and meditative practices.

E. Subdivisions
1. Pure Land Sect: This sect focuses on rebirth in a
heavenly realm called the "Pure Land" by reciting the name
of Amitabha Buddha. It emphasizes chanting and recitations.

2. Intuitive Sects (Ch'an/Zen): This sect, known as Zen in

Japan, emphasizes meditation for spiritual awakening. It
values direct experience over studying scriptures.

3. Rationalist Sect (T'ien-t'ai): This sect emphasizes

reason, scripture study, and meditation for enlightenment. It
was founded in China in the 6th century.

4. Socio-political Sect (Nichiren Buddhism): Founded in

Japan, this sect focuses on devotion to the Lotus Sutra for
enlightenment and advocates individual responsibility for
societal improvement.

5. Tibetan Buddhism: This branch of Buddhism, found

mainly in Tibet, incorporates local beliefs and rituals. It
emphasizes magic, rituals, and meditation, and includes four
major schools: Nyingma, Kagyu, Sakya, and Gelug. The
Dalai Lama, a prominent figure, leads the Gelug school.

F. Selected Issues
1. Tibet Invasion: China annexed Tibet in 1950, leading to
the Dalai Lama's escape to India and the destruction of
Tibetan culture and religious sites during Mao Zedong's rule.
The Dalai Lama advocates for Tibetan autonomy and peace
globally.

2. Buddhist Protests and Activism: Buddhist monks have

protested against oppressive regimes through ritual suicides,
as seen in Vietnam in the 1960s. Thich Quang Duc's
self-immolation sparked widespread resistance, leading to
political change. In Japan, the Soka Gakkai movement
emerged, using controversial tactics for recruitment and
political influence.

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HINDUISM

A. Historical Background
1. Origins: Hinduism is among the oldest and most intricate
religions, possibly dating back to the third millennium B.C.E.
It lacks a single identifiable founder and was originally known
as "Arya Dharma" or the "Aryan Way."

2. Aryan Influence: Between 1750 B.C.E. and 1200 B.C.E.,

Aryans migrated to the Indus Valley, bringing their beliefs.
Their beliefs mingled with those of the native inhabitants,
leading to Classical Hinduism.

3. Vedic Literature and Religion: The Vedas, composed

after Aryans settled in India, are central to Hindu religious
literature. Aryans practiced a polytheistic religion, with
sacrifice being the primary form of worship due to their
nomadic lifestyle.

B. Sacred Scriptures
1. Shruti: Oral teachings eventually recorded; includes four
Vedas, Samhitas, Brahmanas, Upanishads, and some
Sutras.

2. Vedas: Four basic Vedic books: Rig-veda, Sama-veda,

Yajur-veda, and Atharva-veda. Rig-Veda is the oldest and
most important.

3. Upanishads: Philosophical texts within the Vedas,

discussing concepts like karma, samsara, moksha, atman,
and Brahman.

4. Smriti: Writings reinforcing shruti, including the

Ramayana and Mahabharata, interpreted by scholars and
sages.

5. Ramayana: Epic poem detailing Rama's life and

struggles, written by Valmiki.

6. Mahabharata: Epic poem depicting the struggle between

Pandavas and Kauravas, attributed to Vyasa.

7. Bhagavad Gita: Episode within the Mahabharata, a

dialogue between Arjuna and Krishna on duty,
righteousness, and the nature of existence.

C. Beliefs and Doctrines

1. Bhakti, meaning devotion, represents the soul's longing
for and attachment to god.
2. Yoga, derived from the English word "yoke," provides a
path to liberation from the cycle of life, death, and rebirth
(samsara) to achieve moksha.

3. Brahman: Ultimate reality in Hinduism, indivisible.

4. Trimurti: Brahman expressed in three forms: creation

(Brahma), preservation (Vishnu), and destruction (Shiva).

5. Brahma: Creator deity, least attention among Trimurti,

depicted with four heads and eight hands, consort
Saraswati.

6. Vishnu: Preserver deity, worshiped in various forms

(avatars), awaiting the tenth avatar to end the current era
and recreate the world.

D. Worship and Observances

1. Number of Deities: Hindu scriptures mention 330 million
gods or devas, including manifestations of natural
phenomena, evil forces, and revered humans or town
deities.
2. Hindu Worship (Puja): Involves images (murtis), prayers
(mantras), and diagrams of the universe (yantras). Worship
often takes place in homes or temples, with offerings made
to the deities.

3. Individual Worship: Many Hindus worship individually

using mantras or vibrating sounds to summon the deity,
along with offering gifts (prasad).

4. Darshan: Integral to Hindu worship, refers to seeing and

being in the presence of a deity.

5. Temple Ceremonies: In temples, ceremonies involve

offering flames, milk, honey, reciting chants, and music.
Thursday is considered an auspicious day for worship.

6. Festivals: Hindus celebrate various festivals based on the

Hindu calendar, often related to seasonal changes. Major
festivals include Holi, Diwali (Festival of Lights), and
Dussehra. Diwali is comparable to Christmas and
symbolizes inner light guarding against evil forces.

E. Subdivisions
1. Denominations within Hinduism: Four principal
denominations: Shaivism, Shaktism, Vaishnavism, and
Smartism.

2. Shared Beliefs: While each denomination worships

specific gods, Hindus all worship one supreme being.
Common beliefs include karma, dharma, reincarnation, and
other key Hindu concepts.
3. Shaivism: Worshipers of Lord Shiva, emphasizing
self-discipline and philosophy, practicing in temples and
yoga.

4. Shaktism: Worshipers of the Goddess Shakti, using

chants, magic, and yoga to summon cosmic forces.

5. Vaishnavism: Worshipers of Lord Vishnu, particularly in

his incarnations as Krishna and Rama, with numerous
saints, temples, and sacred texts.

6. Smartism: Devotees choose their own deity from six

manifestations (Ganesha, Siva, Shakti, Vishnu, Surya, and
Skanda), known for embracing all major Hindu gods.

F. Selected Issues
1. Hinduism and Women: Despite scriptures advocating for
the honor of women, they are often considered inferior to
men, with societal roles revolving around male figures.
Practices like sati (widow burning) persist in some areas.

2. Caste System: A system of social hierarchy based on

birth, with opportunities determined by family origin. It
divides society into Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and
Shudras, with thousands of sub-castes. "Outcastes" or
"untouchables" (dalits) face extreme discrimination and
perform menial jobs, reflecting the enduring effects of the
caste system.