Child Psychology

Study Sheet
Spring 2024
FINAL
Part B
1. What are Emotions?
a. Basic Emotions Are Automatic and Unlearned Because All Infants Demonstrate
Them. Emotions are psychological states comprised of thoughts, feelings,
psychological changes, expressive behaviors and inclinations to act.
b. We all experience a range of emotions, from happy to sad, angry to afraid, and
embarrassed to disgust.
c. Basic Emotions Are Automatic and Unlearned Because All Infants Demonstrate
Them
Social Referencing: One way we begin to understand our emotions is by looking at how
others react when we are uncertain about how we should react.

a. Social Referencing is the process of looking to another person to help inform

your own reaction.
b. Social referencing is when children look to others for information to help them
react to a situation. It's a keyway for infants to understand the world around them
and can help children gauge danger and modify their behavior.
c. Social referencing can include:
● Eye contact, Facial expressions, Tone of voice, Gestures, Actions, and Body
language.
● Infants usually start using social referencing around eight to ten months
old. For example, if an infant is about to pull a tablecloth off a table, but sees
their mother looking scared, they might decide not to pull it.
● If their mother or father is smiling, they are likely to respond positively, but if
their parent looks distressed, the infant is likely to also to show signs of
distress.
d. For example: You may have seen a toddler bump himself slightly, experiencing
surprise rather than pain, and then looks to see his parent’s response. If the parent
reacts mildly the child is likely to go on playing, but if the parent appears overly
concerned the child may start to cry.
e. Infants may look to different people for social reference in different types of
situations.
Empathy
a. Empathy can be defined as a person’s ability to recognize and share the
emotions of another person.
b. Expressing The Feelings of Others, whether pain or pleasure, is the essence of
empathy and the basis for much human interaction. When we share another’s
 distress, we are more likely to try to show empathy. By helping or comforting
that person.
c. Even infants show the beginning of empathy. If a baby hears another baby
cry, he is quite likely to start crying himself.
d. When parents frequently talk about emotions with their young children,
their children are more likely to show concern for others who are in distress
and try to comfort the other person.
Adolescents
e. If you were to look at research on empathy in older children and adolescents,
you would find much more research on adolescents who lack a sense of
empathy than those who have a well-developed sense of empathy.
f. A lack of ability to empathize with others has been associated with:
Adolescents who are sexually abusive, delinquent, anti-social or bullying. A
history of warm relationships with others offers some protection against this
problem. For instance, a secure attachment with parents is associated with
higher levels of empathy during adolescence.
Primary and Secondary Emotions

g. When we talk about emotions, we distinguish between basic (primary) emotions and
Secondary (self-conscious) emotions.
h. We have said that infants demonstrate the basic emotions within the first year of life.
i. But secondary emotions such as pride, shame and guilt develop later because they depend on an
awareness of self that very, very young children do not possess.
 j. Emotions such as embarrassment, guilt, and shame usually appear by the time the child is
three years old and increase during early childhood as children develop a greater understanding
of the standards, rules and goals of the society in which they live.
k. While it is easy to recognize the differences between the basic emotions, the differences between
the secondary emotions are more subtle and require more explanation.

l. For example, what is the difference between guilt and shame? One concentrates on the self and

the other focuses on the behavior.

a. Guilt happens when children think about a specific behavior they have done
and regret (“I did something bad”). When we feel guilty, it creates a sense of
remorse, so we often want to do something to make the situation better. When
we feel guilty, it creates a sense of remorse, so we often want to do something
to make the situation better. D
b. Shame occurs when the focus is on an aspect of ourselves that we believe we
cannot change (“I am a bad person”) Shame has also been linked with
personal failures, such as poor performance at school or in sports, whereas
guilt is linked to moral issues, such as hurting others.
Temperament
m. Temperament Is the General Way in which we respond to experiences in the world.
 n. Although different experiences evoke different emotional responses the concept of
temperament implies that individuals have a general emotional style that guides their
tendency to respond in certain ways to a variety of events.
o. Some people are generally timid, fearful and anxious, some are fearless and outgoing,
and others are aggressive and angry.
p. Some of these differences reflect characteristic ways we have learned to respond to
our experiences,
q. But parents report that children were different from each other from the moment they
were born. One child was quiet while the other was boisterous, or one was
demanding while the other was content. There is some evidence that they are right
and that we are born with a certain temperament based to some degree on our genetic
inheritance.
r. Many children retain the same temperament over time, but there are also many who
change, although, they do not usually change from one extreme to another.
s. One reason we might see change is that the culture the child is growing up in values
and encourages certain child characteristic over others.
a. For example: in a culture that values children who are quiet and obedient,
there would be pressure from parents and others to help a child who reacts in
a very intense way to his experiences to learn to moderate this tendency so
that his behavior would be a better fit with the expectations of his social
environment.
Emotional Intelligence (EI) Understanding emotions to navigate human interactions
a. Emotional Intelligence: Means understanding and controlling one’s own emotions, and
understanding the emotions of others and being able to use all this understanding to navigate
human interactions successfully.
Two important parts of emotional intelligence is:
1. Emotional Regulation: Adjusting Feelings to Cope with An Experience. Allows you to adapt
your emotional responses to a particular situation so you will be in a good position to exercise
self-control and then you can make appropriate responses or control inappropriate ones.

2. Self-control: When You Control Your Behavior. When children (and adults) can Control the
expression of their emotions. They are more able to use emotions in a positive way.
Examples
An adult who is not in control of his emotions is a person who experiences road rage. This
person may chase after someone who has cut him off in traffic, putting himself and others at
risk.

Children: We see a similar inability to control rage when the child has a has a temper tantrum.

● Newborn infants have very little ability to regulate their own emotions.
● Until about the middle of their first year, the frontal lobe of an infant’s brain is not developed
enough to regulate emotional impulses in the way that it will later in life.
● As a result, Newborn Infants Have Very Little Ability to Regulate or modulate Their Own
Emotions or to external events. All they know is what they are feeling and what they want
at that very moment, until the frontal lobe has developed enough to become the infant’s
“emotional manager.”
 Emotional Manager
● Infants may rely on their caregivers to help regulate the amount of distress they experience.
● Parents may cuddle a distressed infant, carry her or give her a pacifier.
● That is regular times for meals, sleep and play to help keep an infant from becoming overly
hungry, tired or bored.
● An infant’s first attempts at emotion Regulation may involve self-soothing behavior such as
thumb sucking, holding a favorite security blanket or avoiding a feared or frustrating object.
● As children become toddlers, the adults in their lives are powerful role models for how to regulate
and control emotions and behaviors.
● If adults show their own frustrations with negative outbursts, toddlers learn that such behavior is
acceptable. But, remaining calm and expressing frustration in words before taking action models
self-control rather than impulsive behavior
● For those collaborating with toddlers know that biting and hitting at this age are not unusual and
therefore, you frequently hear USE YOUR WORDS. To remind children that they can express
their frustration in other more acceptable ways.
● Children can regulate their emotions as they get older. The ability to regulate emotions has been
to linked to social competence, conscience, empathy and prosocial behavior
ANXIETY
a. All children experience fear, worry or anxiety as a normal part of growing up.
b. There are some predictable age- related changes that children fear.
c. In fact, anxiety is both expected and normal at certain ages and in certain situations.
Example: One-year-old infants become distressed when separation from. their mothers and
almost all young children have short-lived fears-for example of the dark
d. Emotions, Rituals and Repetitive Behaviors Are Common During Childhood
● They Increase Feelings Of Control.
● Ex: Bedtime Ritual/Symmetry/Arranging Things “Just Right”

e. In general, older children have fewer fears than younger ones.

 ● Because repeated exposure to frightening experiences that really do no harm, a growing
understanding of the physical world and an increased ability to use coping
skills/strategies contribute to the decline in fearfulness in children.
f. What is the difference between fear and anxiety?
● Fear is thought of a response to a real event, to the present. Something happening right
now, whereas anxiety is the worry about the future and involves the anticipation of that
may or may not occur.

g. Children who experience excessive and debilitating anxieties are said to have anxiety disorders.
When anxiety is so great that it interferes with everyday activity and causes a great deal of
distress, we call it disorder.
h. While the exact cause of anxiety disorder is not known, heredity, temperament, stressful
experiences all play a role.
i. An anxiety disorder is one of the Most common disorder in young people with a lifetime
prevalence estimates between 8% and 27%.
j. At Least One Child in Every Elementary School Classroom Is Likely to Have An Anxiety
Disorder.
k. Anxiety Disorders in Children Often Go Unnoticed and Untreated. This may be due to the
frequent occurrences of fears and anxieties during normal development and the invisible nature of
many symptoms (e.g., such as a knot in the stomach).
l. Anxiety Is a mood state characterized by strong negative Emotion And Bodily Symptoms Of
Tensions In Which The Child Apprehensively Anticipates Future Danger Or Misfortune
m. Although isolated symptoms of fear and anxiety are usually short-lived, anxiety disorders have a
more chronic course.
n. In fact, nearly half of those affected have an illness duration of 8 years or longer.
o. For a long time, anxiety was thought to be a mild and transitory disturbance that would fade over
time with normal life experiences. However, we now know that many children who experience
anxiety continue to display anxiety and other problems during adolescence and adulthood.
This definition captures 2 key features of anxiety
● Strong negative emotions
● Element of fear

a. These disorders occur in many forms.

b. Some children such as Brad feel anxious whenever they are separated from their mother
or away from home.
c. Separation anxiety –Brad is terrified of being separated from his mother. He follows
her around the house constantly, always needing to know where she is.
d. Generalized anxiety: Others like Jared worry about everything and feel anxious most of
the time for no apparent reason. Jared worries how he is doing in school, events in the
news and family finances.
e. Social Anxiety Some children feel anxious only in certain situations, such as when they
have to travel on an airplane or like Dante when they have to give a talk in class.
f. Panic attack: Some children, like Claudia, have unpredictable bouts of such sudden and
intense anxiety that they become terrified and immobilized.
g. Claudia describes her sudden attack of anxiety overwhelming anxiety. “My heart started
to pump so fast I thought it would burst; I thought I was going to die.
 p. Many children with anxiety disorders suffer from more than one type, either simultaneously or at
separate time during their development.
a. Example: When Isabella saw a dog running loose in front of her house, she
became pale sweaty, cold and trembly. Her thoughts raced so fast that she could
not think. SHE FROZE. HER HEART pounded , she felt tense and she found it
difficult to breathe. Isabella is experiencing anxiety in response to an event she sees as
potentially threatening or dangerous.
b. As Humans, We Are Programmed to Detect And React To Signs Of Anxiety In
Ourselves And Others
c. Although nobody likes to feel anxious, the alternative of not feeling anxious when the
situation calls for it is far worse.
d. Anxiety often hits us when we do something important, and in moderate doses it helps us
think and act more effectively. For example, an exam, upcoming oral report or athletic
event.
e. In this sense anxiety is an adaptive emotion that readies children both physically and
psychologically for coping with people, objects and events that could be dangerous to
their safety or well-being.
f. Some Anxiety Is Good, Too Much Is Not- Example: Child fails her test because she
spends so much time thinking how terrible it will be if she were to fail and leaving no time
to think of anything else except how to solve a math problem.
g. In children with an anxiety disorder, this normally useful emotion works against them.
h. Neurotic Paradox: avoidance behaviors negatively reinforced, strengthened when
followed by a rapid reduction in anxiety.
i. Example of Neurotic Paradox: When children experience fears beyond a certain age, in
situations that pose no real threat to the extent that seriously interferes with daily
activities. Anxiety is a serious problem. Even if the child knows there is little to be afraid
of, he or she is still terrified and does everything possible to escape or avoid the situation.
This pattern of self-defeating behavior also known as Neurotic paradox.

Separation Anxiety Disorder (SAD)Separation anxiety is important for the young child’s survival
and is normal at certain ages.
 j. From about age 7 months through the preschool years, almost all children fuss when they
are separated from their parents or others to whom they are close.
k. In fact, a lack of separation anxiety at this age may suggest an Insecure attachment.
l. When anxiety persists for at least 4 weeks and is severe enough to interfere with normal
daily routines such as going to school or participating in recreational activities, the child
may have a separation disorder.
m. Young children may have vague feelings of anxiety or repeated nightmares about being
kidnapped or killed or about the death of a parent.
n. Young children with SAD frequently display excessive demands for parental attention by
clinging to their parents and shadowing their every move, trying to climb into their
parents' bed at night or sleeping on the floor just outside their parent’s bedroom.
o. Children with SAD fear new situations and may complain of physical complaints to avoid
separation. They might also fuss, cry, scream if their parents leave them.
p. Most Common in Children Along With Specific Phobia and is found in about 4% to
10% of children
q. It is common in both boys and girls, although more prevalent in girls.
r. More than 2/3 of children with SAD have another anxiety disorder, and about half
develop a depressive disorder.
s. Onset: Earliest At 7 Years. Of the children referred for anxiety disorders, SAD has the
earliest reported age of onset (7-8 years) and youngest age of referral.
t. It may begin with complaints such as restless sleep or nightmares, that progress to the
child sleeping nightly in his parents' bed.
u. Similarly, school mornings may evoke physical complaints and an occasional
absence from school which escalates into daily tantrums about leaving for school
and outright refusal.
v. Sad often develops after major stressor.
i. New neighborhood
ii. Entering a new school
iii. Death or illness in the family
iv. Extended vacation.
w. Although they may lose friends because of their repeated refusal to participate in
activities away from home, children with SAD are reasonably socially skilled and gets
along with peers.
x. However, their school performance may suffer as a result of frequent school absentees
and therefore might need special assignments to keep up with the rest of the class and in
extreme cases might have to repeat the school year.
y. SAD persists into adulthood for more than one-third of children and adolescents.
z. As adults these individuals are more likely than others to experience relationship
difficulties, other anxiety disorders and mental health problems.
School Reluctance and Refusal
a. Although starting school is exciting and enjoyable for most children, many are reluctant to go to
school and for a few, school may create so much fear and anxiety that they will not go at all.
b. These children can become sick with worry, let minor physical complaints keep them home or
pretend to be ill.
c. Definition: School refusal behavior is defined as the refusal to attend classes:
a. Children who resist going to school in the morning but eventually attend
 b. Those that go to school but eventually leave at some point during the day.
c. Those who attend with great dread that leads to future pleas for nonattendance.
d. Those who miss the entire day.
d. Equally common in both boys and girls
e. Occurs mostly between the age of 5 and 11.
f. Excessive and unreasonable fears of school usually first occurs in preschool, kindergarten or first
grade and peak during second grade. However, school refusal can occur at any time and may have
a sudden onset at an older age.
g. Children may complain of a headache, upset stomach, or sore throat just before its time to leave
for school and then feel better when permitted to stay at home and then feel sick again the next
morning as the time draws closer for going to school.
h. As the time for school draws near, the child may plead, cry, and refuse to leave the house have a
full-blown panic reaction.
i. School refusal often happens following a period at home during which a child has spent more
time than usual with a parent (brief illness, vacation break or summer break). At other times,
school refusal may follow a stressful event such a change of schools, an accident or the death of a
relative or pet.
j. Most children who refuse to go to school have average or above average intelligence suggesting it
is not a difficulty with academics that leads to this problem.
k. A fear of school may be associated with submitting the first time to authority and rules outside of
the house.
l. The fear of school is being compared with unfamiliar children and experiencing the threat of
failure.
m. Some fear school because they are afraid of being ridiculed, teased, or bullied by other children or
disciplined by teachers or excessive or irrational fear of being socially evaluated or embarrassed
when having to recite in class or undress in front of unfamiliar people in a gym class.
n. Long term effects of School Refusal
● Academic or social problems may develop because of missed instruction and peer
interaction.
o. Cognitive behavior therapy usually emphasizes an immediate return to school and other routines
and must take into account.
Generalized Anxiety Disorder
A. Example: Jared ruminates for days about things that have already occurred such as things that
have already occurred, such as what he said in class the previous day or how he did on last
week’s test. Once he starts worrying, he cannot stop. Jared reports that when he is worrying
about the past or anticipating the future his stomach hurts, headaches, and a rapid heartbeat. His
mother mentioned he needs constant reassurance.
B. Excessive Anxiety and Uncontrollable Anxiety and Worry About Many Events Or Activities
On Most Days Some worry is a part of normal development but with children like Jared with a
generalized anxiety disorder experience excessive and uncontrollable anxiety and worry about
many events or activities on most days.
C. The worry is often episodic or continuous and often the worrier is unable to relax and has
physical symptoms such as muscle tension, headaches, or nausea.
D. Physical Symptoms: Irritability, lack of energy, difficulty falling asleep and restless sleep.
E. The anxiety experienced by children with generalized anxiety disorder is widespread and focuses
on a variety of everyday life events.
F. Children with GAD are likely to notice everything frightening, event in a book, in a movie or on
TV and relate it to themselves. Example: If they see a news report about a car accident, they may
begin to worry about being in a car accident themselves and expect a worse outcome. They don’t
seem to realize that events they are worried about have an extremely low likelihood of happening.
Thus, their thinking often consists of what-if statements: “What if the school bus breaks down.”
G. 3-6% Of Children struggle with Generalized anxiety disorder.
H. Gender: Equally Common in Boys & Girls, Slightly Higher in Older Adolescents. In general, the
disorder is equally common in boys and girls, with a slightly higher prevalence in older
adolescent females.
I. Children with GAD present with a high rate of other anxiety disorders and depression.
J. For younger children, cooccurring SAD and ADHD are most common; older children with GAD
tend to have specific phobias and Major depression and low self-esteem.
K. The average age of onset for GAD is 10 to 14 years of age