Grid - Connected Solar PV Power Systems

11
Grid-connected Solar.PY
Power Systems
standalone
divided in two categories; one is
S
syst
olar PV systems can broadly be
PV system (which use battery for
ems whi ch may or may not
energy storage) and other is grid
use any battery and interact with
-connected
the grid. This
nected PV systems.
chapter is mainly devoted to grid-con
broadly divided in two categories:
Grid connected system can also be seholds.
11.1 small power applications, e.g. in hou
1. Grid-connected PV systems for r power
Introduction to large power applications, e.g. in sola
2. Grid-connected PV systems for
Grid-connected PV Systems plants.
ules,
solar PV systems are (a) solar PV mod
Main components of a grid-connected elec tric grid can
rter and (c) load or grid. An
(b) a power conditioning unit or inve by sola r PV can
rgy wherein energy generated
be considered as a large sink of ene necting PV
when required. The idea of the con
be supplied or taken from the grid that the use of
grid as energy storage medium so
- system to the grid is to use the possible.
d PV battery can be avoided
as much as . .
Small capacity grid connecte
used for .
em for sma ll pow er applications and for large power
normally -con nec ted syst
erences are discussed in
systems are Gnd
household applications and large
app lication s are little different from each other. These diff
capacity systems are used for power
_plant applications.
J
__ the following paragrap
hs.
small power
nected systems that are used for
The main purpose of the grid-con household
11.1.1 e energy and consume it within the
household applications is to generat the range of
Grid-connected PV this type of PV system can be in
itself. Typically, the power rating of sma ll power
of grid connectivity in case of
Systems for Small Power 1 kW to several !Os of kWs. The rolegen erated energy to the grid (if mor e energy
lica tion s ld system is to supp ly excess
App hou seho
ired by the load) or take energy from the grid
is generated by PV system then requ add ed to ens ure
many cases, some batteries are
if there is any shortage. However, in le. It is pos sibl e
if grid power is not availab
that loads always get the energy, even is load she ddin g
to th~ s~ort~ge of power, there
in many parts of the world that_ due d in India.
. This s1tuat1on can easily be imagine
and grid power may not be avadable alled on the rooftops
of solar PV systems inst
But, in Germany, there are millions bac k,up bec aus e the grid
do not use any battery
and connected to the grid but they -connec ted syst em for small
er avai lability is very goo d. An example of a grid
pow {PC orU)
re 11.1. The power conditioning unit
power applications is shown in Figu
249
.Th nd Systems· AManual for Technicians, Trainers and Engineers Chapter 11: Grid-connected Solar PV Power Systems 251
250 Sol ar PhotovoIta1c ec noIogy a •
'd grid-connected PV PoWer s

inverter plays a very important role in the small Under Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission it is planned that about 18000 MW
Since the system can take power from the g~ or can_ feed power to the Y_sterns. of solar power plants, including solar PY as well as solar thennal, will be installed
PCU should have facility to flow the power m both directions from PV &nd, the in India by year 2022.
grid and vice versa. It is also possible that some PCUs are only O _sYstelll to
i.e., they are designed to control the power flow in one direction on) ne dt~ectiona1 The grid connected PY systems for small power applications (1 kW-100 kW) arc
Y, mainly
Grid connected plant sizes
grid to PV system. In this case, the grid becomes an additional source of fro; .,, used to supplement distributed AC power supply in domestic, commercial and
for PV system but excess power generated by PY system cannot be . P<>Wer a¢ their applications industrial applications. These systems supply power to the captive daytime loads
grid. The inverter systems (with PY modules) used in India is an e supplied to the connected to the AC grid power supply. The surplus power generated is automatically
types of systems. It is to be noted that the bidirectional PCUs ar xample of these transmitted to the remote loads connected onto the grid power supply.
then a single directional PCUs. e more expensive The grid connected PY systems for large power applications arc of two types,
Under Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission, it is planned th th the systems connected to distribution grid and the systems connected to transmission
about 2000 MW of such PV systems to be installed in India bYyear ere Will be
at 2022. or generation grid.
Medium to large size (100 kW-1 MW) grid-connected solar PY power plants
a~
Household electric loads
are used to feed power to the local power distribution grid. The distribution grid is
-~ employed to supply power to a small village or a cluster of villages or to a large
~~\-,, ~" industry or an industrial complex.
- IDI.
•s-.i~
"-' .t£v
range ~....aty Pl/ systems
'~systemoifferent.....,..... Large to very large size (l MW-100 . MW) grid-connected
. .
solar. PY •power
:~ble for different a lcationS. • plants are used to feed power to the mam AC transnusston or generation gnd.
...
Solar PV array on rooftop oca, one Problem 11.1: What is the difference between standalone system and a grid-
connected solar PY system? ~-
The .b~ic o~ration .o~ a grid-connected PV system for small or large power
Basic operation of grid- applic~tions ts. very suntlar. The output of the grid-connected PY system is tied to
connected PV system the gnd (electncal power supply). Worldwide, the grid carries AC power. Due to the
4?,- shortage of power generation in India, the grid is not powered all the time. Due to
this reason, the operation of this type of system depends on the availability of the
1 I
I I
I I
J,,,,.. grid. When the grid is not available or when the grid is not powered, the output of
FIGURE 11.1 PV system cannot be fed to the grid. •
Grid-connected PV system with small The system mainly consists of solar PV array and DC to AC inverter. The DC
power applications. output of solar PY array is converted to AC by the inverter. The inverter has a built-
Battery (optional) in controller which extracts maximum power output from the solar PV array. The
11.1.2
voltage level, phase and frequency of the inverter to feed AC output are matched
Grid-connected PV The grid-connected PV systems for large power applications are mainly designed with that of grid. The inverter feeds AC current into the grid and is made available
to act as power plants and the main purpose of these power plants is to generate
Systems for large Power to the load connected to it via grid.
power and supply it to the grid. In this way, they are equivalent to coal power plant
Applications or hydro power plants. Since the main purpose of this type of grid-connected PY Power systems can be characterized by voltage and current levels. When we design
system is to supply the power to the grid, their power ratings are normally in the An example of grid- a solar PV system, we have to design for the given voltage and current When we
range of 1 MW to several 10s of MW. It is assumed that a grid is a big sink of connected PV system choose an inverter we choose it for certain input current and input voltage, as well
energy and a large amount of energy generated by PY plants can be feed into the as certain output current and output voltage. Remember here that the power level
grid and no battery storage is planned in such plants. Battery storage for such large at the input and output depends on the current level and voltage level.
shownalso
plant iswould
power expensive. An example of a grid-connected PY power
be very11.2.
--
in Figure For example, a 2.4 kW PV modules may be connected in such a way that the
arrangement will provide you 24 V voltage level and 100 A current level (and the
... ...
Solar PV array product of the current and voltage = 24 x 100 = 2.4 kW). We should remember
- --:- that the PV modules will produce DC power. In this way, we can write that 2.4 kW
-·~" py system is 24V/100 A DC output. In a grid-connected system, the output of
& solar PV modules will be fed to input of an inverter. So, an inverter would receive
FIGURE 11.2
I \ 24 V/100 A DC at its input The output of an inverter will be AC power. The
Grid-connected PV system for large
P0Wer applicalions. voltage output of inverter will always be equal to the voltage level of the grid to
which it is connected. The voltage level of a single phase line is normally 240 V.
Therefore, the output voltage level of an inverter would be 240 V AC. On the other
252 Solar Photovoltaic Technology and Systems: AManual for Technicians, Trainers and Engineers
Chapter 11: Grid,onnected Solar PV Power Systems

hand, if the inverter is feeding to high tension three phases grid th 253
the inverter could be 415 V, 1,000 V or 1 kV or even 33 kV. ~: the output Based on their function the 'd
at the output of an inverter will depend on mput power. current levof 11.2 applications are cl •ti~1 . gn -c~nnected solar PV power systems for small power
In an inverter, output power is always lower than the input el ~ation of The rid assi into mainly two types, with and without battery back-up.
· ·inverter. The amount of losses 1s • measured by the efficiency power
m f th du
. e to lo Grid-connected Solar PV • g -connected PV sySlems for small power applications can also be classified
relationship between inverter efficiency, its input power and outpo e inverter. ~es mto two types based on their end-use or application.
· p·igure 11 •3• ut Power is• given
.' ne systems. 1. Captive power systems
m
2. Grid suppon power systems
Input current, and input voltage
FIGURE 11.3
Indication of input and output
DC power l
I
Inverter
Output current, and output Voltage
tAC~
The •gri~ connected PV systems for a large power applications have only one
application to supplement grid power, such systems do not have battery back-up.
voltage, current_ and power on a The systems without battery back-up are more common and consists of two main
grid-connected inverter. Input power '-v
,-1',.. Inverter efficiency ,-I',.. Output power= Input pow
"---v'
.
er x Efficiency 11 :2·1 eel d py Systems components, solar PV anay and grid tied invener. Thccontrollcr 10 extract maximum
Grid-conn e k DC power from PV array is in-built in an inverter. This type of system is easy to
, 0 u,_.,. - to AC power conver- Normally,
•• "' DC8power . the efficiency
. . of grid-connected
. inverters is quite good· The 1nve
. without Battery Bae ·Up install, efficient and cost-effective, however, it has no means of supplying AC power
s1on In grid-connected Inverter, are available with as high efficiency as 98%. Though the efficiencies are hi rte_rs when the grid is not available.
some pa,yer is lost In Inverter. some power loss occurs in the DC power to AC power conversion. B edgh, SILi! In small power applications, as long as the solar array produces more power
The efflclency of a grid-connected above discussion, the following equation can be written: as on the
ln"91ter Is very high and Inverters · than the local load demands, the surplus power is fed into the utility distribution
are available with 88 high ellicienc:yJ
as98%. p l . .
=
Power output Power mput x Inverter efficiency
Ou
grid. The surplus power is supplied to remote loads via the distribution grid. During
morning and evening, when the local load demands more power than what the solar
- ' ower oss m mverter = tput power - Input power , array can produce, the deficit power is taken from the grid. The grid supplies power
Estimation of AC current during night as well. Figure 11.4 shows schematic of grid connected PV system
fed into the grid Consider an example system with 2.4 kW DC PV array rated for 24 V/10() A DC
without battery backup.
output. In an ideal system with no losses (100% efficiency), the output of inverter
would be 240V/10A AC and would generate 2.4 kW of AC power when connected PV array Grid
to 240 V AC grid. In a real system, the actual AC power generated would be typically
2 kW as a result of power lost in converting DC power to AC power. In order to
calculate AC power and current fed into grid, use the following two steps: Inverter
Step 1 AC power fed into grid:
FIGURE 11.4 Controller
AC power fed into grid =DC power produced by PV array Grid-connected solar PV power
system without battery back-up. I Loads I
=
- Power lost in converting DC power to AC power.
Step 2 AC current fed into grid: ~-~--- _ . -~ __ f t - - _ In large po~er a~plications,_ power generated by the system is fed to the transmission
·Glld-connecl8d Pl/ system without~ or generauon gnd at all umes. The combined conventional grid power and PV
EXAMPLE 11.1
AC CWTent fed into grid =AC power fed into grid/AC voltage :-up cannot supply power generated power is supplied to loads by distribution transfonners via distribution
__.._ ..!.'!!n Qr1cS Is not available. grid.
A solar PV array is rated at 100 V/50 A DC. System power losses are 20%. What
is
ACtheCWTent
AC power fedthe
fed into intogrid?
the grid? If the grid voltage is 240 V AC, what is the 11.2.2 The grid-connected PV systems with battery back-up are used in small power
Solution
Here, Grid-connected PV Systems applications.
with Battery B k- Other than solar PV array and inverter, systems with battery back-up consist
=
DC power = 100 V x 50 A 5000 W 5 kW = ac up of two additional components, battery bank and charge controller. The DC output
of a solar PV array is used to charge battery bank. The charge controller controls
Power lost = 5000 x -20 =1000 W =1 kW the battery bank charging voltage and current to ensure that the battery bank is
100 neither overcharged nor overdischarged. The surplus DC energy generated by array
AC power fed into grid = DC Power - Power loss =5 kW - 1 kW =4 kW =4000 W is converted to AC by the inverter and is supplied to the load via grid. This type of
system can supply AC power even when grid is not available. This type of system
AC power 4000
AC current fed into grid= AC
voltage= 24()' = 16.67A
is however difficult to install due to more components. It is also less efficient and
expensive due to additional battery back-up.
, When grid is available, the system operation is identical to the system without
Probl.n, 11.2: A solar PV anay b hied at 96 V/1SO A DC, Syslem power los~ battery back-up. The energy stored in the battery bank is not cycled when grid is
are available. A solar PV array maintains the battery bank in the float charge condition.
what22%. What
is the AC iscurrent
the ACfedpower fed grid?
into the into the grid? If the grid voltage is 240 V A '
·•; . :;i When grid fails, battery back-up is used to supply DC input to the inverter in addition
· ··~-=-:i:=I n . - .
to the solar PV array. The inverter output is isolated from the grid and supplies
_ _e:llluna;I_.,,.....___j power to the back-up loads.
-=.
-~
~.
Chapter 11: Grid-connected Solar PV Power Systems
1255
Figure 11.5 shows a schematic of grid connected solar PV system With
A grid-connected solar PY system typically consists of the following components:
PV array Grid
11.3 1. Solar PV array
~ents of Grid-
2. Array combiner box
connected Solar PV Systems
Controller Inverter 3. DC cabling
FIGURE 11.5 4. DC distribution box
Grid connected solar PV system
Battery loads 5. Inverter
wi1h battery back-up.
6. AC cabling
11.2.3 The grid-connected py captive power systems arc used in small and medium J>Ower
7. AC distribution box.
Grid-connected Solar PV applications. The tenn captive means that the power generated by solar PV array is USC(!
Captive Power System by the local load connected to ~e utility grid. In this system, the amount of P0Wer The interconnection of these components in a grid-connected solar PY system
generated by a solar PY arra~ 1s less ~an the power consumed by the local load, is shown in Figure 11.8. In the following sections, each of these components are
The AC power output of the inverter 1s connected to the local load via the Utility discussed in detail.
grid. The excess power required by ~e load is drawn ~m the grid. For example,
if a grid-connected solar PY system 1s capable of produc10g 5 kW power during
day, and the load consumption is 8 kW, then 3 kW of power is drawn from the grid~
Array combiner box
The amount of power generated by a solar PV array can be more than the
power consumed by the local load in this type of_ system, and u~ed in an industry,
particularly on weekends. The surplus PV power 1s fed to the gnd and supplied to
remote loads via the grid. For example, if grid connected solar PV system is produces
5 kW power during a day, and the load consumption is 3 kW, then surplus 2 kW
of power is supplied to remote load via the grid. Figure 11.6 shows a schematic of
grid-connected solar PY captive power system.
PV array
Grid To grid
Inverter
FIGURE 1U Inverter
Grid-<:onnected solar PV captive
~"' -"v I'°""'"' [i!J
-
power system. Controler
FIGURE 11.8 DC disconnect box
11.2.4 loads
Grid-connected solar PV system AC disconnect box
Grid Support Solar PV The grid support solar PY power systems are used in small power applications. components interconnection
diagram,
AC dlstributlon box
Power System The grid support solar PY power systems are designed to supply power to the load
when grid is not available. When grid is available, load draws power from the grid A solar PY array is used to covert solar energy into DC electrical energy. The
and solar generated power is used to charge battery bank. If surplus solar power is
11.3.1 array consists of a number of solar PY modules connected in series and/or parallel
available, it is supplied to load. Any additional solar power is fed back into the grid. Solar PV Array combinations. The series connection is used to increase voltage output while a
In this configuration, when grid fails, a battery bank supplies power to the load parallel connection is used to increase current output. A number of modules are
and solar array charges the battery bank. If surplus solar power is available, it is connected in series in a series string and a number of series strings are connected
supplied directly to the load, and when solar PY power is not available, for example in parallel to make a series-parallel connected solar PV array. A number of modules
on cloudy days or at night, the grid can be used to charge the battery if required. can also be connected in a parallel string.
The solar PV power is given the first priority for use, second priority is given to
th~ battery A number of solar PV modules are connected in series in a series-connected solar
gnd supportand thePV
solar gridpower
is given the last priority. Figure 11.7 shows a schematic of
system. Series-connected solar PV PY string as shown in Figure I1.9. The series connection is used to increase DC
string: Increasing DC voltage output of the string. The DC current output of a string is not increased
Grid voltage by series connection. Typical voltage output of a series connected string is in the
range of 100-1000 Y DC and typical current ·output is in the range of 5-10 A DC.
Charge COolrofter The solar string is made to operate at maximum power point when connected to
FIGURE 11.7 inverter. For more details about the series connection of PY modules, refer to
Grid support solar PV power system.
Chapter 5 and Chapter 6.
loads
256 I Solar Photovoltaic Technology and Systems: A Manual for Technicians, Trainers
and Engineers
• Chapter 11: Grid-connected Solar PV Power Systems
parallel-conneded solar PV A number of solar PV modules are connected in parallel in a parallel-con

nected
strings: Increasing current solar PV string as shown in Figure 11.10. The parallel connection is used to
increase
DC current output of the string. The DC voltage output of a string remains
+ same in
FIGURE 11.9 parallel connection. Typical voltage output of a parallel-connected string
String o/p { is in the
Series connected solar PV string. range of 20-30 V DC and typical current output is in the range of 50-200
A DC.
'liii" PV module strlng.anum ber o~ The solar string is made to operate at maximum power point when connected
to
solar PV modules are connected In
PVmodule PVmodule PVmodule inverter. For more details of parallel connection of PV modules, refer to Chapter
lserles to lncrea~ the voltage output.J PVmOdule
and Chapter 6. 5
DC voltage and current of series~on n~ted PV m~ule st~ng: DC voltage of a

number of PV modules connected m stnng can be estimated m the FIGURE 11.10
parallel connected solar PV string.
following steps:
Step 1 DC voltage of series-connected solar PV string: The total 'In-.,.,.-.. connectk>n,-several f#l/'i
voltage of
series connected solar PV string can simply be calculated by multiplyin or Pl/ module stringS are
g the DC
voltage of individual PV module by the number of PV modules In parallel to increase the
to be connected ,OJlffll' c,utput.__ ,_._ - - __.._....
in series.
DC voltage of series connected solar PV string = DC voltage of individual DC
of a voltage
number and
of PVcurrent of cparalleled.c~nne~ted
solar modules PV module string: DC voltage
PV module x number of modules connected in series onnect m stnng can be •
three steps: esumated •m the following
From this, if we know the desired string voltage and the voltage
of individual
module, then dividing the desired string voltage by individual module
voltage will ::!11!1!~ n:t:ientVof parallel connecte~ solar ~V string: Total current
t;/::::: :~ru
give us the number of modules to be connected in series. of
1
Step 2 DC current of series connected solar PV string: DC current of individu: P;~!:;ec:d 0; 1:: i:~!~r:~ !!~ DC
current of series DC current of parallel connected solar PV string = DC current of individual
connected solar PV string = DC current of individual solar PV module.
solar PV module x Number of modules connected in parallel.
Step 3 DC power output of series connected solar PV string: DC On the ?ther hand, if we know the desired current from a parallel-connected
power output
of series connected solar PV string = DC voltage of series connected solar PV stnng and current of an individual PV module, we can divide the
solar PV string desired
x DC current of series connected solar PV string. current of string by individual module current to calculate the required number
of
EXAMPL E 11.2 A solar PV module is rated for Voe= 40 V, Vmp = 32 V, Isc = 8.5 A PV modules in string.
and Imp= 8 A.
Design a solar PV string to produce DC voltage output of 384 V. Step 2 DC voltage of parallel-connected solar PV string: DC voltage of
What will be parallel-
the DC current output of the string? What will be the DC power connected solar PV string = DC voltage of individual solar PV module.
output of series-
connected string? Step 3 DC power output of parallel-connected solar PV string: DC
Solution power
Since while delivering power, the PV modules are supposed to operate output of parallel-connected solar PV string = DC voltage of parallel-con
at maximum nected
power points, therefore, current and voltage at maximum power point, solar PV string x DC current of parallel-connected solar PV string.
i.e. Vmp and
Imp are considered in calculations.
A solar PV module is rated for Yoe= 40 V, Ymp = 32 V, lsc = 5.5 A and Imp=
5 A.
Step 1: DC voltage of series-connected solar PV string = DC voltage of EXAMPLE 11.3 Design a solar PV string to produce DC current output of 200 A. What will
individual be the
solar PV module x Number of modules connected in series. DC voltage output of the string? What will be the DC power output of
parallel-
Therefore, the number of modules in series String voltage 384
= --=----- -='-- = - = 12. connected string?
Module voltage 32 While delivering power, the PV modules are supposed to operate al maximum
power
Thus, 12 PV modules need to be connected to get string voltage of Solution points, therefore, current and voltage al maximum power point, i.e., Ymp
384 V. and Imp
Step 2: DC current of series-connected solar PV string= DC current of are considered in calculations.
individual St 1· DC current of parallel-connected solar PV string= DC current of
solar PV module. individual
Therefore, DC current of string = 8 A so;: pV module x Number of modules connected in p~lel.
. _ Stnng current = = 40
Step 3: DC power output of series connected solar PV string = DC Therefore, the number of modules m parallel - Module current
voltage of S •
series connected solar PV string x DC current of series connected
solar PV string ,., nr voltage of parallel-connected solar PV string = DC voltage
= 384 V x 8 A= 4608 W or 4.6 kW. of
Step ..,: J...l'-
individual solar PV module.
Problem 11.3: A solar PV module is rated for Voe= 36 V, Vmp = 30 V, Therefore, DC voltage of string = 32 V
Isc = 8.5 A
and Imp= 7.9 A. Design a solar PV string to produce DC voltage output
of 120 V.
What will be the DC current output of the string? What will be
the DC power
output of series-connected string?
258\ Solar Photovoltaic Technology and Systems: AManua
l for Technicians, Trainers and Engineers
• Chapter 11: Grickonnected Solar PV Power Systems
259
-
I
Step J: DC power output of parallel-connected Step 3 DC power output of series-parallel conne
solar PV string = DC Volta cted solar PV array: DC power
parallel-connected solar PV string x DC curren output of series-parallel connected solar PV array
t of parallel-connected solar PV :e. of = DC voltage of series-parallel
= 32 V x 200 A = 6400 W or 6.4 kW. connected solar PV array x DC current of series-
Iring parallel connected solar PV array.
Series-parallel connected When there is need to increase both current ~L E11 .4 A solar PV string is rated for Vmp = 400 V and Imp
and voltage, PV module stri = 8 A. Design a series-parallel
connected in series-parallel combination. In such
solar PV array PV module strings are connected in parallel as
configurations, a number ~gs connected solar PV array to generate 16 kW DC power.
What will be the DC output
shown in Figure 11.11. In su oh senes voltage and current of the array?
the voltage output of array is identical to the voltag
e output of a PV string an~ cases, While delivering power, the PV modules are suppos
output of PV strings increases in multiple of
number of parallel connected cu?"ent sotutiO" points, therefore, current and voltage at maximum
ed to operate at maximum power
Typical voltage output of a series-parallel conne power point, i.e., Ymp and/~
cted solar PV array is in th Slrings. are considered in calculations.
of 100-1000 V DC and typical current outpu
t is in the range of 50_ 200 eArangc
The solar array is made to operate at maxim Step 1: DC voltage of series-parallel connected
um power point when con DC. solar PV array = DC voltage of
inverter. For more details of series-parallel series connected string.
connection of PV modules nec~ed to
Chapter 6. Therefore, DC voltage of array = 400 V.
• re er to
Step 2: DC power output of senes-p • arallel
of series-parallel connected solar PV array x connected so1ar PV
. array = DC
paralle voltage
l connected
DC current of senes-
solar PV array. DC power of array = 16,000 = 40 A.
Therefore, DC current of array = DC voltage of array
400
+ Module 1 Module 2
Step 3· DC curren f • arallel connected solar PV array -_ DC current of
FIGURE 11.11 String alp [ - • t o senes-p f . s connected in parallel.
individual series-connected string x Number o stnng
=
Serles-parallel connected solar PV DC array current = 40 = S.
array (mark strings, array).
Therefore, the number of strings in parallel = DC
. . . -Ii riNd' lo lnc:rNN· string current 8
lbalh Qlll'Mlt and voltage, ..... P/1
lmodule llrtngl (which provldel .......
! Problem 11.4: A solar PV string is rated for
Vmp = 460 V and Imp = 100 A.
Modu1e3 Module4 Design a series-parallel connected solar PV array
In to generate 46 kW DC power.
What will be the DC output voltage and current of
the array?
DC voltage and current of series-parallel conne An array combiner box is used to electrically interco
cted PV module array: In such nnect solar PV strings to make
configuration, several PV strings are connected 11.3.2 an array. The combiner box also houses DC voltage
together in parallel. Since the PV and cunent protections used
module strings themselves have many modules
strings have high DC voltage. When we conne
connected in series, and therefore, Array Combiner Box in a solar PV array. A schematic of array combin
er box is shown in Figwe 11.12.
ct several PV modules strings in
parallel currents of all the strings get added From strings
and in this way, we get high current
as well. Thus, both high voltage and high curren +1 1+
t can be achieved in series-parallel Blockill9 diodes
configurations.
Ii Step 1 DC voltage of series-parallel connected
solar PV array: DC voltage of string tuses
DC disconnect switch
series-parallel connected solar PV array = DC
voltage of series-connected string. MC4
+ +
Step 2 DC current of series-parallel conne
cted solar PV array: Total current M&y0ip
of series-parallel connected PV modules can be
estimate simply by multiplying the
DC current of individual PV module string with
number of strings to be connected
in parallel.
DC current of series-parallel connected solar PV MC4 I surge protection
array = DC current of individual
series connected string x Number of strings conne
cted in parallel.
On the other hand, if we know the desire Ground
d current from a series-parallel
connected solar PV array, and current of an
individual PV module string, we can FIGURE 11.12 From strings
divide the desired current of array by individual
the required number of PV module strings to
module string current to calculate
be connected in parallel.
hr-, combiner boX a,,angemenl The OC c,J,S• - lb< ,triog _, - - to lh<
box MC4 _ , . _ °"''
.,.;do "" "°' .... """"' """"'
n,, """" " ..... ..... - .,,~ .,.. ., ......
..,, """" '""' ... -"" "'
,trips. n,, """" " ... .,,.... '""" , ....
-
_!_" ~-·
it,
Chapter 11: Grid-connected Solar PV Power Systems 261
Grid-connected inverters are available with .
the output. An external trans&orm . and without transformer isolation at
from the array combiner box are secured to the box using sealed c bl 1
er 1s used at the tp f•
ou ut o inverter before connecting
'
The DC surge protection devices are housed inside the box. The O ; e glands. the inverter output to the mains AC .d
•
fuses and blocking diodes can also be housed inside the combiner bo/ :nat s_tring step up Inverter AC output volta gnth • Th~ external transformer is also used to
ge to e mams AC grid voltage.
2 pole DC disconnect switch is also mounted inside combiner box. • n °Phona1
Gnd connected Inverter
The combiner box is rated for Protection Class IT (double in 1 • >- r----------- -----
: ----------------------------------------
protection against electric shock from high DC voltage output of array s;hation) for
I
(11 I I
Th
I
>• r.---. ''
PV arrays. e Ground r---
~-==--=- ==~----,- .,...._-~ Fault Detector Interrupter (GFDI) is used for grounded
0. , r---
:
I
(Digit 6 st de box also

I
DC-Ac AC '
~ec:::Y combiner box 18 used ID' needs to be rated for ingress protection rating of IP65
E
l8alalor :
I
,g : protecUon converter l)l'Oledlon
total II
strings ~ty solar FV protection against dust and digit 5 stands for limited protection agai :~ s for _, ----
ns ow pressure
I
: :Transformer
- _ _arra!:...,_____, water jets from any direction). Rf 11.1,
- •----------- ------------ --·····-···-·· ··-···-·•• ·-••••• --•·-·-·...:
f1GUconnected Inverter diagram.
Grid " -..- - - - ,
The py modules used in a string are c?nnected in series using DC cables. The De ----~ter a output of 8 ' There are 3 ~am • f •
types o god-connected inverters; Central inverter, string inverter
11.3.3 cables are also used to interconnect stnngs to make an array and connect py arr f~ _::;-~wr to the grid,
ransform8I' Is required and module mverter. These inverter types are based on the way the solar modules
DC Cabling • ay
output to Inverter DC input. The string cables .
are rated for a minimum of I •25 11mes
::;:6°"ellh8!' ~llt In Inverter j are interconnec ted to form an array.
the string short circ_uit current at eac~ location (refer to Ch~pter 9 for more details),
string fuses are optional. But, the stnng DC cables are typically rated for 1.5 tim l~-ex1!f!!ally. =--- - . . . .
I • verter The central_ m~erter is typically used m a solar PV grid-connected system for large
string short circuit current to be on the safer side. The string blocking diodes es power application. A number of series strings are connected in parallel combination
not required for small systems using typically less than four strings. are Centra ,n
to form a large array (see Figure 11.15). The central inverter can be used when all
DC distribution box is used to distribute DC cables to inverter. Two-pole DC modules used in an array are identical type, make and power rating. The module
11.3.4 MPP current needs to match in a series string connection and the string MPP voltage
disconnect switch is used to isolate PV array from inverter. The DC surge protecti
DC Distribution Box devices can be incorporated with DC distribution box. The output of this box ~n needs to match when a number of series strings are connected in parallel. The central
. h . inverter is not used when one or more strings are under partial or complete shading
IS
connected to Inverter DC input as s own m Figure 11.13.
during the day.
+ + FV array
I Array To inverter input
i
Surge protector
,,I FIGURE 11.13 Array combiner box
DC distribution box diagram. Ground
11.3.5 The grid-connected inverter· is used to convert PV array DC output to AC voltage

Grid-connected Inverter and current. The output of grid-connected inverter is tied to mains AC grid. The AC DC disconnect switch
voltage, frequency and phase of the inverter output are matched with mains AC grid
voltage, frequency and phase. The inverter injects AC current into the mains AC
grid at mains AC voltage and supplements mains AC power supply to the load. The
presence of mains AC grid voltage (which means grid should be 'on' or powered)
Inverter
is essential for the operation of grid connected inverter.

The grid-connected inverter has Maximum Power Point Tracker (MPPT)
controller input stage used to extract maximum DC power from solar PV array at all FIGURE 11.15
= I I =-Grid
times. The inverter MPP tracking voltage range needs to match MPP voltage range Central Inverter diagram.
The central inverters are typically rated for 250 kW -1 MW output power and
of the array. The MPP voltage of the array varies with solar radiation, operating 400 V- 1000 V DC array voltage. These inverters are typically used in large to
temperature and other environmental factors (refer to Chapter 8 for details).
very large size installations ranging from 1 MW-100 MW. The use of central
The grid-connected inverter has built-in DC and AC voltage and current inverters in very large installations allows better management of AC cable routing.
protections. The DC and AC disconnect switches are also integrated with the
~nverter. ls~anding_ protection is mandatory for grid-connected inverter. Island!ng
is used to isolate inverter output from grid in the event of grid failure. Islanding
protection is used to protect operators working on the mains AC grid from electrical
shock or electrocution when the grid power is not available.
=-- The central inverters are typically installed in controlled environment and are used
. _,.. ..., wlh.,.;; io plao~ h.,;,g hootil• .,,b;,01 t,mP"'tu<C• homidity orul do,t eorulitio".
c~tral ;,,.,.,, ;, .,;wt, fot "" w;th omy ,mployiog ,itho, ccy,tdfut< Olicoo ot
.; '-~--· - . -·. --· _., thin film module technology.

Th•
-
Chapt,, 11, Grid-oinnect,d Soi~ PV " -s,._,s / 263
has its own invener. The Parallel string inverters are used when one or more strings
A number of central inverters are used in master-slaveed
configuration in a 1
. arge
are under partial or complete shading during the day. The use of parallel string
inverter maximizes power output of individual string.
siz.e (MW) power plant For example, 4 of 250 kW rat cen_tral tnveners rnay be
used in a 1 MW power plant. The 1 MW array has four sec~ons of 250 kW each
and DC output of each section is connected to 250 k~ rated tnve~er. Arnong these DC disconnect SWitch
• verters one will act as control inverter called master inverter, which controls oth
in • • .
an s ave mveners outputs er
• rters called slave invener. One master invener d3 I .
inve . . . 'd Th . . are
connected in parallel with the dislnbubon gn_ • e master invener 1s operational
at all times and monitors the ~utput of slave inverters and controls their operation
based on the level of total available arra~ power ~utput. F~r ex~mple, if the plant Inverter
generates 500 kW, then only one slave inverter 1s operabonal tn addition 10 th PVstrilg
master inverter. The master-slave arrangement is used to maximize the efficien e
of DC to AC conversion process and the operating life of the inveners. cy
Series string inverter The series string inverter is used when a number of PV modules are connected i
f1GURE 11.17
paranel slrinll inverter diagram. -------~Grid
series combination to fonn a string (see Figure 11.16). The number of invene~ The parallel string inverters can be used with thin film modules having large voltage
used depends on the number of strings. A set of series string inveners can be output and small current output. The current output of the parallel string is the
used with PV array when series strings use modules having non-identical type . . i..a1 sum total of the individual module currents and the parallel string inverter input
make or power rating. The module MPP current needs to match with that of othe; ,jjjjilel . _ lmlffln
_;; large current rating can be selected to match this. The parallel string inverters are typically
modules connected in a series string connection, however, the string MPP voltage fJi'!~emaR current installed outdoors and are rated for IP54 or IP65 (Water and Dust Ingress Protection)
need not match MPP voltage of other strings as each string has its own inverter. ~~:--- _.. • · for operation in hostile conditions.
The series string inverters are also used when one or more strings are under partial
or complete shading during the day. The use of string invener maximizes power The module inverter is used with each module when a number of dissimilar PY modules
output of individual series string. The series string inveners are nonnally not suitable Module inverter (non-identical type, make or power rating) are used in an array or when the modules
for use with PV array employing thin film technology due to low string currents. can be shaded differently due to non-unifonn shading pattern (see Figure 11.18).
The series string inverters are typically rated for 10 kW-100 kW output power A set of module inverters can be connected to grid in parallel and they operate
and 200-600 V DC string voltage. These inverters are typically used in medium independent of each other. Neither the module MPP voltage nor the MPP current
to large size installations ranging from 100 kW to 1 MW. The AC cable sizing for needs to match these parameters with other modules as each module has its own
string inverter configuration becomes unmanageable beyond 1 MW plant rating. inverter. The use of module inverters maximizes power output of individual modules
The series string inverters are typically installed outdoors and are rated for IP54 or and, in tum, delivers maximum power output from the array. The voltage and current
IP65 (Water and Dust Ingress Protection) for operation in hostile conditions. input rating of the module inverter is selected to match the range of voltage and
current output ratings of the modules.
PVstring
FIGURE 11.16
Series string Inverter diagram, each
string has Its own string inverter. lnvelter
FIGURE 11.11 = II I I I I =-~
Module Inverter diagram.
. Wh<o mod,!, i"'"" is ;nregratol wi• th, PV roo!W• it is "'1ol piggy-bock
rThi iiiliii llrlng lnvertn .. mverter and the module is termed AC module as it delivers AC output directly
lnorma1y not IUllable for UII wllll
larray ernploylng thin 111m 111c:t111ology, oomp,tiblo with"""" AC grid ,o!i,g,. AC roo1,1., "'<li""1Y iot<d""1 with
tduelolow~~ _ _.___...,___ _.__-...,_ Grid
the mains AC grid.
The module inverters are installed outdoors and are rated for IP65 (Water and
Parallel string inverter The parallel string inverter is used when a number of PV. modules are connected Dust Ingress Protection) for operation in hostile conditions.
in parallel combination to form a string (see Figure 11.17). A set of parallel string
inverters can be used with PV array when two or more parallel strings use modules n,e ••IP"" of i"''"°" ""' with th< solu ,rr,y "' "'""""' to AC •""""'""
having non-identical type, make or power rating. The module MPP voltage needs to boX .,;,g AC "bl« Th<"~" ue-' fo< • mi,,imwn of 1.25 '"" th< AC
11.3.6
match with that of other modules connected in a parallel string connection, however,
AC Cabling
,i,ctrlt Jneak" "'"'" nttinS· Th< AC "b1" "' _ , im ioooo< wl<o "~'°'"'"
the string MPP current need not match MPP current of other strings as each string
2641 Solar Photovoltaic Technology and Systems: AManual for Technicians, Trainers and Engineers 1265
the inverter is located indoors, for example, a central inverter. The When the PV energy generated is less the energy consumed by the
AC cabl load, the net
rated for outdoor environment when the inverter is located outdoor energy meter runs in forward direction (positive reading), If PV generated
s, for ex: ~e energy is
greater than energy consumed by load, then energy is exported to grid.
string or module inverter. In this case,
P e, the net meter runs in reverse direction (negative reading). Thus, net
meter can run
AC distribution box is used to distribute AC cables to transformer or in forward as well as reverse direction. During certain period if the
11.3.7 load, A tw _ more energy is
AC circuit breaker is used to isolate inverter from transformer consumed by the load (than produced by PV), then the net meter reading
AC Distribution Box or load Tho pole will be
circuit breaker current rating is typically 1.2 times the maximum positive and if more energy is produced by the PV modules than consumed
. load cu~ e AC by the
AC line fuses and surge protectton dev1ces
. be .
can incorporated with AC dislrib ent. The load, then net meter reading will be negative. Negative net meter reading
11• that energy is fed to grid. implies
box. The output of AC distribution box is connected to transform
er or 1 ; ~n
AC energy meter used to monitor PV generated energy as shown
in Figur:~ Positive net meter reading: If PV generated energy is less than energy c~ns_umed
r- by load, energy is imported from grid. The energy flow in the Net meter
AC energy meter 1s m the
forward direction.
AC circuit breaker
Fuse Energy consumed by load = PV generated energy + Energy drawn fr
L om gn'd
Net meter reading is positive when energy is drawn from grid.
From Inverter To load
Negative net meter reading· If PV
_ "_ d by load, enugy ;s ,~ rted to~orated "''ID' • &'.""' Ihm> "''ID'
r..- - _,, • ,.,.... _.,;;;;J :onsume
N N
-
m the re,re,se directioo, po gnd. The ""ID' flow '" !he Net meter •
AC protection
FIGURE 11.19
fA18fgf II df8WI\ fromgrid and •~~ti
AC distribution box diagram.
- •reedinll
,,rwllll
,;.t..negative.. whe.j
. . " .Is PV generate
. d,energy= Energy consumed bY I" d + E,e,gy fed to grid
.... - ·- - -- Net meter readmg is negative when energy •1s 'ed
,, to gnd.
•
The low voltage transformer can be incorporated with the inverter.
An external £XAMPLE 11.5
transformer is required for AC load circuit isolation when transform If PV meter
energy meter reads JO kWh and Load meter reads 8 kWh, what
reading?
erless inverter is will be the Net
employed. A three-phase low to medium voltage step-up transform
er is used when
the output of inverter is connected to medium voltage grid at the PV meter reading= 10 kWh
distribution level
(11 kV-33 kV). Solution
Load meter reading = 8 kWh
AC energy metering and AC energy metering is required to determine the amount of energy Since P~ generated energy is greater than energy consumed by load, it
produced by indicates
net metering solar PV system. The metering configuration used depends on the that energy 1s fed to the grid.
application. The
PV energy meter connected in series with the inverter output is used PV generated energy = Energy consumed by load + Energy fed to grid
to monitor PV
generated energy. The load energy meter connected in series with Energy fed to grid = PV generated energy - Energy consumed by load
the load is used
I\! to monitor energy consumed by load. The net energy meter is used
to monitor net = 10 kWh - 8 kWh = 2 kWh
ti energy import from or export to the grid.
The PV and load energy meters are uni-directional and register Net energy flow is 2 kWh into the grid and hence the net energy meter
I the flow of would
Load ~ mateni ariiiiii::ciiilictionll1energy in forward direction. The read - 2 units. The negative sign indicates the energy is fed to the grid.
I::!.:1'5:rec!!.
net energy meter is bi-directional and registers the
ofnet-:, : flow of energy in both forward and reverse
meter 1a bl-directional and reglalffl that three energy meters;
directions. It is shown in Figure 11.20 If net energy meter reads +4 kWh and load meter reads 10 kWh, what
(a) PV meter, (b) Load meter and (c) Net meter can be is the PV
flow of energy In bolt! forward and used in a PV system. Minimum two
EXAMPLE 11.6
119
L V91'.!,_dlrec:tions.
energy meters are required to determine overall generated energy?
energy flow (see Figure 11.20). From the definition, net energy meter reading is positive, indicating that
:1 more energy
Solution is consumed by the load than produced by PV.
\1 PV array
Net energy meter reading: +4 kWh
Grid
Load meter reading: 10 kWh
Energy consumed by toad = PV generated energy + Energy drawn from
I Controller grid
pV generated energy = Energy consumed by load - Energy drawn
from grid
= 10 kWh - 4 kWh = 6 kWh
Inverter PVmeter
Therefore, PV generated energy is 6 kWt>.
FIGURE 11.20 "'°bkm II~' fn • PV system wJ,ereW oet metering ;, do"- ;f PV
AC energy metering in a grid meter to-"
20 kWh ,nd Jood ""'" re-" JO kWh, whal will be the ,et energy motor
connected system. re,,liog1
Loads - -
266 1 Solar Photovoltaic Technology and Systems: AManual for Technicians, Trainers and Engine
ers
Temperature loss,
267
"
Some basic principles to be followed when
11.4 power plant for small power applications are
designing a quality grid-connected PV dust loss Inverter losses
as follows:
Grid-connected PV System I. Select a packaged system that meets
~I- J Inverter I
the J
al owner's needs . . Customer critena
DC cable losses Load
Design for Small Power for a system may include meetm .
g annu energy requir
•
f1GuitE 11.21
AC cable losses I I
ements, reduction •
Applications monthly electricity bill, environmental benef
its, desire for back-up pow:"
di8!1_rsm of_ gn~-connected PV
IY51efll w,th indiC8ti
.
initial budget constraints,
OIIS of various l\jGrl d i II
etc. iosse5 111 pl/ system.
2. Size and orient the PV array to provide the
expected electrical power and
energy. We can consider any additional load or allowances
in load in near future. For example,
3. Ensure the roof area or other installation adding new fans or computers in future. Let
site is capable of handling the us assume that another four kWh
desired system size. will be consumed by the future loads. Then the
total estimated energy of the loads
will be:
4. Locate the array to minimize shading
and interference with obstructions.
5. Ensure that suitable cable ducts are
Current load + Future load = 15 + 5 = 20 kWh/d
available to lay DC cables from array ay
to the inverter. Based onbetheestima
can also dailyted.
energy requireme ts
n ' moothiYand yearly energy requirements
6. Ensure control room is available indoors
to house inverter as well as DC
and AC distribution boxes.
Step 2 Av~rage daily ~~ar radiation In temlS
7. Specify sunlight and weather resistant of equivalent sunshine hours:
materials for all outdoor equipment. verage ~ruly solar rad1a11on for a given locatio
n, where solar PV plants is to be
8. Design the system with a minimum of mstalled,_ 1~ norm~y given in terms of kWh/m1
electrical losses due to wiring, fuses, /day. Normally in India, the daily
switches, and inverters. solar rad1auon vanes between 4 to 7 kWb/m1/day.
Now, since the solar PV modules
9. Design the system in compliance with all are rated for standard test condition (STC) which
applicable building and electrical is equal to sunlight power density
codes. of 1000 W/m2 or l kW/m1 and temperature of
25°C. It means that a LOO w PV
module will provide output power of 100 WP only
10. Ensure the design meets local utility
interconnection requirements. when the condition corresporiding
to STC is matched.
10.4.1 We need to design the system to meet annual Suppose at a given location average daily solar 1
energy consumption requirements. The radiation is 5 kWh/m /day, this
Steps of System Design can be written as I kW/m1 x 5 hour/day (for detaile
energy flow happens from PV array to the d discussion, refer to Chapter 10).
=1"""'
load
proceed in the reverse direction of energy flow, _and the PV system design should In this way, we can say that daily solar radiatio 2
n of 5 kWh/m /day is equal to solar
rn,, ..., - I;;;;;;;;,-"'" i.e., from load to PV array. In the power density of 1kW/m1 for 5hours per day. Althou
:::zn'°
c1nct1on of -w low.
":: pad>. we shool<I "'°"'' fo, .u '""' mPV ,y,~m . In tho grid" '"""'"
PV system, since power capaci~ is normally
large as compared small stan~alone
"
in a day, and intensity changes from morning to
is referred as equivalent sunshine hours. The equiva
gh the sunshines for longer hours
evening. In this case, 5 hours/day
system, and hence power losses m DC as well lent sunshine hours is very useful
• ---· as AC cables must also be considered. concept because PV modules are rated for STC
A simple block diagram of grid-connected PV condition.
system is shown in Figure 11.21.
In this case, the PV system is assumed to Step 3 Estimate the AC power supplied to the
be connected with the grid. The PV load:
design analysis is presented assuming that
all the power required by the load is of kW) can be obtained by dividing the total energy A~ power output (i~ tem:'5
to be supplied by the PV array alone. Howe _suppl'.ed t~ the load (given tn
ver, since the grid is connected to the terms of kWh) by the equivalent daily hours of
PV system, any additional power generated sunshine (given 1_n terms of hours or
by the PV array (than required by the 'h'). In this example, daily energy consumed is
load) will be supplied to the grid, and any 18 kWh and h 1s taken as 5 hours.
deficit of power required by the load
will be drawn from the grid. In principle, a Daily energy to load (in kWh)
grid-connected PV system can also be AC power to load (in kW)= Equiva
design to take some percentage of power from • lent
• daily
• sunshm • e hours (in h)
the PV array and some percentage
of power from the PV array, or a grid conne
cted PV system can be considering the
rooftop area available for the installation of =~= 4kW
" ___ __ -~- __ PV module as limiting factor. If the Sb
whole rooftop area is covered by PV modules,
There . . • number of poulbllllla
• grld-cor~Mld8d Pl aya111m dellgn, or m • h rt.a d din the power generated may be surplus
s o ge, epen g on the case power can either . . Step 4 Estimate the AC power output of invert
and dellgn dependa on 119 COllllrllnt can be fed to the gnd or power er or PV plant output power:
be drawn from the grid. In this way, there The AC output power losses consist of transformer
whlctl may come flam load aide, grid grid-c are a number of possibilities of a and AC cable losses. The AC
onnected PV system design, and design depen ootpot pow« tossos "' ,ypi"lly of d,o '"""
aide or sJltyllcll lnhllN dln Ilda. • come ds on the constraint which may of 2% m 5%. In obis """'' ''· Id
from load side, grid side or physical infrastructu
re side. . . Power fed to load (kW)
us say this is 5%.
Step 1 Estimate annual energy usage: In AC power output of mverter (tn kW)= -(l - AC power losses)
this step, the estimation of energy
consumption by the load is done. The proces
s is explained in detail in Chapter 2. 4 4 4
As an example, let us assume that energy
consumed by the load is 15 kWh or
15 units per day. Th"'• '"''" " AC o,tp,t Po""' a a !-o.05 a . , ; a 4.21 >W
268 I
Solar Photovoltaic Technology and
systems: A Manual for Technicians,
Step 5 Esti!!.9te_ et DC power

Trainers and Engineers
th DC power input to inverter

: The input to
will be more than the inverter invert
that the temperatu
I·f PV module is char
re coef
Chapter 11: Gri<konnected Solar PY
acteficie
. nt is• given
• in tenn
Power Systems
269
DC power· 1 ,.e output AeCrWill be t<mp<raru" i, so•c. ""' ~':: s of

inpu
. th •nve
due to losses m e 1 rter. Toe inverter power Iosses consist
DC AC conversion losses. The •
• of MPPT pow
er
m temperature is: • STC ""' '"" of
oss'" powe ,f,;; "~ ""'""'·
r output of modueoland rar
if avera
rayged. Th~
operating'
inverters are becomm • The per
and to . ·nve
•
g very effic•trackin
power losses m I rter are in the range of 2% to 5%. Let us assume tha tnt g centage power losses
ue to increase
and to temperature:
losses are 3% in this example. mvener or crystalline silicon moduIes or PV array due
. . W)
In rt DC power mput (m k _ Inverter AC power output (kW)
ve er - -::----:----''----:..:!:..:..:...~•' Mod
(I - Inverter power losses) • Th ule tempe rature loss= so•c - 2s•c 0.45%
4.21 x o·c = 11.25%
4.21 4.21 e min
percentage power 1
Thus, inverter DC input power= assu
1-(3 /10 0) = l-o.03 = 0.97 = 4.34 kW. osseres coeff
g power temperatu for thin
icienfilm
t ofPV
0.3%m~;,les
due to temperature,
Step Estimate DC power outp
6 input, ut of PV arra y: Between the Module temperature loss= so•c
inverter there are DC cables. The DC cabl PV array and the - 25•c x--
es also ha:e power losses. The o•c-75
0.3% - • •°',.
cable losses depend on the cable DC
thickness and length. Typical I'
-- "- - --
- -
of. -
for maximum DC cable losses systems are designed
have to produce more power. Assu
of 3~- Due to the cable loss
es, the PV array will
. . .
. ,
t,r e gl¥8II
-
.
.,, Module
of . , _ .
. - droppmg,soili _,
'"·ng 1~• - Th,_
c1o,m,g1of. . . . • • i
1D1ng DC cable losses of 3%: rnoc1Ule tor evettY degree, loss. T h
.,Jo
Typical mod
pori
bin\
odi<
ule soiling loss •

od
'YP'
o>ll
y
ules is recommended
by
. , . _
d"1.
. kW) _ Inverter DC power inpu ... ... to minimize soiling

PV array DC power output (ID
- (l - DC cable Iosses)
t (kW) ',..,
-~
1'!!!
-•
...• '""
- • --
!!!!!2f'V
•
--~
-" -
"' ,,,.
,-1,
"'-!'!'!!!""""·
Thos' th
' !01'1 PV mo<i,k loo" °"'""" •
" ' whil
• S~•• •
. , __J , To"'1 modwo Jou - M' 1 • 1m ''"" ""' ~,...
4.34 ""' "' '" • "'" '"" ' 1~ • •s,m
Thus, PV array DC output pow
er= _ ( /J00) =
4.34
1-o.03
4.34 = 3% + 11.25 % + 5% = 19.25% ,, 1~
1 3 = 0_97 = 4.47 kW Step 8 Estimate fmal required
In this way, the estimated size 1ho DC powu .,., .., " o,tim PV arra •
of PV array is 4.03 kW. Rem ,t<d i, , : "'" "''
operatlDg losses estimated in Step Tho PV "" ' ""' "" ''
power rating of the PV modules ember that this 7. Consi~c~nbgu:ii~:e : : tmaluPstValso
is power rating under STC supply. the
means it is peak power rating with condition, which woold bo,
subscript 'p', i.e., 4.47 kW P or
almost equal to • ' ""' """ "'
4.5 kWp. Final PV array power output (in kW)
Step 7 Take operating losses in = PV array DC power output (kW)
account: In practice, while I - operating losses
in field, there are several losses PV modules operate _ 4.5
that can occur. Some losses are 4.5 4.5
large. The module or PV array small and some are
output gets reduced by the follo
wing way:
- I -(19.25/100) i-OJ92 = 0,808
J. Manufacturing tolerance/module = 5.57 kWp
mismatch loss
2. Module temperature loss . Too,, tho fi,,.J PV "" ' copo
3. Module soiling loss ts added in power, i.e., WP to<iO ..,,i '"1 S S.57 Rom u th< mbsai~ 'p'
indicate that this power rating<mb
k W
,
Module mismatch losses: The is for STC condition.

typical manufacturing toleranc Step 9 Estimate required num
output power is +/- 3%. The mod e of PV module ber PV modules: For this purp
ule mismatch loss is, therefor choose the modules that are avail ose, one can
e, 3%. able in the market, their making and
Module temperature losses: PV modules are available in the power rating.
In order to determine module capacity of 30 WP to 300 Wp- Norm
module average operating temperatu temperature losses,
Cell Temperature (NOCT) is defin
re needs to be determined. The
ed as module cell temperature
Normal Operating
under STC of 2s•c.
•PPikotio" oo,diog PV modo\o,
high,< w.. ,g, ratiog. fu hig h"io ~,oral "'°'" '"'°"
235 W ,nd 240 W _, ..,i! y •- ra1i,> ay,Wli,. Si PV modol« of 230 W,
kW
,.
mod
ally, for
o\o, of
Typical PV module NOCf is spec ,,,;b b•- Fo, o,,ropls if°" ' d><
ified at 45 °C. The average oper '°" m ,~ PV
of the module cell depends on ating temperature modol.'; of 240 W,'. which i, oo•
the average ambient tempera -'•Y' .,,;1 ,bi. "'' th< mol ""
average ambient temperature of ture conditions. for '" of PV
30°C, the module average oper modules required would be:
is 50°C. ating temperature
The temperature coefficient for ~= ~: :2 3. 20
output power of PV module 240
0-25%/°C to 0.5%/°C. This power temperature coefficie is in the range of 240
loss of power for a given module nt gives an indication or n the next integer value, we can
or say 24 PV module will be required.
The crrstalli~e si~icon
for every degree centigrade rise
in temperature- taki '°'""ti°"
g
of "" ' PV mod•!" woold d•P"d h.
oo • , m""" •
o.45%I C while thm filmmod
T h
ules have power temperature powo< '"" '

modules have lower temperature co-efficient ~f abO: and input DC voltage the inverter
?-2~/•C !0 0.3%/°C. Normally, the coefficient ranging fro S to .... .... in" "" po• " can take.
,.,w,,
is given m the datasheet of man power temperature coefficient of PV modu~
m ,., 6, ii ;, "'" '"' ••
ufactures. It mostly depends
; •powo, inP°' IO'"""";, 4.34 kW, ii_ ,. th" on ;,,,n th<
o, ,...,Id bo abl<
modules but to some extent also on material of p
depends on the manufacture
as well. Note here
w
Chapter 11: Gri<konnected Solar PV Power Systems

270 Solar Photovoltaic Technology and Systems: AManual for Technicians, Trainers and Engineers 271
.,;;--ration or module tolerance, maximum available solar d" • d .
, ~ c:on,,w- Th .
e maximum string I is equal tora th1ation an• maximum
• temperature of
• much power• Nonnally, for the safety purpose little higher P<>w
,,,..,-,;; .,.,f'!/ ,nodulet to be operatton. od .
to process th1s . fro er '1" -Ht d strlnll) and the connected strin and th . sc: e maximum m ule /IC for a senes
• • h
rating 1s c osen. This is required because. reflection ·111--~ - c1ependl on th be f g, .
od I m clouds
I · or
· other
• obiects
' .., • .,..., e num
. e maximum array /IC is maximum siring /IC multiplied by
r o stnngs man array.
-
may temporan1y 1 ·ncrease the sunlight falhng .on m u e,beresu tmg m higher pow
er ~~~tlngl•,;, -'.- - -
• About 10% higher inverter capacity should. chosen. Also,
generauon. . . . we have ~ ~- the number Le~ us no~ ~o to _fi nd out the number of modules we should be connecting in a
.d ed about 3% mismatch losses, m case there 1s no mismatch m modules
cons1 er •
This extra power would appear at inverter. mput, we shouId take safety for this· te,,n,n,ng . stnng. This IS d~1ded by considering the allowable V and V at the input of
purpose as well. Overall, our inverter capacity should be 10% to 15% higher than
()e
oduIes I'n string • d 11
inverter an • mp and Voc of the PV modules selected for mp mu
installation.
input power value estimated in Step 6. of m Table I 1.1 gives the list of commercially available PV modules with their
parameters. These modules can be used for grid-connected PV system applications.
DC input power to inverter {kW) Using these PV modules, the PV systems of capacity from few kW 10 MW level plants
Inverter power rating (in kW) 1 - saftey factor
can be installed. Nonnally, for MW level plants, higher wattage rating PV modules
4.34 4.34 4.34 , are preferred. Table 11.2 gives the typical parameter of comrnertially available
I - (15/100) = I - 0.15 = Q85 = 5•1I kW grid-connected inverter. The main parameters of these inverters are maximum DC
Note that this is the input power rating of inverter. Due to losses within inverter input voltage, maximum power point tracking voltage range, maximum DC input
the output power rating of the inverter will be less. current, efficiency of inverter and its AC power rating. Referring to Figure 11.21,
'
and by using Table 11.l and Table 11.2, we can estimate the number _of panels ~al
Step 11 PV array configuration: The PV array configuration or the number of we can connect in a PV siring and the number of such strings that will be required
PV modules to be connected in series or in string, and the number of parallel strings for given power applications.
depend on the inverter voltage ratings. The PV string Voc and Vmp must be within
allowable limits of inverter ratings. Maximum lsc of the PV array should also be TABLE 11.1 Typical Parameters of Commercial PV Modules
r
within acceptable limit to the inverter.
Final array configuration is selected based on inverter input DC voltage window S.No. Model X v.. (V)_--'--_,;;.;i.. (Al
P.,"--'-f'N""p)_---''-' v,. M i.. (Al
of operation. Inverter manufacturer specifies a range of Vmp values for its MPPT Module 1 125 22.1 7.9 18.2 6.9
1
22.0 8.38 17.7 7.63
operation. Based on module tolerance and its minimum and maximum temperature 2 Module 2 135
22.4 8.5 18.35 7.9
of operation, a range of module Vmp output is determined. For a number of modules, 3 Module 3 145
7.66
32.5 8.42 26.1
connected in a series string, a range of string Vmp values is calculated. The number 4 Module 4 200
33.81 6.21
41.59 7.13
of modules in a series string is determined such that its range of Vmp output falls 5 Module 5 210
28.6 8.05
36.0 8.45
well within the permitted range of Vmp values of the inverter. This is demonstrated 6 Module 6 230
30.60 7.85
in Figure 11.22. 240 37.38 8.45
7 Module 7
PVarTay ----- ---- ------------------v....

--- TABLE 11.2
Typical Parameter of Commercially Available Grid-connected Inverters
A '\ Maximum DC Input "•'""""" nower point

,,,_,_... ~-- . ----(MPP) MIJmlUlfl DC Pea/I elllcltncY (°')
r "" c:utrllll (A)
PVS1ring #1 _______vI~------------- NJ pcwet oulpllt (kVA) Model I/Ollllg9 (V) vo/111{19 t,addng (lflgfl 1• 1
97.0
00-00- -· ----,---
v..., - -------------~'!l' (
PV string #2 ------------------1---1--
--.1s--'t"-
5
lnveter 1
lnveter 2
600
600
80-120
100-160
50
75
97.5
98.2
00-00- -- q
PV Siring# .....
q Inverter
10
17
lnveter 3
lnveter 4
600
600
400-800
330-600
35
800
97.5
98.6
00-00- -·
250 lnveter 5 600 98.6
FIGURE 11.22 330-600 1470
500 lnve1er 6 1000
Array voltage level and voltage levels 460-875 2100
1000
acc:eptable at the input ol lnvelt8r. Array voltage Inverter acceptable Number of PV modules required: In this example, total PV array capacity
levels voltage level ----
required is 5.57 or about 6 kWP (from S1ep 8). Suppose we choose Module 3 (from
Inverter manufacturer also specifies maximum input DC voltage rating. Based Table 11.1) for this installation. The rated power capacity of Module 3 is 145 Wp.
on module tolerance and its minimum temperature of operation, maximum module Therefore, the number of Module 3 required for 6 kWP system would be:
Voc output is determined. For a number of modules connected in a series string, . Total PV plant capacity
maximum string Voc output is equal to the maximum module V multiplied by the
Total no. of modules required = Rated power of one modu1e
number of modules. The maximum array Voc is equal to the maximum 00
string Voc
for a number of strings connected in parallel to make an array. It is then verified 6 kW6000 1.37
=__L==-==4
that the maximum array V00 is less than maximum input DC voltage rating of the 145 WP 145
inverter. This is demonstrated in Figure 11.22.
It is also verified that the maximum array I.,, is within the maximum input DC To round off, we need about 42 PV modules of 145 Wp for this PV system.
current rating of the inverter. The maximum module I.., is determined based on
Chapter 11: Grid-<:onnected Solar PV Power Systems
,
273
in I string: In order to determine the number of py
Number of Pv modu'es bl I · ·
-~ - - ,aUng ·c1oe, not match
'\'1111" ="'·-· From this calculation we
modules •ID the array, we should look at the accepta
• 'th the
. e vo tage
th rat1Dg of·1Dverter
. and
voltage ratings of stnngs as per e presentation given in
wtd' FA/ arr&Y :~i!:~etoitherfit : • can see that th
~an the ma~imum allowable DC current :t":nl of 7 strings put together is higher
try to mateh It WI • 22 4 V V • 18 35 V d I .
SC:uirements 0( we change is NOT suitable for this applicatio Th the mve_rter. It suggests that the Inverter I
• 11 21 The v of PV Module 3 1s • • mp ts • an m 1s 7.9 A. rll/ system requirements to some other inverter to fit our PV n. crc~ore, m such cases, either we choose
Figurefro • s· 10 tlte inverter power rating is 5.11 kV A. Let us say that there is a yourtch with the Inverter rating. Jrequirements to match w'th
Now, m tep ' •
• erter avru'lable in the market 1s 5 kVA ( In l ' T tflll • 1 the .mverter
array req~irements or we change our py system
raung.
commerc1•a1 mv . see verter . ID able 11 2)
· ·
Its Maximum Power Point (MPP) voltage tracking range 1s 80 V-120 V and Step 12 Select Balance of System (BoS)
maximum input DC current is 50 A. DC BoS components·
components: Various Balance o •
Since when we connect PV modules in series, the volta~e gets added, therefore, to integrate the system PV f SySlems (BoS) components are required
we need to connect many Module 3 in series to get the_ required voltage in the range combiner boxes and DC distri~~! su:°rt structurc, DC cables, string and array
of Inverter I. If we divide Vmp range of Inverter l ':1th ~e Vmp of the Module 3, PV array support structur •o~ h xes are used on the DC system side.
we will get number of PV modules to be connected ID senes to form one string is: tracking. The structure is u ~, •s o t ree t~pes; fixed, manual tracking and auto-
string and array d . sdua y custom designed to suit the type of modules used
. . Vmp voltage of selected inverter es1gn an the type d th 1 .
No. of modules ID stnng = .v of selected PV module
installed The mod I . an e s ope of temun where the array is'
mp or alumi~um secti~n: mo;ntmg ~mes are t~pically fabricated using galvanized iron
. d d h . an are designed to withstand outdoor temperature humidity
Since the inverter V tracking range is 80 V to 120 V, let us have an average of WID an ot er environmeOta1 f
'th Ii actors. The modules are either bolted onto' the frames•
it, that is, JOO V. This 100 V will be the Vmp of the PV module string. Note that h
or . eblId w1 c ps The f
• rames are secured onto roof structure or on ground using
any other voltage level within the inverter tracking range can also be chosen. We su1ta. e support. members• The support •
members are typically fabricated using metal
have to only ensure that the array Vmp point should lay within the inverter Vmp secttons matchmg modul~ frame sections or using treated wooden sections. The
range in all operating condition support structures are typically grouted into concrete blocks secured onto terrace or
firm groun~. The support structures can also be rammed into soft ground.
~=5.44
18.35 The stnng/array combiner box are typically double insulated and rated for lP65.
The surge protection devices are typically rated for 600 V to 1000 V DC. The
The above calculation shows that we will have to connect 5.44 PV modules in double. pol~ DC disconnect switch is rated for minimum of 1.25 times PV array
series, or to round it off, we get 6 modules. The Vmp of 6 module series will be sh~rt c1rcu1t current. The DC disconnect switch inside array combiner box is used
18.35 X6 = 111.9 to 1solate PV array from the DC cables in the building and the inverter. The Ground
Fault Detector Interrupter (GFDI) device is typically designed to detect 5% of PV
It is still in the range of Vmp tracking of inverter and should be acceptable. Also, array maximum output current as ground fault current and interrupt DC input circuit.
remember that if the temperature of cells in module is higher than 25 °C, the actual The DC disconnect switch and surge protection devices arc also housed in the
module Vmp in the field will be lower. It means that the Vmp of 6 PV modules in DC distribution box located near the inverter. Alternatively, they are integrated with
series are within acceptable limit.
the inverter DC input circuit. The DC disconnect switch inside DC distribution box
Number of PV strings in parallel: In total, we need to connect 42 PV modules is used to isolate DC circuit inside building from the inverter.
in this grid-connected PV system. One of the string of PV modules will have 6 PV If the DC cables are rated for a minimum of l.25 times the string short circuit
modules. Therefore, the number of strings to be connected in parallel will be: current at each location, string fuses are optional. The string blocking diodes are also
optional for small size power plants using less than four strings. The DC cables are
No. of stn•ngs •ID paralle1= -
Total
- -no.
- of
--PV-modules
- - - -in'system
---
either rated for outdoor environment or are housed inside conduits which, in tum,
No. of modules in a string are rated for outdoor use.
The total length of string DC cables is two times (positive and negative cables)
= 42 = 7 the distance between modules and the string combiner box. The total length of array
6 'DC _....., , DC cables (positive and negative cables) is two times the distance between array
Thus, we need to connect 7 strings of 6 modules in parallel. Note, that when we --
........... size Is,__
, .,,,._ selected the
such that
. combiner box and •inverter The DC cable size • 1s • se1eeled sueh that the totaI power
... - ,--wr - over entire
length or DC cables Is within 3% of loss over the entire length •of DC cables 1s . . .
connect strings in parallel, the current of each string gets added. The total current w1thm 3% of the rated PV array output
of the parallel combination will be the sum of current of each string. We have to •. . r"8d array output power. _ power.
m~e sure that the total current of the strings is within the limit of the inverter. In AC BoS components: The BoS components on the AC system side are AC circuit
this example, the maximum DC current limit of Inverter 1 is 50 A. In this case, the
breakers, AC overvoltage protection devices, AC output transfonners, AC cables,
Module 3 ls.c is 8.5 ~• and 7 strings are connected in parallel, therefore, the total
current of all the stnngs will be: AC distribution boxes and AC energy meters.
The AC circuit breakers and AC overvoltage protection devices are typically
Total current of strings in parallel = Current of one string x Total number of strings · t grated with the inverter output AC circuit. Alternatively, they can be housed
me • Iallon
inside AC distribution box to facilitate the 1so • of'•~verter output near AC
= 8.5 X 7 = 59.5 A
. output
transfonners or loads. The AC circuit breakers are typically rated for 1.2 umes the
maximum AC output current of the inverter.
Th AC voltage protection devices are typically rated for 400 V AC for

phases circuits. 230 V
design the plant to get the best yield or ..

I 275
• 1 ch ircuits and 600 V AC for 415 V·1 three

b ·th· th · For instance, under Jawaharlal N h N~st electnc1ty generation from the plant.
sing e P ase c for LV . . • • th
e ru at1onal Solar .M'iss1on:
Th Ac Utput transfonncr is nonnally m t w1 m e mverter . circuits awardmg the contracts to install solar PV w e government is
•
c ted ro0 r 1 2 times the maximum AC output power of the inverter Por .. the PV I po er pl~ts m capacity of 5 MWp· There
and 1s• ra 1
1• • •
1
,
IV are other schemes in which
• •ts an external three phase step-up transfonner 1s used
. to supply AC poWer In such situation, the PV plant instalfe:~~ can '.nstalled in ~pacity of I MWp·
CIJCUI ' .
MV gn·d. The MV transfonncr 1s rated for 1.05 to 1.1 times
d . .
the maximum AC the losses in the plants are minimum and nt~ to~ es1gn the plant m_ suc_h a w~y that
to C. . PV ' ere ore, en~rgy generation is maximum.
output power of the inverter. The A . mput an output circuit breakers and AC Mostly, the electricity generated 10
d fi power plants 1s sold to the government at
voltage protection devices are used with AC ou~ut transfonner. The transformer pre e med rates. In the PV plant . m
design, we can do the des1gn . two parts:
losses are typically in the range of 2% to 5% of its rated output power. of energy output of PV plant
l. Part I: Estimation
The AC cables are typically rated for 1.2 times the maximum AC current Carried
The AC cables from inverter output to transfonner housed inside control roo~ 2. Pa~ 2: Determining the configuration of PV plant (string size, inverter
rating, etc.).
are rated for indoor environment. The AC cables from transfonner output to load
housed inside building are also rated for indoor specifications. The AC cables from In s~~ll grid-connected PV plants or in standalone PV system design, the design
transformer output to grid are rated for outdoor environment. The total length of or smog of components is done in the reverse order of energy flow. But in PV
_ _ - ~ -111- - Lv AC cables is twice the distance between inverter and transfonner or load. The
r~~-:Z-io !=::::.e
~J cables 11 within 2%
I of
=::
the rated
total length of MV AC cables is ~ic~ the distance between transfonner and grid
distribution centre. The AC cab!e s1~ _is selected such th~t the total power loss over
power plants, the design or sizing of the components is done in the direction of
JTn PV jjower. plants, the _design or' energy flow. ~is is_ done because, as discussed, the PV plant capacity is fixed
sizing of the components IS done In advance. In this secllon, let us see how we can design MW scale power
in
plants and
~er AC OU1pul ~ - ·_ _ .......J the entire length of AC cables 1s within 2% of the rated mverter AC output power. Llhe di'!_Cllon of !Inergy flow. _ - how much energy can be generated from these plants.
Step 13 Select energy meter: The energy meters are used to monitor energy
11.5.1 Step 1 Fixing the capacity of PV power plant: The first step is to fix the size
generated by PV power plant, energy consumed by load and energy supplied to
grid by the plant. Estimation of Energy or capacity of power plant. This is normally fixed by the government scheme under
which the PV power plant is being installed as the main purpose of PV power
In PV power plant for small power applications, net energy meter is used to Output of PV Plant plants is to generate electricity and sell it to the government. Typical power rating
monitor net energy drawn by load from grid or net energy supplied by inverter of these plants is l MWP' 2 MWP or 5 MWp· Some governments are also inst?lling
to grid. The net energy meter is rated for Low Tension (LT) grid voltage and PV PV power plants of very large capacities, ranging up to 500 MWp· The capacity of
power plant maximum output AC current or maximum load AC current whichever the overall plant is normally in the multiple of I MWp· In this case, let us design
is higher. The PV generated AC energy and the AC energy consumed by the load the power plant for I MWP capacity. Figure 11.23 shows the arrangement of a large
can be monitored by separate energy meters. Alternatively, DC energy meter can capacity PV power plant with associated losses.
be used at the output of PV array to monitor PV generated DC energy. In PV
power plant for large power applications, three phases AC energy meters are used
to monitor energy produced by PV power plant and supplied to MV grid. These Temperature, dust losses
Inverter losses
r--
rv
energy meters are rated for MV AC voltage. Additionally, inverter also monitors lnverter
AC energy produced by PV power plant. PV power plant array
' DC cable losses AC cable losses
Problem 11.6: Design a grid-connected PV system for fulfilling the load energy FIGURE 11.23
requirement
st of 12 kWh/day. Assume that grid is available full time and no battery All'angement of a large capacity PV Grid
orage is required. Give the details of all component selected for this plant. P0Wer plants with associated losses.
2/day. ambient temperature of 25 °C, and average solar
the average
TakekWh/m radiation of Step 2 Average daily solar radiation and equivalent sunshine hours: As discussed
5.5 in Section 11.4. l (steps of system design), we should get daily solar radiation data
of a location where PV plant is being installed. Using this data we can estimate the
Pro~lem 11.7: Design a grid-connected PV system for fulfilling the load energy amount of electricity that can be generated using a power plant of given capacity.
requrrement
st of 25 kWh/day. Assume that grid is available full time and no battery The solar radiation for a given location, where solar PV plants is to be installed, is
ora~e is req~ired. Give the details of all component selected for this plan~ The nonnally given in tenns of kWh/m2/day. Nonnally, in India, the daily solar radiation
~!ant is to be installed in Chennai where average solar radiation is 5.7 kWh/m /day. 2
varies between 4 to 7 kWh/m /day.
11.5
Grid-connected PV System Tho PV '''""" whloh are dosignod fo, powtt plant •PP1"•• • •00s .have. primary
function to feed power to the grid only, and not to any local load lik~ m design
""°" Since the solar intensities change on day to day and month to month basis.
Therefore, average daily solar radiation falling on a given location also changes.
If we want more accurate estimation of possible energy production from I MW
Design for Power Plants power plants. When we design a captive power plant, the basic
•
en·1en·on 1s to o·viry plant, we should try to get monthly average data for the site, and therefore, we
PV •Y'1<m k> moot °"'8Y d<-d, of the l«,J lo,d. Hore, th' gn'd connec """"' should estimate the possible electricity generation for each month. Also, note that
ho!" ., '"pPiy the iood if II= i, odditioo,J oottgy "'"""d °' """gerem for solar radiation data are available on horizontal surface. In order to collect more
energy is fed to the grid. On the other hand, when we design a solar PY sys d then solar radiation, solar PV modules are installed as tilted facing south. The tilt angle
power plants, the basic concept is to fix the size or capacity of power plant an
...
Solar Photovoltaic Technology and Systems: AManual for Technicians, Trainers and Engineers
2761 Chapter 11: Grid<onnected Solar PV Power Systems
277
·Solar radlallon d a - - - -. varies from one site to other site. Therefore, it is important that the
solar • • On dividing by 1000, we will get electricity in terms of kWh.
!of array (not hor1z:,:.., :; data is obtained for tilted plane or on the plane of array (PoA). Normall :d•atton
of PV modula should bl radiation data is always higher on PoA as compared to solar radiat·y,
011 170500000
..d819d In IOlar PV power ,-"
e solar Therefore, - - - W h = 170500 kWh
1
,con
design. ..,..,. honzontal
. surface. As an example ,or
r some site, ion •data• on
• these solar radiation dat 1000
- - - - - - - - _.....Jin 1 Table 11.3.
a ts given This is the electricity produced by the plant in the mont:1 of January. Similarly,
TABLE 11.3 Solar Radiation Data of Some Location, Giving Average Daily and Monthly Solar Radiation Data we can also calculate the electricity produced by I MWP PV plant in other months
(The Radiation Data Vary from One Site to Other Site) as well. Calculation for each month is given in Table 11.4. We can see from this
table that a total of 2.12 Million kWh electricity can be produced by this 1 MWP
Month Radiation on horizontal Radiauon on planfl of Equivalent daily sunshine No. of days Monthly radiation on- PV power plant.
array (kWh/m2) hours (Hours)
-
radiation (kWh/m2) plane of array (kWh/ml)
January 4.95 5.50 5.50 31 171 TABLE 11.4 Monthly and Annual Electricity Production Potential of 1 MWP Solar PV Plant for a Location
Under Consideration
February 5.50 6.12 6.12 28 171
March 5.8 6.45 6.45 31 200 Month Power plant capacity Monthly radiation on PoA (kWh/m2) Equivalent monthly aun"'"'9 Monthly eMtgy p,oduction
April 5.9 6.66 6.66 30 200 hours(hotlts} (kWh)
May 5.93 6.59 6.59 31 204 January 1 MWp 171 171
June 6.20 February 1 MWp 170500
5.58 6.20 30 186 171 171
July 5.49 6.10 March 171360
6.10 31 189 1~
Augusl 4.63 5.15 5.15 April 199950
31 180 1~
September 4.68 199800
5.20 5.20 30 156 May 1~
Oclober 204395
4,70 5.23 5.23 31 162 June 1 MWp 186 186
November 4.84 5.38 5.38 30 July 1 MWp
188000
161 169 189
December 4.87 5.42 5.42 31 August 1 MWp 160
189100
168 I
160 159650
Annual solar radiation on plane of array 2128 Seple,Vber 1 MWp 156 158
(kWh/m2) Oclobt\' 1 MWp
156000
162 162 162130
Solar 111dlalion data from one' November 1 MWp
lb to Olher Ille alsovi: .
the ...,,. Let us assume that we need to design this . · . .
1 MWp plant usmg solar ra~1a11on data December 1 MWp
161
168
161
168
161400
168020
site 11111• l'lldiabl dalll on the pi..e given in Table 11.3. In this section, we will do the
111111 calculation for one month, and Total electricity production potential by 1 MW plant In one year wilhout considering any losses
2,128,305
of ol modules arw dillel'llnt far it is expected that the readers will do the calculation
Y Ill (kWh)
dllle!wll of PV modules. J for other months on their own.
2.12 MIiiion kWh
Equivalent sunshine hours Let us take the month of January for the calculations. For the site under consideration,
the average daily solar radiation on the plane of array for the month of January is Note here that we have not taken any. losses in the PV plant in account. In the
5.5 k.Wh/m1/day (see Table 11.3). The average daily solar radiation of 5.5 kWh/m2/day following calculation, we need to consider all kind of losses to estimate the actual
is equal to solar power density of 1 kW/m1 for 5.5 hours per day (for details refer energy that can be delivered to the grid by this 1 MW PV plant.
to Chapter 10.
Thus, in this case, equivalent sunshine hours are 5.5 hours per day and monthly Step 4 Consider losses at PV array level: We can see from Table 11.4 that the
equivalent sunshine hours is 5.5 x 31 = 170.5 or 170.5 hours per month (for the total electricity production potential for site under consideration (for which solar
month of January). Note that these hours are for the radiation on the plane of array, radiation data is taken), and for the month of January is 170500 kWh. This electricity
i.e., for tilted surface. production is for ideal condition given by standard test condition (STC) wherein
PV module temperature (more precisely temperature of cells in modules) of 25 •c
Step 3 Estimating the energy production over a given period: In this ex.ample, is considered. In practice, due to non-deal conditions, several losses occur at PV
we will do calculation for the month of January. For the month of January, the module level which reduces PV module output. These losses include:
average daily solar radiation is 5.5 kWh/m1/day (see Table 11.3) and corresponding
I. Module temperature loss
average daily sunshine hours is 5.5 hours. The estimation of possible energy from
the plant .ca." be obtained by simply multiplying the PV plant capacity with the daily 2. Module soiling loss due to dust
solar radiallon data on the plane of array or plane of modules. In this example, the 3. Module mismatch loss
PV plant ~pacity is 1 MWP- Therefore, the maximum possible energy produced by 4. DC cable loss
the plant m the month of January is: 5. Solar radiation loss
Monthly energy production
Module temperature 1~: This is discussed in Section 11.4.1 where the design
= PV plant capacity x Average sunshine hours x Number of day in month of grid connected plant for small power application is considered. The loss of power
= 1 MWP x 5.5 hours x 31 due to temperature is given by temperature coefficient of power. The crystalline
= 1000,000 x 5.5 x 31 = 170500000 Wh silicon modules have power temperature coefficient of about 0.45%/°C while thin
film modules have lower temperature coefficient ranging from 0.2%/°C to 0.3%/ 0 C.
...........
f Technicians Trainers and Engineers
2781 Solar Photovoltak Technology and Systems: AManual or ' Chapter 11: Grid-connected Solar Pl/ Power Systems
1279
Also, 1·1 should be not ed that the cells in PY modules
• • h
arc at 20 °C to 25 oc
In this PV plant design, we arc so far doing the calculations in tcnns of energy.
th
th bicnt temperature, and, 11 ts t c eelI temperature At the inverter level, the energy output of the inverter will be less than the energy
higher temperature an e am(rerer Chapter 3). Suppose, for the site for which
•h Its in power 1osses 1' 10 that gets into the inverter due to losses in inverter. The inverter power losses consist
whic rcsu . . ha oc •
th' plant is designed wt11 ve 35 ambient temperature ·
m the month of January
• • of MPPT tracking and DC to AC conversion losses. The high power inverters (range
ts • oc higher than the ambient temperature, 1.c., the cell
and the cell temperature ts 20 of several 100 kW lo MW) arc becoming very efficient and power losses in inverter
. 20 _ 55 oc Then the percentage of power 1osses for crystalline
temperature 1s 35 + - • ' .. arc in the range of 1.5% lo 3%. Let us assume that inverter losses arc 2% in this
silicon modules or PY array due to temperature ts. example. The energy coming at the input of inverter in this example for the month
Module temperature loss= 55 C - 25 C x 0.45% - of January is 136059 kWh. Then, the available energy at the output of inverter will
0 0 0
•c -13.51/o be:
Energy at output of inverter (kWh)
Mod I 50ilin losses: This is the loss due to dust sclllcmcnl on the PY module
whichu ehindersg solar radiation cntcnng
• • 'd
ms1 e and th us reduces P?wer output. = Energy at input of inverter (kWh) x (I - losses at inverter)
Normally, even after regular cleanin~ of PY modules, the losses are m 1% to 2%
range. For this example, let us take 11 1.5%. = 136059 kWh x ( I - l~) = 136059 kWh x (I - 0.02)
Module mismatch losses: The typical manufacturing tolerance of PV module = 136059 kWh x (I - 0.98)
output power is +/- 3%. Let us take these losses to be about 1.5%.
= 133337.8 kWh (in the month of January)
DC cable I~: This is the resistive losses that happens in DC cables which connect
modules. Typically, cable thickness is chosen to keep the losses within 2%. For this Step 7 Energy red to the grid: Inverter is connected to th~ grid through AC
example, let us assume these losses to be about 1.2%. cables and isolation transfonner, if it is already not a part of inverter. Th~7
some losses that occur in AC cables too. This loss is normally very sm an
Solar radiation I~: This is the loss due to the reflection of PV modules from usually less than I%. In this example, let us say this los~ is about 0.5%. The enc;:~
the glass surface. This should be normally within 2% to 4%. Here, let us consider available at the output of the inverter is 133337.8 kWh is eventually the energy
this as 2.5%. 10 the grid will be:
In this way, the total PY module losses will be the sum of all the losses
mentioned here. Among all losses, the loss of temperature is most dominant which Energy fed to the grid (kWh) . AC blcs)
depends on the selection of a site. Normally, the sites which have higher temperature = Energy at output of •inverter (kWh) x ( I - losses ID ca
also have higher solar radiation. The advantage of higher solar radiation is normally
more than the loss of power due to higher temperature. = 133337.8 kWh x ( I - = 133337.8 kWh x (I - 0.005)
Thus, total module losses arc = 13.5% + 1.5% + 1.5% + 1.2% + 2.5% = 20.2%. = 133337.8 kWh x (0.995)
Step 5 Energy generation potential after considering module losses: So far we = 132671.1 kWh (in the month of January) .
have estimated the energy generation potential of I MW plant for a given site under
ideal condition. In Step 4, the estimated losses at module level is about 20.2% for .. , d th gn·d after cons1'den'ng all the losses m the month
Thus, the electnc11y ,c to c ' h' articular location) is 132671.1 kWh.
I
the month of January. Ideal energy generation for the month of January in the power of January (from MW plant and ,or be d
t is P
for other months. The summary of
plant is 170500 kWh. After considering the losses, the energy output of I MWP Similar calculations can also ~neT bl 11 5
PY plant would be: calculation for each month •is prescnted ID a e · ·
Energy generated after considering module level losses TABLE 11.5 Monthly Electricity Generation that can be Fed to the Grid from 1 MWp Plant
= Ideal energy generated without losses x (I - PV module level losses) Poww pin cepaclly
Md! Equlva/enl monthly Monlh/y -vY prr,dUcfion
,um1r1ne 1tout1 (/loutl}
Mon/Ny -w ptOdudion
(wilt!Out any losafl) (kWh)
l
___J_conslderlnfl al loUN) (kWh) I
= 170500 kWh x ( 1- 20.2) = 170500 kWh x (I - 0.202)
100 Janua,y 1 MWp 171 170500
171360
132666
133335
February 1 MWp 171
= 170500 kWh x (0.798) 199950 155561
Man:h 1 MWp 200
199800 155464
= 136059 kWh (in the month of January) April 1 MWp 200
159040
204 204395
May 1 MWp 144727
Similar to this, calculations can also be done for other months. June 1 MWp 186 186000
189100 147139
July 1 MWp 189
Step 6 Available energy ~t the output or Inverter: Electricity gets generated Augual 160 159650 124224
1MWp 121384
by PV m~ules and then 11 flows at the input of inverter in the DC form. This September 1 MWp 156 156000
162130 126153
DC power is converted to AC power by inverter. Other than converting DC power October 1 MWp 162
125585
10 AC 161 161400
power, the inverter also performs the function of maximum power point November 1 MW, 130736
tracking (MPPT). December 1 MW, 168 168020
2128305 1656034
Talal annual eleclrlcity producllon (kWh) 1.65 Million kWh
2.12 Million kWh
.. ,..
......
'
Ch•~tt 11, Grid«m•e<ted Sola, PV '""" s,.,m, I 281
PV plant performance ratio are ?1ad_e to generate as much energy as possible (remember in other small power
A PV power plant perfonnance ratio is the ratio ~f actual electricity fed to the •d
to that of electricity that would be produced by given plant capacity in the absence go applications, the plant capacity is decided based on the energy requirement of the
. load).
of any losses. It can be given as:
. Electricity fed to grid
PV plant perfonnance ratio=-;:;--,-:.--:.:-:---.-:;-;:--:-------:-.:.-:=-:..:..:..---- Inverter rating Since this PV plant is being designed for I MWP PV array capacity, the inverter in
Electncity generated by plant in absence ofanY 1osses the plant should also be able to process such power level. Therefore, the inverter
should also be of I MW or 1000 kV A rating. Although, due to temperature losses
~ In this case, the electricity generated by I MWp PV module in
rTypically Iha rf whole and other loss~. the power fed to the inverter would be lower than 1000 kV A, but
, pa ormance ratio of PV . . W d after cons•'denng • a11 the losses, the
power planlS varies be'-1 0% 2.12 M1lhon k h an electricity that year is
7 10
80%, and these days, Iha parfomlance fed to the grid is 1.65 Million kWh. Therefore, the Perfonnance Ratio of lean ~e when the lossts are low, there may be chance that whole 1000 kVA power gets
ratio of at least 75% 1s expacl8d from P ant 1s: fed into the inverter.
PCJWW plants. - - - - - • 1.65
Perfonnance rallo = -2.12 = 0•778 or 77•8%•
•
Let us first make a choice of PV modules for use in this I MWP PV plant. Nonnally,
Select PV module and
for large scale power plants, PV modules of higher wattage ratings are chosen.
It has been discussed that the loss of electricity occurs in many ways between the inverter
Sankey diagram for Looking at the PV module parameters given in Table 1I.I, let us choose a PV
generation of electricity at the module level to feeding of the electricity to the grid. Module 7 having rated wanage of 240 Wp· The other parameters of PV Module 7
overview of energy losses Toe losses due to temperature, dust, DC cable losses, AC cable losses, inverter
in PV power plants are as follows:
losses, etc. can be presented in the fonn of Sankey diagram to get good overview
of overall energy flow in PV power plants. An example of energy flow in PV plant I. Rated power of Module 7 = 240 WP
of I MW with various losses occurring at different stages is shown in Figure 11.24. 2. Open circuit voltage (V0,) = 37.38 V
3. Voltage at maximum power point (Vmp) = 30.60 V
2125-425 kWh Array nomlnal energy (at STC efflc:lency) 4. Short circuit current (/,.,) = 8.45 A
-2.5% PV loss due to irradiance level 5. Current at maximum power point Ump) = 7.85 A
Now Jet us select an inverter. After looking at Table 11.2, we can choose
-14.4% PV loss due to temperature
6
Inverter whose power rating (1000 kVA) matches with the need. The other
Array soiling loss parameters of Inverter 6 are as follows:
Module quality loss
I. AC power output = 1000 kVA
, -1.6% Module array mismatch loss
-1.2%
2. Max DC input voltage range = I000 V
Ohmic wiring loss
1697n4kWh I Array virtual energy at MPP 3. MPP tracking = 460 - 875 V
4. Max DC current = 2100 A DC
-1.5% Inverter loss during operation (efficiency)
5. Peak efficiency = 98.6%
0.0% Inverter loss over nominal inverter power
0.0% Inverter loss due to power threshold Note that, many times, one can also use small capacity inverters for large power
0.0% Inverter loss over nominal inverter vollage
Using small capacity applications. For instance, in order to design 1 MWP plant, instead of using one
Inverter loss due to voltage threshold inverters 1000 kVA inverter, one can also use two inverters of 500 kVA capacity. In the
1672142 kWh I Available energy at Inverter output extreme case, one can use one inverter for each string or even one inverter for each
FIGURE 11.24 -0.1% AC ohmic loss module as well.
Sankey diagram of PV power planl -0.6% External transfer loss In this example, total PV array capacity required is I MWP and we have chosen
showing various losses at different
stage of conversion.
1660614 kWh l Energy Injected Into grid Number of PV modules 240 WP PV module for installation. Therefore, the number of modules required for
required this plant would be:
11.5.2 So far we have studied at the electricity generation in I MWP PV plant, we have . Total PV plant capacity
Total no. of modules requued = _ __ .......:._
Determining Configuration considered various losses and estimated the electricity fed to the grid for the month Rated power of _
one,;._......:...
module
of PV Plant of January. We have not considered the number of PV modules which will be I MWP = 1000,000
required in 1 MWP PV plant. A detailed description of how to select a PV module
= 240W = 4166.6 modules
p
240
and how to select an inverter is given in Section 11.4.1, Step IO of this chapter
to read that again. The details about how to size a wire for a given application is To round off, we need about 4167 PV modules of 240 WP for this I MWp PV
given in Chapter 9. The details about series and parallel connection of PV modules power
In orderplant.
to detennine the number of PV modules in the array, we should look at the
and corresponding addition of their currents and voltages are given in Chapter 5.
Here, we will do the calculations without a detailed discussion. One is advised to Number of PV modules in acceptable voltage rating of inverter and try to match it with the voltage ratings of
a string strings as per presentation given in Figure I 1.21. The Voc of PV Module 7 is 37.38 V,
read the Section 11.4.1 and Chapters 5 and 9 as mentioned above.
Vmp is 30.60 V and Im is 7.85 A. Also, for Inverter 6 of 1000 kVA, its Maximum
Tota/ PV array capacity In this case of PV power plant system, it is decided that we will have PV array Power Point (MPP) voltage tracking range is 460 V-875 V and maximum input
capacity of 1 MWP for which we have done the loss calculations. Also, the efforts
• I
\
l Chapter 11: Grid-connected Solar PV Power Systems

283
DC current is 2100 A. While deciding the number of PV modules in a string, we
TABLE 11.6 Summary of Parameters of Designed 1 MWP PV Power Plant
v
have to ensure that mp of the string is within the Vmp range of inverter and oc of v
the string is less than the maximum DC _volta~e of Inverter. Power rating of selected PV module
240 Wp
Since when we connect PV modules m senes the voltage gets added. Therefore Number of PV modules in a string
22
we need to connect many Module 7 in series to get the required voltage in the rang' Number of strings In parallel
190
Total number of modules used In plant
of Inverter 6. If we divide Vmp range of Inverter 6 wi~h the_ Vmp of the Module 7, w: 22 • 190 = 4180
Total rated peak power of plant
will get the number of PV modules to be connected m senes to form one string as: Vmp voltage of PV array 4180 • 240 = 1003200 w.
. . Vmp voltage of selected inverter /mp current of Pl/ array
22 • 30.60 = 673.2 V
No. of modules in stnng = V f I d PV d I 190 • 7.85 = 1491.5 A
mp o se ecte Expected annual energy generation of plant
mo u e 1.65 million kWh
Since the inverter Vmp tracking range is 460 V to 875 V, let us have an average of
Determining Balance of Various Balance of Systems (BoS) components are required to integrate the system.
it, that is, about 667 V. This 667 V will be the Vmp of the PV module string. Note
System (80S) components P~ support structure, DC cables, string and array combiner boxes nnd DC
that any other voltage levels within the inverter tracking range can also be chosen.
d1stnbut1on bo~es are used on the DC system side. The design or BoS components
We have to only ensure that the array Vmp point should lay within the inverter v of PV power plant
should be done m same manner as discussed in previous section (refer to Section 11.4,
range in all operating conditions. mp S1ep 12). It is important to make appropriate choice of components, particularly
vmp of inverter 667 cables. The DC cable size is selected such that the total power loss over the entire
Number of 240 WP modules in strings = V f dul = - - = 21.79
mp o mo e 30.60 length of DC cables is within 2% of the rated PV array output power and this loss
:While designing the number of Pl/ The above calculation shows that we will have to connect 21.79 PV modules should be less than I%. Normally, for large scale power plants, effons are made
in
modules Pl/bepower
connected In series (as to keep this less within limits.
siring) in to plant we have 10 senes,•
or to roun d It• off•, we get 22 moduIes. While des1gnmg
• • the number of py
take can, that vll'C> of stling should lay modules to be connected in series (as string), we have to take care that
Vm of Designing PV plants using At commercial level, the PV plants are designed in similar fashion. There are many
within Vll'C> tracking ra~ of Inverter string should lay within Vmp tracking range of Inverter under all possible operiting
• under all possible operating condition. conditions. software are available in the market which can be used to design a solar PV power
software plant. The PV plant design software have recorded the data of solar radiation for
Number of PV strings in In total, we need to connect 4167 PV modules for this 1 MWP PV power plant. several location of the world, they wilJ have temperature data, data of standard PV
parallel One of the string of PV modules will have 22 PV modules. Therefore, the number modules, etc. Once we specify a location, they take these data automatically or
of strings to be connected in parallel will be as follows: we can provide the data. The software then calculates the parameters (as given in
Table 11.6) of required power plant. But they also provide much more detailed
. . Total no. of PV modules in system information. Software can provide daily generation of electricity, daily losses, and
No. of stnngs m parallel = f d . .
No. o mo u1es m a stnng we can plot the charts of generation with losses for each month and lot more. An
4167 . example of summary sheet of I MWP power plant is given in Figure 11.25.
= - - = 189.4 parallel stnngs
22 PVmodule Si-poly Modtl STP 275-24/Vd
Manufacturer Suntech
To round off we will have to connect 190 paralJel strings (each having 22 PV Number of PV modules In series 18 modules
In parallel 205 alrfngl
Unit Nom. powor 275 W,
modules in series) in this 1 MWP power plant. Total number of PV modules
Array global power
Nb. modules 3690
Nominal ISTC) 1015 kW,
At open1tlng cond. 851 kW, (60'C)
Note, that when we connect strings in parallel, the current of each string gets I mpp 1559A
'J Array operating characteristics (50'C) U mpp 546 V
added. The total current of the parallel combination will be the sum of current of Total area Module area 7160 m'
Model RPS Tl1110
each string. We have to make sure that the total current of the strings is within the Inverter
Manufacturer Bonfiglloll
limit of the inverter. In this example, the maximum DC current limit of Inverter I Characteristics
Operating voltage 4~75 V Unl1 Norn. power 1000 kW Ac
is 2100 A, and/~ of Module 7 is 8.45 A. The maximum current of a PV module

PY amy 1011 tact0111
will be the maximum current of a string. Therefore, the total current of 190 strings Thermal loss faclor Uc (cx,nst) 28.8 Wlrri'K Uv (wind) 0.0 W/m"Mrva
connected in parallel will be: => Nominal Oper. Coll. Temp. (G = 800 Wlm'. Tamb • 20'C. Wind velocity= 1 m/1,) N0CT 45•c
Wiring ohmic loss GIObal array res. 6.3 m Ohm Losa fraction 1.5% II STC
Total current of strings in parallel = Current of one string x Total number of strings fl,Jray Soiling 1osseS Jan Feb. MM i'{I<. J,lay Junl July ~- , 0cl. New Ooc.
0 '" 0 51' 1 01' 3.31' ' 2" 3.9" 1 01' 0 2" 0.3" 0.2" 0 2" 0.3"'
= 8.45 x 190 = 1605.5 A Losafraction 0.2"
Losa fraC1lon 1.5% al MPP
From this calculation, we can see that the current of 190 strings put together is less Modulo quality loss
Module mismatch iosses bo pan,meter 0.05
\AM• 1-bo(1/COS 1-1)
than the maximum DC current limit of inverter (which is 2100 A). Therefore, this lnciden<8 effect. ASHRAE parametrization
design is acceptable and can be implemented. Syatom loll lact0111
This completes the design of I MWP solar PV power plant. In summary, the AC loss, transfer 1D lnjecllon
Grid voltage 33 kV
loll fraction 0.1% al STC
Wiles 245618 m 3 x 5000 mm'
details of I MWp plant is presented in Table 11.6. Due to rounding off that we have lronloss 1008W
loll fraction 0.1 %al STC
FIGURE 11.25 loll rractoon 0.1% at STC
done in design, the PV plant parameters are slightly different from targeted value. ex,emal transtormel Resistive/Inductive losset 0.9 m OM1
M example summary sheet of a 1 MW0
power plant.
... ..I
' Technicians Trainers and Engineers
s· A ManuaI ,or '
284 Solar Photovoltaic Technology and SYstem •
. 00 kW solar PV power plant to be installed~

Problem 11.8: Design a 5 t f Pthe plant. Use PV module and Inverter _e.
Estimate annual energy outpu o With
following ratings:
PV module rating
• Rated power of Module = 240 WP
• Open circuit voltage (Voc) = 37.O V
• Voltage at maximum power point (Ymp) = 30.5 V
• Short circuit current {/i;c) = 8.5 A
• Current at maximum power point (Imp)= 7.8 A
Inverter rating
• AC power output = 500 kVA
• Max DC input voltage range = 1000 V
• MPP tracking= 460 - 875 V
• Max DC current = 1000 A DC
• Peak efficiency= 98.2%
Problem 11.9: A PV module of rating as mentioned in Problem 11.8 i~ used
in a 1 MWP power plant. The plant is being set up at location where the average
temperature reaches up to 45 °C. Estimate the module level losses that can occur
in this power plant.
Problem 11.10: Design a 10 MWP solar PV power plant to be installed in Rajasthan.
Estimate monthly energy generation as well as monthly energy losses in the plant.
Use PV module and inverter specification as given in Problem 11.8. Make a table
to provide the summary of all power plant parameters.
Problem 11.11: A location has solar radiation of 5.7 kWh/m2/day. A 100 kWP
PV plant is installed at this location. Consider an ambient temperature of 25 °C,
what will be the estimated annual energy generation from the plant. Assume, there
are no other losses in the plant.

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11

'd grid-connected PV PoWer s

Chapter 11: Grid,onnected Solar PV Power Systems

parallel-conneded solar PV A number of solar PV modules are connected in parallel in a parallel-con

DC voltage and current of series~on n~ted PV m~ule st~ng: DC voltage of a

(Digit 6 st de box also

11.3.5 The grid-connected inverter· is used to convert PV array DC output to AC voltage

is essential for the operation of grid connected inverter.

.; '-~--· - . -·. --· _., thin film module technology.

Step 5 Esti!!.9te_ et DC power

th DC power input to inverter

DC power· 1 ,.e output AeCrWill be t<mp<raru" i, so•c. ""' ~':: s of

ule soiling loss •

. kW) _ Inverter DC power inpu ... ... to minimize soiling

Module mismatch losses: The is for STC condition.

ules have power temperature powo< '"" '

Chapter 11: Gri<konnected Solar PV Power Systems

PVarTay ----- ---- ------------------v....

A '\ Maximum DC Input "•'""""" nower point

Th AC voltage protection devices are typically rated for 400 V AC for

design the plant to get the best yield or ..

• 1 ch ircuits and 600 V AC for 415 V·1 three

l Chapter 11: Grid-connected Solar PV Power Systems

is 2100 A, and/~ of Module 7 is 8.45 A. The maximum current of a PV module

. 00 kW solar PV power plant to be installed~

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