TOPIC 2

MAP PROJECTION
INTRINSIC AND
EXTRINSIC PROBLEM
 WHAT IS MAP PROJECTION ?
• A way/method of representing any real-
world location or object on a two-dimensional
surface (2D), i.e. on a paper, a computer,
monitor, etc.

Have 2D with elevation using profile of

contours

Creating A map by means of cartographic

and projection processes.
• In cartographic point of view, it is a light source,
and a developable surface that together determine
how locations from the surface of the model of the
Earth

• It will be transferred to corresponding locations on

the developable surface with respect to the
projection's form, case and aspect.
Reference Surface
• Sometime called as ‘datum’ is a known and constant surface which
can be used to describe the location of unknown points, e.g. MSL
 Developable Surface
•They are used in map projections.
•It is the intrinsically flat surface that will ultimately become the
map produced by the projection process .

•It may be rolled or folded into non-flat shapes , but at the end
of the projection process, the developable surface is unfolded or
unrolled back into a flat surface
 Group Discussion

Is map projection
perfect ? If not, why?
Give 4 reasons.
First, the map projection is not perfect

 Reason 1 : disortion from 3D to 2D

 Reason 2: All the characteristic cannot
be preserved at the same time
 Reason 3: Some information may be
missing during the map projection
 Reason 4 : different map projections
exist in order to preserve some
properties of the sphere-like body at the
expense of other properties
 map projection is imperfect.
 1. 2D map produced from 3D real world will undergo distortions.
 2. The earth surface will be dragged after the projection causing the
shape and size of the certain area becomes enlarged or shrinked.
Only the location in equator will experience less effect on the
projection.
 3. The height shows in 2D contour will be different with the real 3D
height
 4. The information might be lost during the projection
 from Elvis to everyone: 4:49 PM
 Group 6:
 Map Projection is not perfect because
 1. Distortion of features shape
 2. Distortion in scale, distance and angle
 3. Non uniform, different location uses different map projection
 4. No height information
 Group 5: Map Projections is not perfect
 No single projection can preserve all properties of
the Earth.
 Some keep areas the same but distort angles,
some do the reverse.
 Some are suitable for polar regions, others for the
tropics. No one projection is ideal; there is no
perfect map.
 A mathematical operation is needed so perfect map
aprojection is required which will generate errors.
 from Azrie Azhar to everyone: 4:50 PM
 Map projection is not perfect.1. Shape differs in every projection
 2. It does not reflect the real world
 3. The movement of plate thecthonic time by time
 4. Coordinate will change
 from Lau Bik Sing to everyone: 4:50 PM
 group 3
 from Faiz (privately): 4:52 PM
 Map projection is not perfect
 Group 4
 • imperfect.
 • 2D map produced from 3D real world will undergo distortions.
 • Distortion in shape, area , distance etc.
 • Information loss, generate errors
 • Real characteristic might be loss
 Map projection is not perfect
 1. The larger is the represented area, the more the reality is distorted in the map.
 2. Cannot preserve all properties of the Earth. Some keep areas the same but distort angles,
some do the reverse.
 3. At higher latitudes the cylinder departs indefinitely far from the Earth, distances and areas are
grossly distorted.
 4. Does not reflect exact accurate coordinate in real world.
 Group Discussion
Compare the stamping on large
beach ball and the stamping on
ping-pong ball.

What can you see ?????

 Group 2: Shahrul, Afiq,Imran,Ryuu, Chuanyi

 stamping on a bigger ball will give clearer image of stamp however when we stamping on a ping pong ball, only a part of the
stamp can be seen on the ping pong ball. By comparing, the stamp image on the ping-pong ball will be presented more bigger
in ratio compare to the beach ball
 from Lau Bik Sing to everyone: 5:17 PM
 Group 3
 Bigger the size of the ball, the clearer the detail of the texture can be seen, but after stamping, the clearer the distortion of the
texture on the ball surface
 from TAN JIA YI_A18GH0124 to everyone: 5:17 PM
 Group 4
 • diff colour , surface n size
 • the shadow of the ball diff
 • same shape (sphere)

 from Azrie Azhar to everyone: 5:17 PM

 Group 1.The small ping pong ball has smooth texture while large beach ball has rough texture and if stamped, the pingpong
ball image will be clearer than the beach ball although it is smaller, pingpong ball surface is smooth

 Group6 : STamping on bigger ball will have clearer image, more detail however bigger ball will have more distortion after
transform from 3D to 2D

 1. the distortion of the big ball is more than the ping pong ball 2. the area of the big ball is obviously bigger than the ping pong
ball when the ball got stamped
 from Fikri Johari to everyone: 5:21 PM
 group 5

 G7: The larger ball showed textures that similar to terrains in the real world while for the small ball it is too small to see any
patterns which we can say that the scale and resolution of map is important for representing features on map.
 Map Projections Key Point
 Projections are mathematical transformations
 Scale is true only in certain places
 Many different types have been devised
 All map projections distort
 Distortion characteristics vary from projection
type to type
 Some types are better for some applications
than others
 Plotting equations
• Is the heart of the projection process. Plotting equations convert
latitude / longitude coordinates from a generating globe into
Cartesian coordinates on a map.

• In general, the Cartesian coordinates on the map are a function

of latitude and longitude coordinates from the generating globe.
x = f1(Lat., Long.)
y = f2(Lat., Long.)
 Sequence of Transformations
• The process of producing a flat map of the Earth can be
thought of as a sequence of transformations. It may involve
reference surface, geoids, ellipsoid (local datum) – is a
spherical model is which mathematically simpler and at
small scales, distortion due to irregularities in the Earth's
shape can be considered negligible.

• Once a suitable solid model has been selected, the next step is
to reduce the size of the model to the desired scale of the
map, producing a 'generating globe'.

• It may involve ‘scaling’ (map scale)

Process of
Map
projection

Case of
map
projection
 Principles of Map Projections

• Map projections are systematic transformations

that allow the orderly representation of the Earth's
spherical graticule on a flat map, i.e.
transformations of geographic co-ordinates
(latitude, longitude) into the Cartesian (x, y) co-
ordinate space of the map. convert geographic co-
ordinates into map co-ordinates

• All map projections distort distance and

directional relationships that are correctly
represented on a globe e.g small areas can neglect
the effect of earth curvature
 Properties of map projection :
latitude are ‘parallel’ and have different alignment
longitude are ‘meridians ‘ and have different alignment
meridians and parallels may or may not intersect at right angles

area scale is uniform !

distance scale uniform !
 Perspective Projections

• These properties may or may not be correctly represented on a

flat map, depending on the type of projection employed.

• Determining which properties are correctly represented on the

map can be useful in identifying different projections and in
understanding the inherent pattern of distortion.

• Changing the position of the light source alters the pattern of

parallels and meridians on the map, resulting in maps that have
different geometric properties.
A point on geographical location latitude and longitude
are presented to a plane projection (x, y) of the datum
surface either for the whole earth ellipsoid, half-spheres
etc.
Subject to the purpose and characteristics of the
mapping
The problem: Intrinsic and Extrinsic – maintain
some features and certain properties in the
diversification of the form of the map will be
projected depending to the application map
Extrinsic problems involving external problems which
encompasses the surface projection of datum. Figure with
geometry involving the position of the touch between the
datum and projection surface it involves touch either axis
position oblique (leaning), normal (pole) or horizontal
(transverse), form a touch of either tangent, secant or poly-
superficial
Intrinsic problem was internal problems involving
projection features a map that should be maintained
as conformal, equal area and equal distance.
Summary of Problems in Map Projections

Problem Class Features

Projection Fundamental Conic Cylinder
Surfaces Datum Plane
Extrinsic Position Normal Transverse
Overlapping Tangent Secant
Poly-superficial
Projections Process Nature Equidistant, Equal
Area, Equal Shape
Intrinsic Processing method Geometry, semi-
geometry,
conventional
 What is Latitude?

i. Latitude lines are the set of circles that are parallel to the equator.
ii. The only latitude line that is a Great Circle (circles with their
center at the center of the earth) is the equator.
iii. The diameters of these circles decrease as the pole is neared.
iv. Latitudes mean north-to-south angles from a reference parallel
The diameters of these circles decrease as the pole is neared.

In the northern hemisphere degrees of latitude are measured from

0 at the equator to 90 at the north pole.

In the southern hemisphere degrees of latitude are measured from

zero at the equator to ninety degrees at the south pole.

Wherever you are on the earth’s surface, the distance between

lines of latitude is the same (60 nautical miles)
 What is Longitude?
Longitude lines are the set of Great Circles that run through the
North and South Poles. All lines of longitude are perpendicular
(at 90 degrees) to the equator, and resemble the lines on a
basketball. Because the Earth is a spheroid, the longitude lines
are closer together at the poles than they are near the equator.
i. Lines of longitude run perpendicular to the equator
and converge at the poles.
ii. The reference line of longitude (the prime
meridian) runs from the north pole to the south
pole through Greewich, England.
iii. Subsequent lines of longitude are measured from 0
to 180 degrees east or west .
iv. Longitudes mean west-to-east angles from a
reference meridian.
v. As moving towards the poles, the distance
between lines of longitude becomes progressively
less until, at the exact location of the pole
vi. All 360° of longitude are represented by a single
point
A graticule is a spherical grid of coordinate lines over the planetary
surface, comprising circles on planes normal (perpendicular) to the
north-south axis, called parallels and semicircular arcs with that axis
as chord, called meridians. True to their name, no parallels ever cross
one another, while all meridians meet at each geographic pole. Every
parallel may crosses every meridian at an angle of 90°.

graticule
The network of meridians and parallels Maps have widely varying
graticule resolutions depending on their use and on the size of the
area they are covering. Usually the meridians and parallels have
the same resolution, but not always. Usually a globe will have a
10° or 15° graticule resolution, which means it shows meridians
and parallels every 10° or 15°
Properties of Parallel:
A natural reference, the longest parallel divides the Earth in two
equal hemispheres, north and south; thus its name, Equator. Four
other important parallels are defined by astronomical constraints.
The geographical north-south axis is actually tilted slightly less than
23.5° from the plane of the Earth's orbit around the sun. This
accounts for the different seasons and different lengths of day and
night periods throughout the year.
Properties of Meridians:
All points on a meridian have the same solar, or local, time. Due
to different day lengths throughout the year, correction formulas
are applied to convert it to a local mean time.
A grid system allows the location of a point on a map (or on the
surface of the earth) to be described in a way that is meaningful
and universally understood.

it is necessary to set up a coordinate system on

the map that will allow a point to be described in X-Y space.
The Earth's graticule has properties depending on the type (case
and aspects) of map projection processes:

- all parallels of latitude are parallel

- parallels are equally spaced along meridians
- meridians are equally spaced along parallels
- meridians of longitude are half great circles and converge at
the poles
- meridians and parallels may or may not intersect at right
angles
- quadrilaterals formed by the same two parallels and having
the same longitudinal dimensions have the same areas
- area scale is uniform (equal-area)
- distance scale is uniform (equidistant)
the designation for the point would be 3,3. In the second the
designation would be 3,1, and in the third it would be 1,1. All
of these designations describe the same point and the only
thing that has changed is the origin of the grid.

In order for any type of grid to be useful it is necessary for it

to have an origin and a uniform grid spacing (i.e. the distance
between grid lines should remain constant).
 USEFUL MAP PROPETIES

The most important features of any map can be expressed as:

can distances be accurately measured?
how easy is obtaining the shortest path between two points?
are directions preserved?
are shapes preserved?
are area ratios preserved?
which regions suffer the most, and which kind of, distortion?
 Distances and Scale
Can Distances be Accurately Measured?

Distances and Scale

Can Distances be Accurately Measured?

In the equidistant cylindrical map, all arrow lines have the same length;
however, actual world distances (measured in km) between the ends of
each arrow vary enormously.
The included graphical scale (blue) is only useful along the Equator and
meridians (where scale is constant, for this projection at least); also, only
along those lines each arrow actually follows a straight route on Earth.
the shortest distance between two points on a sphere is rarely represented
by a straight line on a map.
Lines (straight or not) in the map with constant scale and length
proportional to corresponding lines on Earth are called standard
lines.

Map projections with a well-defined, nontrivial set of standard lines

are sometimes called equidistant.

In a Sanson-Flamsteed equatorial map, all parallels are standard lines

 The Geodesic
What is the Shortest Path Between Two Points?

On any spherical surface, the shortest path between any two points
is part of a geodesic line (also called geodetic, orthodrome or
great circle path) passing through the points and centered on the
sphere.
no map projection can show
true geodesics between any
pair of points, why?
In the cylindrical equidistant map, only vertical lines and the Equator
preserve a constant scale.
Since all parallels are equally long in the map, horizontal scale increases
quickly towards the top and bottom, reaching infinity at the poles.

An azimuthal equidistant map preserves distances along any lines

through the central point.
 Areas
Are Area Ratios Preserved?
• Since a map is an instrument to convey information at a
glance, it is important to properly display true area ratios.

The applications include:

• scientific divulgation of geographical distributions like
welfare levels, pollution/deforestation, crop yieldings,
greenhouse warming
• educational atlases and charts, and press information

• An equal-area (also called equivalent or authalic) projection

preserves areal relationships; in other words, given any two
regions A and B on the Earth and the corresponding regions A'
and B' on an equal-area map, the surface ratios A/A' and B/B' are
identical (A and B need not have the same shape
Greenland and Africa in conventional Mercator map

Greenland (translated in order to reduce shape distortion,

relative sizes unchanged) and Africa in Mollweide map
 Are Shapes Preserved?
A conformal (or orthomorphic) map locally preserves angles.
Thus, any two lines in the map follow the same angle as the
corresponding original lines on the Earth; in particular, projected
graticule lines always cross at right angles.
Also, at any particular point scale is the same in all directions.

Are Directions Preserved?

Problem I: suppose one leaves home by plane, keeping a constant
course bearing. Which localities will be visited?
Problem II : given two points on a map, which bearing must be
followed to travel between them?

The two problems are related and can not be easily solved for every
location in most maps, as general directions are seldom preserved. In
a (theoretically) perfect map, meridians and parallels must cross at
right angles in every point but the poles.
The solution : a navigator could follow a hybrid procedure:
trace the geodesic on an azimuthal equidistant or gnomonic map
break the geodesic in segments
plot each segment onto a Mercator map
use a protractor and read the bearings for each segment
navigate each segment separately following its corresponding
constant bearing.
A loxodrome (or rhumb line) is a line of constant bearing.
It is the easiest route between two points since a constant bearing is
enough to follow; any other path would require frequent changes of
direction.
Mercator's most famous projection is unique: every loxodrome is drawn
as a straight line,
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