•

GENERAL TRAINING AIR CONDITIONING J

Module 1
Introduction to Air Conditioning

• GTAC
 GENERAL TRAINING AIR CONDITIONING
MODULE 1
INTRODUCTION TO AIR CONDITIONING •
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Section Title Slide No. Page No.

Introduction 1 - 20 1
Heat 21 -24 8
Molecules, Heat, and Temperature 25 - 34 9
Heat Transfer 35-56 13
Kinds of Heat 57 - 67 20
Glossary of Terms 25
Quiz Key 27

Objectives
This program will help you develop skills that will make your job easier and aid you in becoming more successful.
By studying these materials, you will learn the fundamentals of refrigeration as they relate to air conditioning .

Presentation Instructions •
1. Obtain necessary audio-visual equipment, air conditioning equipment, handout materials and program work-,
books for each participant.
2. Present video section by section. Review, discuss and ask questions at the end of each segment.
3. Show slides to highlight topics of importance and emphasize the basic learning block approach.
4. Distribute and review handout materials (see suggested list of handout materials below).
5. Administer quiz, then review using slide/page references noted in the quiz key.
6. Certificates of Achievement are available through Literature Distribution.

Handout Materials/Additional Training Materials (Available through Literature Distribution.)

1. ABC's of Air Conditioning (slides/cassette/book) Catalog No. 020-436
Companion Book to ABC's of Air Conditioning Catalog No. 020-435
2. Basic Refrigeration Cycles, Reciprocating, Catalog No. 020-452
Centrifugal & Absorption (1/2" VHS video)
Companion Book to Basic Refrigeration Cycles Catalog No. 020-451

Self Instruction
When using this program for self instruction, review the video tape, read the workbook in its entirety, and complete
the quiz. Quiz answers with paragraph references are located in the quiz key.

''MANUFACTURER RESERVES THE RIGHT TO DISCONTI NUE, MODIFY, OR CHANGE SPECIFICATIONS AND/OR DESIGNS AT ANY TIME WITHOUT NOTICE OR.
INCURRING OBLIGATION." Additionally, '·THI S PROG RAM IS INTENDED FOR FAMILIARIZATION AND/OR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY AND SHOU LD
NOT BE CONSIDERED OR TREATED AS COMPLETE INSTALLATION, SERVICE, OR TROUBLESHOOTING REFER ENCES FOR SUBJECT OR OTHER PRODUCTS.
CURRENT PRODUCT SPECIFIC INSTALLATION AND SERVICE LITERATURE SHOULD BE CONSULTED BEFORE ATTEMPTING TH E PROCE DURES. PRO·
CESSES. OR TECHNIQUES DESCRIBED HEREIN."

Copyright © Carrier Corporation 1991

 INTRODUCTION

• The GTAC Program In This Module

0 The GTAC Program is divided into two parts. The

ten modules of Part I provide the information and
f) This module is an introduction to air conditioning
and refrigeration. Study it carefully. If you do not
foundation you will need to understand the basics of thoroughly understand the refrigeration process,
air conditioning. The nine modules of Part II contain you will have trouble with later modules. Think of it
• more advanced material on mechanical air condi- as building a house on a solid foundation.
tioning systems.
This module and Module 2 lay the foundation for
To insure your understanding of the material, an- the remainder of the program. They contain the
swer the SKILLS CHECK questions scattered eight foundation blocks shown in this diagram.
throughout each module. Consult with your instructor
if you need additional help.
By reviewing the STUDENT SKILLS INVENTORY
at the end of this module, mastering the material,
and checking your knowledge through the SKILLS
CHECKS, you will be using the "building block"
learning process effectively. It is important to un-
derstand the material in each building block before
moving on to the next.

,..,
~.

•
INTRODUCTION air conditioning. In this sense, air conditioning is a
form of refrigeration. Although modern air condition-
Background ing was developed before 1940, it became increas-
ingly popular in theaters, offices and automobi les in •
the 1950's. With more and more people accus-
tomed to air conditioned offices and cars, it was
natural for them to want air conditioning in their
homes. Today in the U.S., over 70% of homes have
air conditioning, although in warmer areas this
figure exceeds 90%.

Making it Easy

There Are 3 Rules to

Learning Refrigeration:
0 Cooling as a means of extending the usefulness
of foods, or providing us with comfort, has been Rule 1. Learn the Basics
known for hundreds of years. In the earliest days,
cooling was a luxury available only to the privileged Rule 2. Learn the Basics
and was obtained primarily by using naturally-pro-
duced ice. In the winter, ice from lakes and ponds Rule 3. Learn the Basics
was cut and stored in insulated storerooms for use

•
during the summer. Most of this natural ice was
used for food storage in stores, restaurants and
homes. Just prior to the end of the 19th century,
"man-made" ice appeared. The first mechanical,
e To understand air conditioning , we must first
understand the principles of refrigeration . There are
domestic refrigerators were marketed around 1910.
hundreds of types of mechanical refrigeration sys-
Since then, refrigerators and freezers have moved
tems , with many different component arrange-
from luxury items to necessities. Today, practically
ments. If you try to learn refrigeration by learning
every home has one or more.
about each one of these, you will have a very long
and difficult task ahead of you. On the other hand,
if you work diligently at learning the basics of refrig-
eration presented in the first three modules of this
program, you will be able to understand any type of
refrigeration system. That's because the principles
of mechanical refrigeration and the essential com-
ponents of a system are the same no matter how big
or small the system and no matter how things are
packaged within that system.

0 The term air conditioning, as you will learn,

encompasses several methods of conditioning air.
For now, we will focus only on the cooling aspect of

2
•
 0refrigeration
We'll begin by learning about the things all 0formBefore we study the eight building blocks that
the foundation of refrigeration, we'll consider
systems have in common . Then you
will find it easy to determine what makes one three important questions:
system differ from another.
1) What is refrigeration?
As shown in the schematic diagram, a mechanical
2)Whatdoesitdo?
refrigeration system has four basic components:
3) What forms does it take?
the evaporator (or indoor coil), the compressor,
the condenser (or outdoor coil), and the meter-
ing device.
A fluid (a liquid or gas), called the refrigerant, is
.• circulated through each component for the purpose
of removing heat.
Refrigeration ... Definition
It flows between components, through refrigerant
piping, in the direction indicated by the arrows.

0removal
0components
The order in which it flows through the four
is always the same for cooling appli-
cations. This diagram shows how a system may
look in a real installation.
•
Simply defined, refrigeration is cooling by the
of heat. Heat is a form of energy that man
cannot destroy. Therefore, when heat is "re-
moved," it is really transferred from a place where
it is not wanted to a place where it is less objec-
tionable. Even though we tend to think of refrig-
eration as a way of producing coldness, we should
really think of it as a process of moving heat.

3
 INTRODUCTION
Refrigeration ... Application
G) When heat is moved, the temperature of the
substance it moved from drops, while the tem-
perature of the substance it moves to rises. Let's
look at two practical ways this principle applies in
refrigeration.
G The first is a living space cooled by a central air
conditioning system. In order to cool the space,
heat must be moved from the air indoors to the
air outdoors. This happens in several steps, as we
will explain.
As shown in 1, the heat is moved from the indoor
air to the refrigerant circulating through the evapo-
rator. This causes the temperature of the air moving
over the evaporator to drop.
Now in 2, the heat is absorbed by the refrigerant
in the evaporator and is moved along to the
4
condenser. Then the heat moves from the refriger-
ant to the outdoor air. This causes the outdoor air
•
temperature to rise as it flows over the condenser.
Then as shown in areas 3 and 4, with the heat
removed from the refrigerant, it is circulated back to
the evaporator to repeat the process.
Cf) A refrigerator is another example of how heat
movement by refrigeration is related to space tem-
perature. To keep food cold and avoid spoilage,
heat must be moved from the food to the air in the
room . As in the air conditioning example, this hap-
pens in several steps.
•
e First, the heat moves from the food into the
surrounding cooler air. This increases the tempera-
ture of the air and decreases the temperature of the
•
food .
Next, the heated air moves into the refrigerant cir-
culating through the evaporator coil. This causes the
temperature of the air coming off that coil to drop.
 That heat is then moved along by refrigerant flow to
the condenser coil (underneath) where it is moved
from the refrigerant to the room air circulating over
that coil. This causes the room air temperature to
•- rise.
In both examples, refrigeration moved heat, in sev-
eral steps, from the place where it wasn't wanted to
a place where it was less objectionable. The result
was a lowering of temperature in the area from
which heat was removed and a rise of temperature
in the area to which the heat was transported.

Refrigeration ... Types

8 Even though we are focusing on cooling, the term
air conditioning means much more than that.
Complete air conditioning is provided by a system
which will heat, humidify, cool, dehumidify, ventilate,
filter and circulate air. Obviously, most systems we
call air conditioning do a partial job and are tech-
nically not total air conditioning systems.

O soth the examples above used mechanical re-

frigeration systems to move heat. Ice or chemicals
could also have been used, but throughout this
program we will limit our discussion to mechanical
refrigeration systems. Mechanical refrigeration ap-
plications can be divided into four basic catego-
ries, based on temperature and use.
Although this program emphasizes comfort air con-
ditioning, we will briefly look at all four applications. 0mainly
As we study refrigeration systems, we will focus
on the cooling function. In spaces occupied
by people, comfort air conditioning uses refrig-
eration to cool and dehumidify air to achieve
"comfortable" conditions.
The temperature and humidity conditions accepted
as "comfortable" by the Industry are 68° to 78°F
(with 75°F as a typical goal) and 20% to 60% rel-
ative humidity (with 50% as a goal) .

•
5
INTRODUCTION Applications are found in the manufacture of tex-
tiles, printing, electronics and pharmaceuticals where
precise temperature, air cleanliness, and other con-
ditions are critical. Textile manufacturing, for ex- • .
ample, requires an atmosphere with relatively high
moisture content, while multicolor printing demands
constant temperature and humidity.

CD Refrigeration refers to a mechanical refrigera-

tion process to cool and freeze foods. It also
involves the production of ice for commercial uses,
such as ice rinks and ice storage.
Grocery stores make extensive use of mechanical
refrigeration. There we find coolers for dairy prod-
ucts, produce, and meats set at about 35° to 45°F,
as well as freezers at -20° to +30°F.
CD) Low temperature work or deep refrigeration, as
it is sometimes called, uses mechanical refrigera-
Household refrigerators and freezers are smaller tion to cool and freeze a variety of materials for
versions of the systems found in grocery stores. industrial and medical purposes. The temperatures •
Many of the basic concepts taught in this program produced are usually below 0°F and sometimes
will apply to these types of equipment as well. even go below -300°F.
Examples of its use include cryogenics (the study
of low temperatures), environmental testing , space
simulators, metallurgy, and gas liquification.
We will not apply the basics of refrigeration pre-
sented in this series to process or low temperature
work.

fli) STOP! Review Skills Checks.

Circle those skills that need
additional work. Go back
and review those sections
once again .

G while comfort work has people as its object,

process air conditioning has things as its object.
Process work seeks to condition air as necessary to

•
make the production process more effective.

6
 SKILLS CHECK 1

•
INTRODUCTION

1. Air conditioning is a form of refrigeration. Tor F?

2. When heat is moved , the temperature of the substance it moved from:

a. Rises
b. Drops
c. Stays the same
d. None of the above

3. Mechanical refrigeration systems have all the components listed below except one.
Which one does not belong?
a. A refrigerant
b. A low side float valve
c . An evaporator
d. A condenser

4. Define refrigeration .

• 5. Since man cannot destroy heat, when we say refrigeration "removes" heat, we are really saying it
_ _ _ _ __ _ _ __ _ ___ heat.

6. List two examples where mechanical refrigeration is used.

a. _ _ __ _ __ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ __ __
b. _ _ __ _ __ ___________________________

7. There are four basic categories for the use of mechanical refrigeration. Which of these is NOT one of them?
a. Comfort air conditioning
b . Refrigeration
c . Room air conditioning
d. Process air conditioning
e. Low temperature work (deep refrigeration)

• 7
 HEAT...FOUNDATION BLOCK 1

In order to understand the refrigeration process, it is

necessary to understand heat.
Sunlight and artificial lighting can be a large portion
of the heat moving into a building. The electrical
energy in light bulbs and fluorescent lighting ballast
•
turns into heat.
Transformers, electric motors •. watercoolers, and
refrigerators also release heat.

G Heat is a form of energy which can exist on its own

and can be moved from one place to another. It is not
matter existing as a solid, liquid, or gas so it cannot
be measured by weight or volume. It must be mea-
sured in a different way, which we will discuss in a
moment.
Heat can also come from other forms of energy. For G) Some chemical reactions, as well as all devices
example, appliances that use electricity generate with a flame, release heat, thereby adding to the
some heat. This heat can build up in a space as a cooling load.
cooling load which needs to be moved out of that
space.

0
e Four kinds of energy -light, electrical, chemical ,
and mechanical - can become heat which we
Even people produce heat in varying degrees •
according to their activity. The number of people in
an area must be considered when determining the
define as a cooling load. cooling load.

8
 MOLECULES, HEAT, AND TEMPERATURE ...
_
. FOUNDATION BLOCK 2
When we think of heat we tend to think of tem-
perature, but temperature doesn't really measure
heat content. To understand this, we need to look
closely at matter. In the discussion that follows we
will be referring to R-22, a common refrigerant.

t) As the temperature of the liquid is increased by

In this example, we see that the smallest particle
with all the qualities of R-22 is a molecule. This is
true of any substance, whether gas, liquid or solid.
The diagram shows several molecules of R-22,
as a liquid at -20°F. At this temperature, the mol-
ecules are vibrating at a certain speed or velocity,
they are a certain distance apart, and they are
arranged in a particular way.
The density of a substance is a measure of how
tightly packed its molecules are. It is measured in
weight per unit of space or volume; for example,
pounds per cubic foot.
absorbing heat from -20°F to 40°F, the molecules
vibrate more rapidly and move a little farther apart.
The density of the liquid refrigerant has changed
very little.
Temperature indicates the average velocity of the
molecules of a substance.
Any pure substance is able to change its state.
Solids can change to liquids and liquids can change
to vapor and back again. These changes of state
occur under a specific combination of temperature
and pressure conditions for each substance.

• 9
 Temperature does not measure the spacing and
arrangement of molecules within a substance.
The heat that can be measured by temperature can • .
be sensed by a thermometer, and is called sensible
heat. The heat that cannot be measured by tem-
perature, likewise can not be sensed by a thermom-
eter, and is called latent heat. Latent heat is the
amount of heat that is lost or absorbed into a
substance such as R-22 in order to change its state.

fi The refrigerant R-22 changes from a liquid to a

vapor at 40°F and a pressure of 69 PSIG, for
example. Therefore, as we continue to heat the
R-22, it will eventually turn into a vapor or gas.
Notice how much farther the molecules are separ-
ated as a 40°F gas than they were as a 40°F liquid.
There has been a huge change in density during
this latent heating process. The R,-22 molecules will
be about 52 times farther apart as a gas than as a
liquid. This separation causes the density to de- fl) The total heat contained in our sample of
crease about 98% from what it was as a 40°F R-22 gas at 40°F is equal to its sensible heat plus •
liquid. The change of state causes a big change in its latent heat. This is true Qf any substance. Often
spacing and arrangement but very little change in the latent heat in a gas is greater than the sensible
the velocity of the molecules. heat. For that reason, it is important in refrigeration
that we measure total heat. This measurement is
expressed in BTU 's, and is discussed in Module 2.

fl)Agreat deal of heat is required to achieve this

new spacing and arrangement of molecules, but it
doesn't show up on the thermometer. This heat G) Technically, anything above about -460°F (abso- •
remains in the refrigerant as long as it is a vapor. lute zero) contains some heat. Cold, therefore, is

10
 really a relative term. From a human viewpoint, ice a liquid into a vapor. In other words, temperature
feels cold to the touch because skin temperature measures sensible heat, but not latent heat.
is about 92°F and the ice is 32°F or below. The ice
• is only cold in comparison with a finger.

e The two scales used in refrigeration service "'YOrk

EDon Likewise, from the viewpoint of the outdoor unit

a central air conditioning system, 95°F air is
relatively cool. The R-22 refrigerant circulating
through its tubes is about 120°F, which is much
warmer than the outdoor air. Since the goal in
mechanical refrigeration is controlling the movement
of heat, the right question to ask is, "How much heat
• energy does it contain?" rather than, "How cold is it?"
for measuring temperature are the Fahrenheit scale
(expressed in degrees F) and the Centigrade scale
(expressed in degrees C). The boiling point for
water at sea level is 212°F or 100°C. Its freezing
point is 32°F or 0°C. A comfortable 75°F room is
about 24°C. Since Fahrenheit is the most com-
monly used temperature scale in the USA, we will
use it throughout this program.

G s TOP! Review Skills Checks.

Temperature Defined Circle those skills that need
additional work. Go back
and review those sections
once again.

fl) Temperature is the measure of the intensity of

heat in a substance. It can also be thought of as the
degree of heat of a substance. It does not measure
the heat energy which was required to change the
• state of a substance from a solid into a liquid or from

11
 SKILLS CHECK 2
HEAT- MOLECULES, HEAT AND TEMPERATURE

1. Heat is a form of _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

2. List four forms of energy that turn into heat energy in air conditioned (cooled) spaces:
•
a. c.
b. d.

3. Heat produced by human bodies is an example of _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ energy.

4. As the temperature of any substance increases, the molecules which make it up vibrate:
a. Faster
b. Slower
c. At the same speed
d. Faster for some and slower for others

5. When a substance changes state from a liquid to a gas, the spacing of its molecules:
a. Decreases greatly
b. Decreases slightly
c. Increases greatly

•
d. Increases slightly

6. Using the word "molecule," give a simple definition of density.

7. One pound of refrigerant will take up the most space:

a. As a solid because it has the lowest density
b. As a solid because it has the highest density
c. As a liquid because it has the lowest density
d. As a liquid because it has the highest density
e. As a gas because it has the lowest density
f. As a gas because it has the highest density

8. Place a check mark by the things temperature measures:

a. Latent heat
b. Sensible heat
c. Spacing and arrangement of molecules in a substance
d. Speed of vibration of molecules in a substance

9. Define temperature. - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - --

•
10. Name the two scales most commonly used to measure temperature.
a. _ __ _ _ _ __ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _b. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ______ _ __

12
 HEAT TRANSFER ... FOUNDATION BLOCK 3

• Heat Transfer Defined

G Heat transfer is also called heat exchange, heat

flow and heat flux. It is the movement of heat from
e Like all forms of energy ' heat flows from a high
energy level to a lower energy level. It might help to
one place to another, either within a substance or think of heat as flowing "downhill," just like water.

• between substances .
Since mechanical refrigeration is the movement of
heat, heat transfer is the business of refrigeration
service people.
Earlier, we connected the idea of refrigeration with
If the water level is the same for two ponds connec-
ted by a channel, there is no water flow between
them. If one is higher than the other, water flows to
the pond at the lower level.
Similarly, heat will not flow without a temperature
a central air conditioning system and a household difference. Then, it flows from a higher energy level
refrigerator. Each of these required several steps of (warmer) to a lower one (cooler) . Just like water, the
heat transfer to accomplish its purpose . bigger the temperature difference, the faster it flows.
Heat content is not the same thing as heat trans-
fer. Heat content deals with how much heat energy
is contained in a substance. Heat transfer, on the
other hand, deals with how much heat is moved
from one substance to another. Remember, when
heat is transferred , the heat content of the source
substance drops by the same amount that the heat
content of the destination substance increases .

• 13
 HEAT TRANSFER
G In an occupied space in a cold climate, heat will
flow out. This is a heat loss.
When it is hot outside, heat flows from the hotter
outdoor air into the cooler indoor air. This is a heat
gain.
If the indoor and outdoor temperatures are the
same, no heat will flow. There is neither heat loss
from the space, nor heat gain into it.
G) Likewise, if the temperature of the air that pas-
ses over the coil is higher than that of the refrigeran1
in the coil tubes, heat will flow from the air into the
refrigerant. The coil, in this case , provides cooling
capacity.
If the refrigerant temperature is equal to that of
the air flowing over the coil, there is no heat trans-
fer, and therefore no cooling capacity is provided by
the coil.
14
If the air temperature is lower than that of the
refrigerant in the coil tubes, heat will flow from
the refrigerant inside the coil to the air moving
over the coil. Since the air is heated, we can say •
that the coil provides heating capacity in this
situation.
Methods of Heat Flow
Heat Flows 3 Ways:
1. Conduction
2. Convection
3. Radiation
E) There are three different means by which heat
flows . All three play a part in mechanical refrig- •
eration, and work together to make heat transfer
happen.
Heat is transferred by conduction, convection,
and radiation . We'll look more closely at each
of these by first defining the term and then by
viewing each method as it occurs in three settings:
first, in nature; second, as it appears in a space -
as load; and finally, as it applies to equipment-
as capacity. In nature, we don't see the forms neatly
separated. They are generally mixed together.
•
G) Conduction is the transfer of heat from mol-
ecule to molecule through a substance by chain
collision . Heat added at one place causes the tem-
perature of the substance being heated to go up
because the molecules move about more rapidly.
These high velocity molecules start a chain collision
with molecules near them . The chain reaction moves
throughout the material. While conduction takes
place in gases and liquids, it works best when
molecules are closely packed, as they are in solids .
$ Convection is heat transfer by the movement
or flow of molecules from one place to another.
Heated molecules within a flowing medium such as
air carry their heat directly to a new area. In a forced
air heating system, for example, air flowing through
the conditioned space carries heat by convection.

•
e Convection currents are easy to see in a pan
of water being heated on a stove, especially just
before boiling begins.
Natural convection currents like these are also
$ 1f one end of an iron bar is kept in a flame, con-
called "density currents" because their movement
duction eventually will cause it to become too hot
is caused by differences in fluid density, which are
to hold. Conduction through roofs, walls, windows
a resu lt of temperature differences. Less dense
and doors is what allows heat to enter a tightly-
fluids tend to rise, while more dense fluids fall.
sealed house as cooling load.
Conduction is also what allows a cooling coil to
provide the capacity to cool the air. Heat from the

•
air moves into the cold refrigerant by being con-
ducted through the tubes and fins of the cooling coil .

15
CD In cold climates, convection causes heavy, cold
air to form a downdraft off outside walls and espe-
cially windows. As new air rushes in behind that
which falls off the windows, heat is transferred from
above the windows down to the windows, where it
becomes a heat loss (heat load) for the space. In this
case, convection causes discomfort because of
the cold "puddle" of air which builds up on the floor.
CL) Convection can also be at work as heating capac-
ity when a baseboard heater is installed below a cold
window. As the less dense, heated air moves
upward, it takes heating capacity to the load at the
window, wall and ceiling. As the air molecules lose
their heat energy, they become colder and more
dense, falling toward the floor. Cold air moves into
the heater to make up for the warm air moving up;
this solves the downdraft and cold puddle problem.
16
e Radiation is the most common, and least un-
derstood, method of heat transfer. It is most com-
mon because most of the heat energy of our planet
comes from solar radiation . It is least understood
because radiant heat can't be defined in terms of
colliding and moving molecules. Radiant heat usu-
ally behaves as a wave form of energy, but it also
possesses some qualities of energized, moving
particles.
CD Radiant heat has the ability to pass from one
place to another without heating up the area in be-
tween . For example, a camper sitting in front of a
fire on a cold night can get warmed even though
the air between him and the fire remains cold.
This is because radiant heat can only heat what
it hits. As a result, the camper's front side is
warmed but his back remains cold.
•
 Radiant heat can only heat materials into which it
is absorbed. The camper will get warmest by
•
wearing dull, black clothing and will remain coldest
by wearing reflective clothing - other things being
equal. This is why people in hot, sunny climates
tend to wear white clothing. White is a good reflec-
tor of the sun's radiant heat energy.
e Solar radiation comes through windows in a
building, strikes walls, floors, furniture and people,
and is absorbed by them . As it is absorbed, it heats
up the space and becomes a cooling load which
•
may need to be removed by cooling equipment.
G) Radiant heat is sometimes used to provide heat-
ing capacity from overhead as a method of warming
people or products, without heating the air in be-
tween, or the entire area. Radiant heat is almost al-
•
ways seen in combination with other forms of heat.
17
Materials
Heat transfer can be greatly affected by the mate-
rials selected in constructing buildings and heat
transfer equipment. Conduction, convection, and
radiation are all affected by materials, but we will
focus our attention on conduction because it affects
us in a major way in refrigeration load and equipment.
e Materials which help heat move by conduction
are called conductors. Those which retard it are
cal led insulators. Good insulators make poor
conductors and vice versa.
- We use good conductors when we want heat to
be transferred. We use good insulators when we
want heat to stay where it is. For example, we put
fiberglass insulation in our attics to help keep heat
from escaping.
 •
e Trapped air is one of the very best insulators avail-
able. Examples include expanded polystyrene foam
E) As a general rule, materials that conduct electricity board fiberglass and cellulose insulation_, and dead air
well will also be good thermal conductors. Metals are spaces such as those found between the panes of a
good conductors. Silver and gold are excellent, but double glass window. Corkboard and wood products,
not very practical for use in heating and refrigeration especially soft woods, are also good insulators.
equipment. Copper is nearly as good a conductor as
silver and has the advantage of being much less
expensive. Aluminum , among other common met-
als, is also an excellent conductor and is relatively
inexpensive. That's one reason most heat transfer
coils are made of copper tubes with aluminum fins.
This arrangement speeds heat transfer from the air
into the refrigerant within the cooling coil, or from the
fluid within a heating coil into the air flowing over it. •
e Since insulators slow down heat transfer by con-
duction, they are used in buildings both above and
below ground, as shown by the arrows in this diagram.
The cabinet of cooling coils is often insulated to
prevent the casing from becoming so cold that
water in the air condenses on the outside, causing
"sweating." The casings of furnaces are often insu-
lated to prevent the outside from becoming so hot
G) since copper and aluminum tend to melt under that it is dangerous to people or the building.
intense heat, steel or cast iron is often used for heat
exchangers on direct-fired heating equipment like
e STOP! Review Skills Checks.
the furnace shown here. A good conductor speeds
Circle those ski lls that need •
the heat transfer from the flame to the air flowing
additional work. Go back
over the outside of the heat exchanger
and review those sections
once again.

18
 SKILLS CHECK 3
HEAT TRANSFER
~ 1.DefineheMtmn~ec ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
2. When we compare heat content to heat transfer, which thing(s) are true?
a. They mean the same thing.
b. Heat content tells how much heat is contained in a substance.
c. Heat transfer tells how much heat is contained in a substance.
d. Heat transfer tells how much heat is moved from one substance to another.

3. Heat flows downhill. This means:

a. It falls off a hot surface to the floor.
b. It naturally flows from a colder to a warmer substance.
c. Heating ducts should slope downhill.
d. It naturally flows from a warmer to a colder substance.

4. A livingroom in a house is kept at 70°F. When it is 20°F outdoors, which item(s) below demonstrate heat
flowing "downhill?"
a. Heat flows from the outdoor air to the outside wall.
b. Heat flows from the indoor air to the outside wall.
c. Heat flows from the outside wall to the indoor air.
d. Heat flows from the outside wall to the outdoor air.

~ 5. A cooling coil has 40°F refrigerant inside its tubes while 80°F air passes over it. Because heat flows "downhill,"
it will move from:
a. The air directly to the refrigerant.
b. The refrigerant into the metal surface of the coil.
c. The coil surface into the air.
d. The air into the coil surface.

6. The three ways heat is transferred are called ~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~· and

7. Fill in the spaces with the most commonly associated heat transfer method.
a. Sunlight is an example of ~~~~~~~~~-
b. A gas-fired furnace relies upon ~~~~~~~~~ to take the heat of the flame through the metal
of its heat exchanger to the air passing over it.
c. The air which is circulated through an air conditioned space moves heat by ~~~~~~~~~
d. The currents you see in a cup of hot coffee, tea or chocolate are caused by ~~~~~~~~-

8. Materials that help heat move by conduction are called ~~~~~~~~~

9. Which one of these is a good insulator and, therefore, a poor conductor?

a. Water
b. Aluminum
~ c. Polystyrene
d. Copper

19
 KINDS OF HEAT ... FOUNDATION BLOCK 4
G For practical purposes, all materials possess Ci) Latent heat is the energy of molecular separa-
heat energy. As we have already seen, this energy
exists in two forms. Sensible heat is the energy of
molecular motion. It is measured by temperature
and always causes a temperature change in the
substance heated.
G) If the pan of water at 212°F is further heated, it will
e For example, when a pan of water at 32° F is
placed on a stove and heated so that the tempera-
ture climbs from 32°F to 212°F, it is a sensible
heating process. The temperature has changed, but
the state {liquid) has not. No boiling has occurred.
20
tion and arrangement. It cannot be measured with
a thermometer. A latent heat change causes a
change of state at a constant temperature.
begin to boil. As heat is added, it will continue to boil
until all the water turns to steam (gas). While it boils,
the temperature stays at 212°F. This is a latent heat-
ing process. The temperature does not change, but
the state changes from a liquid into a gas. As we saw
earlier, much energy will go into separating and rear-
ranging the water molecules to make the liquid a gas.
A characteristic of a refrigerant is its ability to boil; that •
is, to change from a liquid to a gas at a low temperature.
(D The total neat of a material is equal to its sen
sible plus latent heat. The total heat of any mater-
ial will change if either its temperature or state
changes. Liquids and gases contain both sensible
and latent heat.
e For example, the water at 32°F contains the
sensible heat needed to warm solid water (ice) to
its melting point (32°F). It also contains the latent
heat needed to melt the 32°F ice into 32°F water.
• 21
Ci) Both sensible and latent heat enter spaces and
become a cooling load which must be removed by
refrigeration equipment in order to maintain comfort.
When it is 95°F outdoors, heat is conducted from
outdoors to indoors through the root, ceiling , walls,
windows and doors of a building. This adds sensible
heat to the inaoor air, raising its temperature.
Radiant heat also adds sensible heat to the air as
sunlight enters through windows and is absorbed by
objects inside. Sensible heat is also added to the air
by people, lights and cooking. Latent heat is added
by anything that turns water into vapor- cooking,
for example.
Even though such latent heat additions don't raise
the indoor air temperature, they increase its relative
humidity.
The total heat entering a space is the total cooling
load for that space. It contains the sensible heat
(sensible cooling load) plus the latent heat (latent
cooling load).
 KINDS OF HEAT

(I) Sensible heat in a warm house moves into the
cold refrigerant of a cooling coil as the air flows over
it. The coil is providing sensible cooling capacity
as it removes sensible heat from the air, reducing
the air temperature from 80°F to 53°F. This process
also removes latent heat from the air as the water
vapor in the air changes state to a liquid and con-
denses on the cold coil surface. This is the same
thing we observe when water vapor condenses on
the outside of a glass of iced tea. The air coming off
the coil is not only colder, but is also drier than when
it entered. This process allows the air to absorb both
sensible and latent heat when it enters the space.
CW) Latent heat transfer is the main way mechanical
refrigeration systems move heat. This closeup look
of a cooling coil shows how cooling of the air is
accomplished.
Liquid refrigerant in the indoor coil tubes boils at a
fairly constant temperature. As the refrigerant flows
back and forth through the coil tubes, more and
more liquid refrigerant boils away until it is all gas.
The latent heat required to boil this refrigerant is •
taken from the air into the refrigerant, thus cooling
the air. This boiling process is called evaporation
in the refrigeration business. The coil where evapo-
ration takes place is called the evaporator.
The latent heat transfer process happens at a low
temperature because of the nature of the refriger-
ant and the low pressure in this part of the system.

e Heating coils add sensible heat to indoor air. In

such cases, the coil provides heating capacity. For
example, air returning from the heated space at

•
70°F is heated to 95°F as heat from the fluid inside
the coil is conducted to the cooler air flowing over
the coil.

22

(i This diagram shows how latent heat transfer is
used to heat the air.
Refrigerant in the outdoor coil condenses (from a
gas into a liquid) at a fairly constant temperature. As
the refrigerant flows back and forth through the coil,
more and more of it condenses from a gas into a
liquid until it becomes completely liquid.
The latent heat required to condense this gas is
rejected from the refrigerant into the air, thus heat-
ing the air. In the refrigeration business, this process
is called condensation. The coil where condensa-
• tion takes place is called the condenser. The tem-
perature at which condensation happens is higher
than the temperature for evaporation because the
pressure in the condenser is higher than it is in the
evaporator.
Coming Up Next
MODULE 2
TEMPERATURE & PRESSURE
Measuring Heat
Graphing Heat
Rate of Heat Transfer
Pressure
•e In Module 2, Temperature and Pressure, you will
study the remaining foundation blocks you need to
23
develop a basic understanding of air conditioning
and refrigeration. In Module 2, you will gain an
understanding of temperature and pressure and how
they are measured.
Taking Stock
CW) Now is a good time to take stock of what you
have gained during your study of this material. Re-
view the skills shown on the STUDENT SKILLS
INVENTORY at the end of this module. It should
encourage you that you have many more of these
skills now than when you first began this module.
There are probably some areas that need addi-
tional review. Repetition is a normal part of the
learning process. Why not circle those areas that
need additional work? Go back and review those
sections once again, then answer the SKILLS
CHECK questions that apply.
You have been introduced to many new terms in
this module. It is important for you to be able to
speak the language of refrigeration . Using the
Glossary at the back of the module, you can check
your understanding of terms. Keep the Glossary
handy for speedy reference.
Keep this module in a handy place so you can refer
to it whenever you need it.
 SKILLS CHECK 4

•
KINDS OF HEAT
Tor F?

1. A sensible heat change always causes a change in temperature. _ _

2. A latent heat change always causes a change in molecular spacing. _ _

3. A thermometer can be used to measure a latent heat change. _ _

4. There is a change of state in a substance whenever latent heat is added to it or removed from it. _ _

6. Define latent heat. - - - - - -- - -- -- - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - -

7. Total heat = _ _ _ __ _ __ _ _ _ __ _ + _ __ _ _ _ __ __ _ _ _

8. Below are listed some things that cause a change in the heat content of the air within a space. Put an "S" by
those that cause only a sensible heat change and an "L" by those that cause a latent heat change.
a. People perspiring and breathing in a space _ _
b. Sun shining in through a window _ _
c. Hot food brought into a space _ _
d. Heat coming in through a hot roof _ _
e. Heat from lights _ _
f. Heat from electric appliances and motors _ _
•
g. Outside air brought in for ventilation _ _

9. To the refrigerant mechanic the most important type of heat is:

a. Sensible, because most heat enters and leaves spaces that way.
b. Latent, because the machinery moves most of its heat that way.
c. Latent, because most heat enters and leaves spaces that way.
d. Sensible, because the machinery moves most of its heat that way.

24
•
 GLOSSARY OF REFRIGERATION TERMS
• ABSOLUTE PRESSURE: Pressure measurements which are compared to absolutely no pressure at all- not even atmospheric
pressure; e.g. PSIA and in. Hg Abs.

AIR CONDITIONING: The treatment of air temperature, humidity, cleanliness and circulation so as to achieve a controlled,
desired result.

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE: The pressure exerted on all things on the Earth's surface that are a result of the weight of our atmosphere.
BAROMETRIC PRESSURE: Same as atmospheric pressure. The absolute pressure read on a barometer in inches of mercury.

BTU (British Thermal Unit) : The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 pound of water 1°F. A quantity of heat.

BTUH (BTU's per hour): The basic small unit for measuring the rate of heat transfer.

CENTIGRADE (Represented as degrees "C"): The scale of temperature measurement most commonly used Worldwide.
COLD: Having less heat energy than the object against which it is compared. A relative term for temperature.
COMFORT AIR CONDITIONING : Conditioning air so that it is comfortable to its occupants.

COMPOUND GAUGE: A service gauge that has both pressure and vacuum scales.

CONDENSATION: The process by which a gas is change<j into a liquid at constant temperature by heat removal.
CONDENSER: A heat exchange coil within a mechanical refrigeration system used to reject heat from the system. The coil where
condensation takes place.

CONDUCTION: A means of heat transfer whereby heat is moved from molecule to molecule of a substance by a chain collision of
those molecules.

CONDUCTOR: A material which facilitates heat transfer by conduction .

• CONVECTION: Heat transfer within a fluid by the movement of heated molecules from one place to another.
COOLING LOAD: Heat which flows into a space from outdoors and/or indoors.
DEEP REFRIGERATION: See LOW TEMPERATURE REFRIGERATION.

DENSITY: The mass (weight) of a substance per unit volume, measured in pounds per cubic foot for gases (lb/cu.ft).
DENSITY CURRENT: Fluid flow caused by differences in the density in warm versus cool areas of the body of fluid.

DESIGN COOLING LOAD: The rate at which heat flows into a space on a design day. The design day usually presents the space
with 95% or more of its highest possible load.

ENTHALPY: Total heat content expressed in BTU per pound of the substance (BTU/Ib).

EVACUATION: The process of removing air, moisture, and other gases from the inside of a refrigeration system.
EVAPORATOR: A heat exchange coil within a mechanical refrigeration system used to absorb heat into the system. The coil where
evaporation takes place.

FAHRENHEIT (Represented as degrees "F"): The scale of temperature measurement most commonly used in the United
States of America.

FLUID: Any substance in its liquid or gas state.

GAUGE PRESSURE: The pressure measured on a gauge, expressed as PSIG or ln. Hg. Vac. Pressure measurements which are
compared to atmospheric pressure.

HEAT: A form of energy. The least organized form of energy. The form of energy into which other forms deteriorate.
HEAT CONTENT: The amount of heat energy possessed by a substance.

HEAT EXCHANGE: See HEAT TRANSFER .

HEAT FLOW: See HEAT TRANSFER.
• HEAT FLUX: See HEAT TRANSFER.

HEAT TRANSFER: The movement of heat from one place to another, between two substances, or within a substance.

25
 HEATING CAPACITY: The rate at which a device can add heat to a substance, expressed in BTUH.

INCHES MERCURY, ABSOLUTE (Expressed "ln. Hg . Abs."): The scale used to measure absolute pressures equal to or below
atmospheric pressure. Also used for weather reporting and forecasting.

INCHES MERCURY, VACUUM (Expressed "ln. Hg. Vac."): The scale used to measure gauge pressures equal to or less than
atmospheric pressure.
•
INSULATOR: A material which inhibits heat transfer by conduction.

LATENT HEAT: The energy of molecular separation and arrangement. It cannot be measured with a thermometer. Associated with
change of state of a substance.
LATENT HEAT OF FUSION : The heat required to change 1 pound of a substance from a solid to a liquid at its melting temperature.
Measured in BTU.
LATENT HEAT OF VAPORIZATION: The heat required to change 1 pound of a substance from a saturated liquid into a saturated
vapor. Measured in BTU.
LOW TEMPERATURE REFRIGERATION: The application of mechanical refrigeration for maintaining very low temperatures
(usually below 0°F).
MOLECULE: The smallest particle that makes up any substance and has all its qualities.
I
PERFECT VACUUM : The absolute absence of any pressure, even atmospheric (0 PSIA or 0 ln. Hg. Abs. or about 30 ln. Hg. Vac) .

POUNDS PER SQUARE INCH ABSOLUTE (Expressed PSIA) : The scale used to measure absolute pressures that are equal to or
above atmospheric pressure.
POUNDS PER SQUARE INCH GAUGE (Expressed PSIG): The scale used to measure gauge pressures that are equal to or above
atmospheric pressure.

•
PRESSURE: Force per unit of area.
PROCESS AIR CONDITIONING: Conditioning air so that a product can be beneficially manufactured, maintained, or controlled.
RATE: How fast something proceeds. Occurrences per unit of time; e.g., BTUH.

REFRIGERANT: A fluid (liquid or gas) that picks up heat by evaporating at a low temperature and pressure. It gives up heat by
condensing at a higher temperature and pressure.
~ SATURATED LIQUID: A liquid that contains all the heat it can hold without changing into a vapor.

SATURATED VAPOR: A vapor that contains all the heat it can hold without becoming superheated.
SATURATION TEMPERATURE: The boiling point of a refrigerant. It is dependent upon pressure.

SENSIBLE COOLING CAPACITY (Expressed in BTUH or tons): The rate at which a refrigeration system can remove sensible heat.

SENSIBLE HEAT: The energy of molecular motion. Measured with a thermometer. Associated with a change in temperature.
SPECIFIC HEAT (Expressed BTU!Ib/°F): The amount of heat required to raise 1 pound of a substance 1°F.

SUPERHEATED GAS: A gas at a temperature above the saturation temperature of the substance.
SUBCOOLED LIQUID : A liquid at a temperature below the saturation temperature of the substance.

TEMPERATURE: The measure of the intensity of heat that a substance possesses.

TON: The basic large unit for measuring the rate of heat transfer (12,000 BTUH) .

TOTAL COOLING LOAD (Expressed in BTUH or tons): The rate at which total heat enters a space.

TOTAL HEAT: Sensible plus latent heat.

26
•
 QUIZ KEY

• SKILLS CHECK 1
1.
2.
True
b
(Paragraph 4)
(Paragraph 10)
3. b (Paragraph 6)
4. Refrigeration is cooling by the
removal of heat. (Paragraph 9)
5. Moves or transfers (Paragraph 9)
6. Air conditioner; refrigerator (Paragraph 11 , 12)
7. c (Paragraph 14)

SKILLS CHECK 2
1. Energy (Paragraph 21 )
2. Light, electricity, chemical energy,
mechanical energy (Paragraph 22)
3. Chemical (by process of elimination) (Paragraph 22)
4. Faster (Paragraph 26)
5. c (Paragraph 27)

• 6.

7.
8.
Density is a measure of how tightly
packed the molecules of a
substance are.
e
b, d
(Paragraph 25)
(Paragraph 27)
(Paragraph 28)
9. Temperature is a measure of the I
intensity of heat a substance possesses. (Paragraph 32)
10. Fahrenheit (F); Centigrade (C) (Paragraph 33)

SKILLS CHECK 3
1. Heat transfer is the movement of heat
from one place to another. (Paragraph 35)
2. b, d (Paragraph 35)
3. d (Paragraph 36)
4. b,d (Paragraph 37)
5. d (Paragraph 38)
6. Conduction, convection , radiation (Paragraph 39)
7. a. Radiation d. Convection
b. Conduction

•
c. Convection (Paragraph 39-49)
8. Conductors (Paragraph 50)
9. c (Paragraph 54)

27
 QUIZ KEY
SKILLS CHECK 4
1.
2. T
3. F
T (Paragraph 57)
(Paragraph 59)
(Paragraph 59)
•
4. T (Paragraph 59, 60)
5. Sensible heat is the heat of
molecular motion. (Paragraph 57)
6. Latent heat is the energy of
molecular separation and
arrangement. (Paragraph 59)
7. Total heat is the sum of
sensible heat and latent heat. (Paragraph 61)
8. L for a, c, g ; S for others (Paragraph 63)
9. b (Paragraph 66)

28
•
 STUDENT SKILLS INVENTORY-

• INTRODUCTION TO REFRIGERATION

At the conclusion of your study of the material in this module, you should be able to:
1. Explain the purpose of the entire GTAC program (all modules combined).
2. Define the goal of this module.
3. Identify the items that all mechanical refrigeration systems have in common.
4. Define mechanical refrigeration and give two examples of where it is used.
5. List four uses for mechanical refrigeration. Identify the two we will be covering in the GTAC program .
6. Define heat.
7. List three forms of energy that turn into heat energy in air conditioned (cooled) spaces.
8. Describe how the motion of molecules is affected by heat.
9. Tell how the spacing of molecules changes during a substance's change of state.
10. Compare the amount of space which a substance (other than water) will require in its three stages.
(Is it less, more, or the same? Why?)
11. Explain the concept of absolute zero in terms of molecular motion.
12. Tell what temperature will and will not measure.
• 13. Define temperature.
14. Name the two scales most commonly used to measure temperature.
15. Give a simple definition of heat transfer and give one example. In your example, tell where the heat comes
from and where it goes.
16. Explain the difference between heat content and heat transfer.
17. Tell what we mean when we say that "heat flows downhill."
18. Give an example of heat flowing downhill for a space and also give an example for a coil. Tell where heat
comes from and where it goes in each example.
19. List the three ways heat is transferred; give an everyday example of each.
20. Relate how heat transfer is affected by insulators and conductors.
21 . Give an example of a conductor used in heating or cooling equipment.
22. Give an example of an insulator used in the construction of a building.
23. Explain the difference between sensible heat and latent heat.
24. Give an example of how sensible heat enters a space. Do the same for latent heat.
25. Tell why latent heat transfer is so important in servicing mechanical refrigeration systems .

• 29
 •

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•
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