BEE Digital Notes 2020-21-Modified - Srilatha

Electrical & Electronics Engineering B.
Tech R-20
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
Electrical & Electronics Engineering

LECTURE NOTES ON
BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING (2002ES01)
I B.Tech I SEM (ECE, EEE)

Prepared by
Mrs.G.SUGUNA
Assistant Professor.
MALLA REDDY ENGINEERING COLLEGE FOR WOMEN

Institution-UGC, Govt. of India)
Accredited by NBA & NAAC with ‘A’ Grade, UGC, Govt. of India
NIRF Indian Ranking, Accepted by MHRD, Govt. of India
Band A (6th-25th) National Ranking by ARIIA, Accepted by MHRD, Govt. of India
Approved by AICTE, Affiliated to JNTUH, ISO 9001:2015 Certified Institution
Platinum Rated by AICTE-CII Survey, AAAA+ Rated by Digital Learning Magazine
AAA+ Rated by Careers 360, National Ranking-Top 100 Rank band by Outlook Magazine
3rd Rank by CSR, National Ranking-Top 100 Rank band by Times News Magazine 141 Rank by
India Today-Best Engineering Colleges of India Rankings-2020 Maisammaguda,
Dhulapally, Secunderabad, Kompally-500100.
Malla Reddy Engineering College for Women (Autonomous Institution-UGC, Govt. of India)
Course Objectives:
❖ To introduce the concepts of electrical circuits and its components

❖ To understand magnetic circuits, DC circuits and AC single phase &
three phase circuits
❖ To study and understand the different types of DC/AC machines and
Transformers.
❖ To import the knowledge of various electrical installations.
❖ To introduce the concept of power, power factor and its improvement.
Course Outcomes:
❖ To analyze and solve electrical circuits using network laws and theorems.
❖ To understand and analyze basic Electric and Magnetic circuits
❖ To study the working principles of Electrical Machines
❖ To introduce components of Low Voltage Electrical Installations
MAPPING OF COURSE OUTCOMES WITH PROGRAM OUTCOMES
Course PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 PO10 PO11 PO12
Outcome
CO1 H H H
CO2 H H M
CO3 H H H
CO4 H H H M M
2002ES01: BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
B.Tech. I Year I Sem
UNIT-I: D.C.
Circuits
Electrical circuit elements (R, L and C), voltage and current sources, KVL&KCL, analysis
of simple circuits with dc excitation. Superposition, Thevenin and Norton Theorems. Time-domain
analysis of first-order RL and RC circuits.
UNIT-II: A.C. Circuits

Representation of sinusoidal waveforms, peak and rms values, phasor representation, real
power, reactive power, apparent power, power factor, Analysis of single-phase ac circuits consisting
of R, L, C, RL, RC, RLC combinations (series and parallel), resonance in series R- L-C circuit.
Three-phase balanced circuits, voltage and current relations in star and delta connections.
UNIT-III: Transformers
Ideal and practical transformer, equivalent circuit, losses in transformers, regulation and
efficiency. Auto-transformer and three-phase transformer connections.
UNIT-IV: Electrical Machines

Generation of rotating magnetic fields, Construction and working of a three-phase
induction motor, Significance of torque-slip characteristic. Loss components and efficiency, starting
and speed control of induction motor. Single-phase induction motor. Construction, working, torque-
speed characteristic and speed control of separately excited dc motor. Construction and working of
synchronous generators.
UNIT-V: Electrical Installations
Components of LT Switchgear: Switch Fuse Unit (SFU), MCB, ELCB, MCCB, Types of
Wires and Cables, Earthing. Types of Batteries, Important Characteristics for Batteries.
Elementary calculations for energy consumption, power factor improvement and battery backup.
Suggested Text-Books/Reference-Books:
1.
Basic Electrical Engineering - D.P. Kothari and I.J. Nagrath, 3rdedition 2010,
Tata McGraw Hill.
2. D.C. Kulshreshtha, “Basic Electrical Engineering”, McGraw Hill, 2009.
3. L.S. Bobrow, Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering”, Oxford University Press, 2011
4. Electrical and Electronics Technology, E. Hughes, 10th Edition, Pearson, 2010

5. Electrical Engineering Fundamentals, Vincent Deltoro, Second Edition, Prentice
Hall India, 1989
Table of Contents
UNIT-1 .......................................................................................................................................................................... 1
DC CIRCUITS ..............................................................................................................................................................
1
1.1 Introduction to electrical circuits ................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Types of Network
Elements ................................................................................................................................... 2
1.3 R-L-C Parameters ................................................................................................................................................
6
1.4 Types of Sources ...................................................................................................................................................
9
1.5 Kirchhoff’s Laws ................................................................................................................................................
13
1.6 Series and parallel connections of resistive networks: ......................................................................................
19
1.7 Star–to-Delta and Delta-to-Star Transformations for Resistive Networks: ...................................................... 24
1.8 Network Theorems: ...........................................................................................................................................
33 UNIT-2 ........................................................................................................................................................................
43
A.C. CIRCUITS ..........................................................................................................................................................
43
2.1 RMS VALUE: ................................................................................................................................................... 43
2.2 Introduction to Single Phase AC Circuit: ..........................................................................................................
49
2.3 Apparent Power, True Power, Reactive Power and Power Factor: ...................................................................
57
2.4 CONCEPT OF REACTANCE, IMPEDANCE, SUSCEPTANCE AND ADMITTANCE: ............................ 58
2.5 Phasor Diagram: ................................................................................................................................................
61
2.6 Applications of 3 Phase AC Circuits .................................................................................................................
70
UNIT-3 TRANSFORMERS ...........................................................................................................................................
71
3.1 Introduction to transformers ..............................................................................................................................
71
3.2 Principle of working: .........................................................................................................................................
71
3.3 CONSTRUCTION OF 1- PHASE TRANSFORMERS: ..................................................................................
73
3.4. Comparison of Core and Shell Type Transformers: .........................................................................................
76
3.5 E.M.F. EQUATION OF A TRANSFORMER: ................................................................................................. 76
3.6 RATIOS OF A TRANSFORMER: ................................................................................................................... 78
3.7 IDEAL TRANSFORMER ON NO LOAD: ......................................................................................................
82
3.8 PRACTICLE TRANSFORMER ON NO LOAD: ............................................................................................
81
3.9 Equivalent circuit of Transformer...................................................................................................................... 83
3.10 VOLTAGE REGULATION OF TRANSFORMER: ...................................................................................... 86
3.11 Expression for Voltage Regulation: .................................................................................................................
87
3.12 Zero Voltage Regulation: .................................................................................................................................
88
3.13 LOSSES IN A TRANSFORMER: ..................................................................................................................
90
3.14 EFFICIENCY OF A TRANSFORMER:......................................................................................................... 91
3.15. Condition for Maximum Efficiency: ..............................................................................................................
93
3.16 AUTO-TRANSFORMER: ..............................................................................................................................
95
3.17 THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER CONNECTIONS: ..................................................................................
96
UNIT-4 ELECTRICAL MACHINES .........................................................................................................................
99
4.1THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR: ..........................................................................................................
99
4.2 ROTATING MAGNETIC FIELD (R.M.F.): .................................................................................................... 99
4.3 SPEED OF R.M.F: ..........................................................................................................................................
105
4.4 CONSTRUCTION OF THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR: ................................................................. 106
4.5 WORKING OF A THREE-PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR: ........................................................................ 110
4.6 Losses in Induction Motor: .............................................................................................................................. 115
4.7 Efficiency of an Induction Motor: ................................................................................................................... 116
4.8 SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR:...................................................................................................... 120
4.9 Double Revolving Field Theory: ..................................................................................................................... 122
4.10 Construction of a Practical D.C. Machine: .................................................................................................... 124
4.11 Torque and Speed Equations: ........................................................................................................................ 135
4.12 SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR: ............................................................................................................... 136
4.13 Construction of Synchronous Generator (Stator and Rotor): ........................................................................ 138
4.14 Working Principle of Synchronous Generator: ............................................................................................. 140
UNIT-5 ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS............................................................................................................. 143
5.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................... 143
5.2 Components of Switchgear .............................................................................................................................. 145
5.3 Switchgear Equipment ..................................................................................................................................... 145
5.4 Fuse: ................................................................................................................................................................ 146
5.5 Circuit Breaker ................................................................................................................................................ 147
5.6 Classifications of Wire / Cables: ..................................................................................................................... 158
5.7 Earthing of Grounding: .................................................................................................................................... 159
5.8 Batteries: .......................................................................................................................................................... 163
5.9 Energy Consumption Calculation: ................................................................................................................... 169
5.10 Tariff: ............................................................................................................................................................. 172
5.11 Power factor ................................................................................................................................................... 178
5.12 Battery backup ............................................................................................................................................... 183
BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT OF EEE
UNIT-1 DC CIRCUITS
1.1 Introduction to electrical circuits
Network theory is the study of solving the problems of electric circuits or electric networks. In this
introductory chapter, let us first discuss the basic terminology of electric circuits and the types of network
elements.
Basic Terminology
In Network Theory, we will frequently come across the following terms −
• Electric Circuit
• Electric Network
• Current
• Voltage
• Power
So, it is imperative that we gather some basic knowledge on these terms before proceeding further. Let’s start
with Electric Circuit.
Electric Circuit
An electric circuit contains a closed path for providing a flow of electrons from a voltage
source or current source. The elements present in an electric circuit will be in series connection, parallel
connection, or in any combination of series and parallel connections.
Electric Network
An electric network need not contain a closed path for providing a flow of electrons from a
voltage source or current source. Hence, we can conclude that "all electric circuits are electric networks" but
the converse need not be true.
Current
The current "I" flowing through a conductor is nothing but the time rate of flow of charge.
Mathematically, it can be written as
Where,
• Q is the charge and its unit is Coulomb.
• t is the time and its unit is second.
MallaReddy Engineering College for Women(Autonomous institution,UGC Govt. of india) Page 1

As an analogy, electric current can be thought of as the flow of water through a pipe. Current is measured in
terms of Ampere. In general, Electron current flows from negative terminal of source to positive terminal,
whereas, Conventional current flows from positive terminal of source to negative terminal.
Electron current is obtained due to the movement of free electrons, whereas, Conventional current is obtained
due to the movement of free positive charges. Both of these are called as electric current.
Voltage
The voltage "V" is nothing but an electromotive force that causes the charge (electrons) to
flow. Mathematically, it can be written as
Where,
• W is the potential energy and its unit is Joule.
• Q is the charge and its unit is Coloumb.
As an analogy, Voltage can be thought of as the pressure of water that causes the water to flow through a
pipe. It is measured in terms of Volt.
Power
The power "P" is nothing but the time rate of flow of electrical energy. Mathematically, it can
be written as
Where,
• W is the electrical energy and it is measured in terms of Joule.
• t is the time and it is measured in seconds. We can re-write the above equation a
Therefore, power is nothing but the product of voltage V and current I. Its unit is Watt.
1.2 Types of Network Elements
We can classify the Network elements into various types based on some parameters.
Following are the types of Network elements −
• Active Elements and Passive Elements
• Linear Elements and Non-linear Elements
• Bilateral Elements and Unilateral Elements
• Lumped Elements and Distributed Elements

Active Elements and Passive Elements
We can classify the Network elements into either active or passive based on the ability of
delivering power.
• Active Elements deliver power to other elements, which are present in an electric circuit.
Sometimes, they may absorb the power like passive elements. That means active elements have
the capability of both delivering and absorbing power.
Examples: Voltage sources and current sources.
• Passive Elements can’t deliver power (energy) to other elements, however they can absorb
power. That means these elements either dissipate power in the form of heat or store energy in
the form of either magnetic field or electric field.
Examples: Resistors, Inductors, and capacitors.
Linear Elements and Non-Linear Elements
We can classify the network elements as linear or non-linear based on their characteristic to
obey the property of linearity.
• Linear Elements are the elements that show a linear relationship between voltage and
current. Examples: Resistors, Inductors, and capacitors.
• Non-Linear Elements are those that do not show a linear relation between voltage and current.
Examples: Voltage sources and current sources.
Bilateral Elements and Unilateral Elements
Network elements can also be classified as either bilateral or unilateral based on the direction
of current flows through the network elements.
Bilateral Elements are the elements that allow the current in both directions and offer the same impedance in
either direction of current flow. Examples: Resistors, Inductors and capacitors.
The concept of Bilateral elements is illustrated in the following figures.
In the above figure, the current (I) is flowing from terminals A to B through a passive element having
impedance of Z Ω. It is the ratio of voltage (V) across that element between terminals A & B and current (I).

In the above figure, the current (I) is flowing from terminals B to A through a passive element having
impedance of Z Ω. That means the current (–I) is flowing from terminals A to B. In this case too, we will
get the same impedance value, since both the current and voltage having negative signs with respect to
terminals A & B.
Unilateral Elements are those that allow the current in only one direction. Hence, they offer different
impedances in both directions.
We discussed the types of network elements in the previous chapter. Now, let us identify the nature of
network elements from the V-I characteristics given in the following examples.
Example 1 The V-I characteristics of a network element is shown below.
Step 1 − Verifying the network element as linear or non-linear.

From the above figure, the V-I characteristics of a network element is a straight line passing through the
origin. Hence, it is linear element.
Step 2 − Verifying the network element as active or passive.
The given V-I characteristics of a network element lies in the first and third quadrants.
• In the first quadrant, the values of both voltage (V) and current (I) are positive. So, the ratios of
voltage (V) and current (I) gives positive impedance values.
• Similarly, in the third quadrant, the values of both voltage (V) and current (I) have negative values.
So, the ratios of voltage (V) and current (I) produce positive impedance values.
Since, the given V-I characteristics offer positive impedance values, the network element is a Passive
element.
Step 3 − Verifying the network element as bilateral or unilateral.

For every point (I, V) on the characteristics, there exists a corresponding point (-I, -V) on the given
characteristics. Hence, the network element is a Bilateral element.
Therefore, the given V-I characteristics show that the network element is a Linear, Passive, and Bilateral
element.
Example 2
The V-I characteristics of a network element is shown below.
Step 1 − Verifying the network element as linear or non-linear.

From the above figure, the V-I characteristics of a network element is a straight line only between the points
(-3A, -3V) and (5A, 5V). Beyond these points, the V-I characteristics are not following the linear relation.
Hence, it is a Non-linear element.
Step 2 − Verifying the network element as active or passive.
The given V-I characteristics of a network element lies in the first and third quadrants. In these two
quadrants, the ratios of voltage (V) and current (I) produce positive impedance values. Hence, the network
element is a Passive element.
Step 3 − Verifying the network element as bilateral or unilateral.
Consider the point (5A, 5V) on the characteristics. The corresponding point (-5A, -3V) exists on the given
characteristics instead of (-5A, -5V). Hence, the network element is a Unilateral element.
Therefore, the given V-I characteristics show that the network element is a Non-linear, Passive, and
Unilateral element. The circuits containing them are called unilateral circuits.
Lumped and Distributed Elements
Lumped elements are those elements which are very small in size & in which simultaneous actions takes
place. Typical lumped elements are capacitors, resistors, inductors.
Distributed elements are those which are not electrically separable for analytical purposes.
For example a transmission line has distributed parameters along its length and may extend for hundreds of
miles.
1.3 R-L-C Parameters Resistor
The main functionality of Resistor is either opposes or restricts the flow of electric current.

Hence, the resistors are used in order to limit the amount of current flow and / or dividing (sharing) voltage.
Let the current flowing through the resistor is I amperes and the voltage across it is V volts. The symbol of
resistor along with current, I and voltage, V are shown in the following figure.
According to Ohm’s law, the voltage across resistor is the product of current flowing through it and the
resistance of that resistor. Mathematically, it can be represented as
Where, R is the resistance of a resistor.

From Equation 2, we can conclude that the current flowing through the resistor is directly proportional to the
applied voltage across resistor and inversely proportional to the resistance of resistor.
Power in an electric circuit element can be represented as
Substitute, Equation 1 in Equation 3.
Substitute, Equation 2 in Equation 3.
So, we can calculate the amount of power dissipated in the resistor by using one of the formulae mentioned
in Equations 3 to 5.
Inductor
In general, inductors will have number of turns. Hence, they produce magnetic flux when
current flows through it. So, the amount of total magnetic flux produced by an inductor depends on the
current, I flowing through it and they have linear relationship.
Mathematically, it can be written as

Where,
• Ψ is the total magnetic flux
• L is the inductance of an inductor
Let the current flowing through the inductor is I amperes and the voltage across it is V volts. The symbol of
inductor along with current I and voltage V are shown in the following figure.
According to Faraday’s law, the voltage across the inductor can be written as
Substitute Ψ = LI in the above equation.
From the above equations, we can conclude that there exists a linear relationship between voltage across
inductor and current flowing through it.
We know that power in an electric circuit element can be represented as

By integrating the above equation, we will get the energy stored in an inductor as
So, the inductor stores the energy in the form of magnetic field.
Capacitor
In general, a capacitor has two conducting plates, separated by a dielectric medium. If positive
voltage is applied across the capacitor, then it stores positive charge. Similarly, if negative voltage is applied
across the capacitor, then it stores negative charge.
So, the amount of charge stored in the capacitor depends on the applied voltage V across it and they have
linear relationship. Mathematically, it can be written as
Where,
• Q is the charge stored in the capacitor.
• C is the capacitance of a capacitor.
Let the current flowing through the capacitor is I amperes and the voltage across it is V volts. The symbol of
capacitor along with current I and voltage V are shown in the following figure.
We know that the current is nothing but the time rate of flow of charge. Mathematically, it can be
represented as

From the above equations, we can conclude that there exists a linear relationship between voltage across
capacitor and current flowing through it.
We know that power in an electric circuit element can be represented as
By integrating the above equation, we will get the energy stored in the capacitor as
So, the capacitor stores the energy in the form of electric field.
1.4 Types of Sources
Active Elements are the network elements that deliver power to other elements present in an
electric circuit. So, active elements are also called as sources of voltage or current type. We can classify these
sources into the following two categories −
• Independent Sources
• Dependent Sources
Independent Sources
As the name suggests, independent sources produce fixed values of voltage or current and

these are not dependent on any other parameter. Independent sources can be further divided into the
following two categories −
• Independent Voltage Sources

• Independent Current Sources
Independent Voltage Sources
An independent voltage source produces a constant voltage across its two terminals. This
voltage is independent of the amount of current that is flowing through the two terminals of voltage source.
Independent ideal voltage source and its V-I characteristics are shown in the following figure.
The V-I characteristics of an independent ideal voltage source is a constant line, which is always equal to
the source voltage (VS) irrespective of the current value (I). So, the internal resistance of an independent
ideal voltage source is zero Ohms.
Hence, the independent ideal voltage sources do not exist practically, because there will be some internal
resistance.
Independent practical voltage source and its V-I characteristics are shown in the following figure.
There is a deviation in the V-I characteristics of an independent practical voltage source from the V-I
characteristics of an independent ideal voltage source. This is due to the voltage drop across the internal
resistance (RS) of an independent practical voltage source.
Independent Current Sources
An independent current source produces a constant current. This current is independent of
the voltage across its two terminals. Independent ideal current source and its V-I characteristics are shown in
the following figure.

The V-I characteristics of an independent ideal current source is a constant line, which is always equal to
the source current (IS) irrespective of the voltage value (V). So, the internal resistance of an independent
ideal current source is infinite ohms.
Hence, the independent ideal current sources do not exist practically, because there will be some internal
resistance.
Independent practical current source and its V-I characteristics are shown in the following figure.
There is a deviation in the V-I characteristics of an independent practical current source from the V-I
characteristics of an independent ideal current source. This is due to the amount of current flows through
the internal shunt resistance (RS) of an independent practical current source.
Dependent Sources
As the name suggests, dependent sources produce the amount of voltage or current that is
dependent on some other voltage or current. Dependent sources are also called as controlled sources.
Dependent sources can be further divided into the following two categories −
• Dependent Voltage Sources

• Dependent Current Sources
Dependent Voltage Sources
A dependent voltage source produces a voltage across its two terminals. The amount of this
voltage is dependent on some other voltage or current. Hence, dependent voltage sources can be further
classified into the following two categories −

• Voltage Dependent Voltage Source (VDVS)

• Current Dependent Voltage Source (CDVS)
Dependent voltage sources are represented with the signs ‘+’ and ‘-’ inside a diamond shape. The magnitude
of the voltage source can be represented outside the diamond shape.
Dependent Current Sources
A dependent current source produces a current. The amount of this current is dependent on
some other voltage or current. Hence, dependent current sources can be further classified into the following
two categories −
• Voltage Dependent Current Source (VDCS)

• Current Dependent Current Source (CDCS)
Dependent current sources are represented with an arrow inside a diamond shape. The magnitude of the
current source can be represented outside the diamond shape. We can observe these dependent or controlled
sources in equivalent models of transistors.
Source Transformation Technique
We know that there are two practical sources, namely, voltage source and current source. We
can transform (convert) one source into the other based on the requirement, while solving network problems.
The technique of transforming one source into the other is called as source transformation technique.
Following are the two possible source transformations −
• Practical voltage source into a practical current source

• Practical current source into a practical voltage source
Practical voltage source into a practical current source
The transformation of practical voltage source into a practical current source is shown in the
following figure

Practical voltage source consists of a voltage source (V S) in series with a resistor (R S). This can be
converted into a practical current source as shown in the figure. It consists of a current source (I S) in
parallel with a resistor (RS).
The value of IS will be equal to the ratio of VS and RS. Mathematically, it can be represented as
Practical current source into a practical voltage source

The transformation of practical current source into a practical voltage source is shown in the
following figure.
Practical current source consists of a current source (I S) in parallel with a resistor (RS). This can be
converted into a practical voltage source as shown in the figure. It consists of a voltage source (V S) in series
with a resistor (RS).
The value of VS will be equal to the product of IS and RS. Mathematically, it can be represented as
In this chapter, we will discuss in detail about the passive elements such as Resistor, Inductor, and Capacitor.
Let us start with Resistors.
1.5 Kirchhoff’s Laws
Network elements can be either of active or passive type. Any electrical circuit or network
contains one of these two types of network elements or a combination of both.
Now, let us discuss about the following two laws, which are popularly known as Kirchhoff’s laws.
• Kirchhoff’s Current Law
• Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

Kirchhoff’s Current Law
Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) states that the algebraic sum of currents leaving (or entering) a node is equal
to zero.

A Node is a point where two or more circuit elements are connected to it. If only two circuit elements are
connected to a node, then it is said to be simple node. If three or more circuit elements are connected to a
node, then it is said to be Principal Node.
Mathematically, KCL can be represented as
Where,
• Im is the mth branch current leaving the node.
• M is the number of branches that are connected to a node.
The above statement of KCL can also be expressed as "the algebraic sum of currents entering a node is equal
to the algebraic sum of currents leaving a node". Let us verify this statement through the following example.
Example
Write KCL equation at node P of the following figure.
• In the above figure, the branch currents I 1, I2 and I3 areentering at node P. So, consider negative
signs for these three currents.
• In the above figure, the branch currents I4 and I5 areleaving from node P. So, consider positive signs
for these two currents.
The KCL equation at node P will be
In the above equation, the left-hand side represents the sum of entering currents, whereas the right-hand side
represents the sum of leaving currents.

In this tutorial, we will consider positive sign when the current leaves a node and negative sign when it
enters a node. Similarly, you can consider negative sign when the current leaves a node and positive sign
when it enters a node. In both cases, the result will be same.
Note − KCL is independent of the nature of network elements that are connected to a node.
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) states that the algebraic sum of voltages around a loop or
mesh is equal to zero.
A Loop is a path that terminates at the same node where it started from. In contrast, a Mesh is a loop that
doesn’t contain any other loops inside it.
Mathematically, KVL can be represented as
Where,
• Vn is the nth element’s voltage in a loop (mesh).
• N is the number of network elements in the loop (mesh).
The above statement of KVL can also be expressed as "the algebraic sum of voltage sources is equal to the
algebraic sum of voltage drops that are present in a loop." Let us verify this statement with the help of the
following example.
Example
Write KVL equation around the loop of the following circuit.
The above circuit diagram consists of a voltage source, V S in series with two resistors R1 and R2. The voltage
drops across the resistors R1 and R2 are V1 and V2 respectively.
Apply KVL around the loop.

In the above equation, the left-hand side term represents single voltage source VS. Whereas, the right-hand
side represents the sum of voltage drops. In this example, we considered only one voltage source. That’s
why the left-hand side contains only one term. If we consider multiple voltage sources, then the left side
contains sum of voltage sources.
In this tutorial, we consider the sign of each element’s voltage as the polarity of the second terminal that is
present while travelling around the loop. Similarly, you can consider the sign of each voltage as the polarity
of the first terminal that is present while travelling around the loop. In both cases, the result will be same.
Note − KVL is independent of the nature of network elements that are present in a loop. In this
chapter, let us discuss about the following two division principles of electrical quantities.
• Current Division Principle

• Voltage Division Principle
Current Division Principle
When two or more passive elements are connected in parallel, the amount of current that flows
through each element gets divided(shared) among themselves from the current that is entering the node.
Consider the following circuit diagram.
The above circuit diagram consists of an input current source IS in parallel with two resistors R1 and R2.
The voltage across each element is VS. The currents flowing through the resistors
R1 andR2 are I1 and I2 respectively.
The KCL equation at node P will be

From equations of I1 and I2, we can generalize that the current flowing through any passive element can be
found by using the following formula.
This is known as current division principle and it is applicable, when two or more passive elements are
connected in parallel and only one current enters the node.
Where,
• IN is the current flowing through the passive element of Nth branch.
• IS is the input current, which enters the node.
• Z1, Z2, …,ZN are the impedances of 1st branch, 2ndbranch, …, Nth branch respectively.
Voltage Division Principle
When two or more passive elements are connected in series, the amount of voltage present
across each element gets divided (shared) among themselves from the voltage that is available across that
entire combination.

The above circuit diagram consists of a voltage source, V S in series with two resistors R1 and R2. The current
flowing through these elements is IS. The voltage drops across the resistors R1and R2 are V1 and V2
respectively.
The KVL equation around the loop will be
• Substitute V1 = IS R1 and V2 = IS R2 in the above equation
• Substitute the value of IS in V1 = IS R1.
From equations of V1 and V2, we can generalize that the voltage across any passive element can be found by
using the following formula.

This is known as voltage division principle and it is applicable, when two or more passive elements are
connected in series and only one voltage available across the entire combination.
Where,
• VN is the voltage across Nth passive element.
• VS is the input voltage, which is present across the entire combination of series passive elements.
• Z1,Z2, …,Z3 are the impedances of 1st passive element, 2nd passive element, …, Nth passive
element respectively.
Network Reduction Techniques
Series and Parallel connection of Resistive Networks
Star–to-Delta and Delta-to-Star Transformations for Resistive Networks
Mesh Analysis
Network Theorems: Thevenin’s Theorem
Norton’s Theorem
Superposition Theorem
Problems
Network Reduction Techniques:

There are two basic methods that are used for solving any electrical network: Nodal analysis and Mesh
analysis. In this chapter, let us discuss about the Mesh analysis method.
1.6 Series and parallel connections of resistive networks:
If a circuit consists of two or more similar passive elements and are connected in exclusively of series type
or parallel type, then we can replace them with a single equivalent passive element. Hence, this circuit is
called as an equivalent circuit. In this chapter, let us discuss about the following two equivalent circuits.
• Series Equivalent Circuit

• Parallel Equivalent Circuit
Series Equivalent Circuit
If similar passive elements are connected in series, then the same current will flow through all
these elements. But, the voltage gets divided across each element.

It has a single voltage source (V S) and three resistors having resistances of R 1, R2 and R3. All these elements
are connected in series. The current IS flows through all these elements.
The above circuit has only one mesh. The KVL equation around this mesh is
The equivalent circuit diagram of the given circuit is shown in the following figure.
That means, if multiple resistors are connected in series, then we can replace them with an equivalent
resistor. The resistance of this equivalent resistor is equal to sum of the resistances of all those multiple
resistors.
Note 1 − If ‘N’ inductors having inductances of L 1, L2, ..., LN are connected in series, then the equivalent
inductance will be
Note 2 − If ‘N’ capacitors having capacitances of C 1, C2, ..., CNare connected in series, then the equivalent
capacitance will be
Parallel Equivalent Circuit

If similar passive elements are connected in parallel, then the same voltage will be maintained
across each element. But, the current flowing through each element gets divided.

It has a single current source (IS) and three resistors having resistances of R 1, R2, and R3. All these elements
are connected in parallel. The voltage (VS) is available across all these elements.
The above circuit has only one principal node (P) except the Ground node. The KCL equation at this
principal node (P) is
The equivalent circuit diagram of the given circuit is shown in the following figure.
That means, if multiple resistors are connected in parallel, then we can replace them with an equivalent
resistor. The resistance of this equivalent resistor is equal to the reciprocal of sum of reciprocal of each
resistance of all those multiple resistors.

Note 1 − If ‘N’ inductors having inductances of L 1, L2, ..., LN are connected in parallel, then the equivalent
inductance will be
Note 2 − If ‘N’ capacitors having capacitances of C 1, C2, ..., CNare connected in parallel, then the equivalent
capacitance will be
Example Problems:
1) Find the Req for the circuit shown in below figure.
fig(a) Solution:
To get Req we combine resistors in series and in parallel. The 6 ohms and 3 ohms resistors are in parallel, so
their equivalent resistance is
Also, the 1 ohm and 5ohms resistors are in series; hence their equivalent resistance is
Thus the circuit in Fig.(b) is reduced to that in Fig. (c). In Fig. (b), we notice that the two 2 ohms resistors are
in series, so the equivalent resistance is
This 4 ohms resistor is now in parallel with the 6 ohms resistor in Fig.(b); their equivalent resistance is

The circuit in Fig.(b) is now replaced with that in Fig.(c). In Fig.(c), the three resistors are in series. Hence,
the equivalent resistance for the circuit is 2) Find the Req for the circuit shown in below figure.
Solution:
In the given network 4 ohms, 5 ohms and 3 ohms comes in series then equivalent resistance is
4+5 + 3 = 12 ohms
From fig(b), 4 ohms and 12 ohms are in parallel, equivalent is 3 ohms
From fig(c), 3 ohms and 3 ohms are in series, equivalent resistance is 6 ohms
From fig(d),6 ohms and 6 ohms are in parallel, equivalent resistance is 3 ohms
From fig(e), 4 ohms, 3 ohms and 3 ohms are in series .Hence Req = 4+ 3+ 3 =10 ohms
1.7 Star–to-Delta and Delta-to-Star Transformations for Resistive Networks:

Delta to Star Transformation
In the previous chapter, we discussed an example problem related equivalent resistance.

There, we calculated the equivalent resistance between the terminals A & B of the given electrical network
easily. Because, in every step, we got the combination of resistors that are connected in either series form or
parallel form.
However, in some situations, it is difficult to simplify the network by following the previous approach. For
example, the resistors connected in either delta (δ) form or star form. In such situations, we have to convert
the network of one form to the other in order to simplify it further by using series combination or parallel
combination. In this chapter, let us discuss about the Delta to Star Conversion.
Delta Network
Consider the following delta network as shown in the following figure.
The following equations represent the equivalent resistance between two terminals of delta network, when the
third terminal is kept open.
Star Network
The following figure shows the equivalent star network corresponding to the above delta
network.

The following equations represent the equivalent resistance between two terminals of star network, when the
third terminal is kept open.
Star Network Resistances in terms of Delta Network Resistances

We will get the following equations by equating the right-hand side terms of the above
equations for which the left-hand side terms are same.

By using the above relations, we can find the resistances of star network from the resistances of delta
network.
In this way, we can convert a delta network into a star network.
Star to Delta Transformation
In the previous chapter, we discussed about the conversion of delta network into an equivalent
star network. Now, let us discuss about the conversion of star network into an equivalent delta network. This
conversion is called as Star to Delta Conversion.
In the previous chapter, we got the resistances of star network from delta network as
Delta Network Resistances in terms of Star Network Resistances

Let us manipulate the above equations in order to get the resistances of delta network in
terms of resistances of star network.
• Multiply each set of two equations and then add.

By using the above relations, we can find the resistances of delta network from the resistances of star
network. In this way, we can convert star network into delta network.
Example problems:
1) Convert the Delta network in Fig.(a) to an equivalent star network Solution:

BASIC ELECTRICALENGINEERING DEPARTMENT OF EEE
2) Convert the star network in fig(a) to delta network
Solution: The equivalent delta for the given star is shown in fig(b), where
3) etermine the total current I in the given circuit.
Solution: Delta connected resistors 25 ohms, 10 ohms and 15 ohms are converted in to star as
shown in given figure.

R1 = R12 R31 / R12 + R23 + R31 = 10 x 25 / 10 + 15 + 25 = 5 ohms R2

= R23 R12 / R12 + R23 + R31 = 15 x 10 / 10 + 15 + 25 = 3 ohms R3 =
R31 R23 / R12 + R23 + R31 = 25 x 15 / 10 + 15 + 25 = 7.5 ohms
The given circuit thus reduces to the circuit shown in below fig.
The equivalent resistance of

(20 + 5) ohms || (10 + 7.5) ohms = 25 x 17.5 / 25 + 17.5 = 10.29 ohms
Total resistance = 10.29 + 3 + 2.5 = 15.79 ohms
Hence the total current through the battery,

I = 15 / 15.79 = 0.95 A
Mesh Analysis:
Mesh analysis provides general procedure for analyzing circuits using mesh currents as the
circuit variables. Mesh Analysis is applicable only for planar networks. It is preferably useful
for the circuits that have many loops .This analysis is done by using KVL and Ohm's law.
In Mesh analysis, we will consider the currents flowing through each mesh. Hence, Mesh analysis
is also called as Mesh-current method.
A branch is a path that joins two nodes and it contains a circuit element. If a branch belongs to
only one mesh, then the branch current will be equal to mesh current.
If a branch is common to two meshes, then the branch current will be equal to the sum (or
difference) of two mesh currents, when they are in same (or opposite) direction.
Procedure of Mesh Analysis
Follow these steps while solving any electrical network or circuit using Mesh analysis.
• Step 1 − Identify the meshes and label the mesh currents in either clockwise or anti-
clockwise direction.
• Step 2 − Observe the amount of current that flows through each element in terms of mesh
currents.
• Step 3 − Write mesh equations to all meshes. Mesh equation is obtained by applying KVL
first and then Ohm’s law.
• Step 4 − Solve the mesh equations obtained in Step 3 in order to get the mesh currents.
Now, we can find the current flowing through any element and the voltage across any
element that is present in the given network by using mesh currents.
Example
Find the voltage across 30 Ω resistor using Mesh analysis.

Step 1 − There are two meshes in the above circuit. The mesh currents I 1 and I2 are considered in
clockwise direction. These mesh currents are shown in the following figure.
Step 2 − The mesh current I1 flows through 20 V voltage source and 5 Ω resistor. Similarly, the
mesh current I2 flows through 30 Ω resistor and -80 V voltage source. But, the difference of two
mesh currents, I1 and I2, flows through 10 Ω resistor, since it is the common branch of two
meshes.
Step 3 − In this case, we will get two mesh equations since there are two meshes in the given
circuit. When we write the mesh equations, assume the mesh current of that particular mesh as
greater than all other mesh currents of the circuit. The mesh equation of first mesh is

Step 4 − Finding mesh currents I1 and I2 by solving Equation 1 and Equation 2.

The left-hand side terms of Equation 1 and Equation 2 are the same. Hence, equate the right- hand
side terms of Equation 1 and Equation 2 in order find the value of I1.

Therefore, the voltage across 30 Ω resistor of the given circuit is84 V.

Note 1 − From the above example, we can conclude that we have to solve ‘m’ mesh equations, if
the electric circuit is having ‘m’ meshes. That’s why we can choose Mesh analysis when the
number of meshes is less than the number of principal nodes (except the reference node) of any
electrical circuit.
Note 2 − We can choose either Nodal analysis or Mesh analysis, when the number of meshes is
equal to the number of principal nodes (except the reference node) in any electric circuit.

1.8 Network Theorems:

Introduction:
Any complicated network i.e. several sources, multiple resistors are present if the single element
response is desired then use the network theorems. Network theorems are also can be termed as
network reduction techniques. Each and every theorem got its importance of solving network.
Let us see some important theorems with DC and AC excitation with detailed procedures.
Thevenin’s Theorem and Norton’s theorem (Introduction) :
Thevenin’s Theorem and Norton’s theorem are two important theorems in solving Network
problems having many active and passive elements. Using these theorems the networks can be
reduced to simple equivalent circuits with one active source and one element. In circuit analysis
many a times the current through a branch is required to be found when it’s value is changed
with all other element values remaining same. In such cases finding out every time the branch
current using the conventional mesh and node analysis methods is quite awkward and time
consuming. But with the simple equivalent circuits (with one active source and one element)
obtained using these two theorems the calculations become very simple. Thevenin’s and Norton’s
theorems are dual theorems.
Thevenin’s Theorem Statement:
Any linear, bilateral two terminal network consisting of sources and resistors(Impedance),can be
replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source in series with a resistance
(Impedance).The equivalent voltage source V Th is the open circuit voltage looking into the
terminals(with concerned branch element removed) and the equivalent resistance R Th while all
sources are replaced by their internal resistors at ideal condition i.e. voltage source is short circuit
and current source is open circuit.
(a) (b)

Figure (a) shows a simple block representation of a network with several active / passive
elements with the load resistance R L connected across the terminals ‘a & b’ and figure (b) shows
the Thevenin's equivalent circuit with VTh connected across RTh& RL .
Main steps to find out VTh and RTh :

1. The terminals of the branch/element through which the current is to be found out are marked
as say a & b after removing the concerned branch/element
2. Open circuit voltage VOC across these two terminals is found out using the conventional
network mesh/node analysis methods and this would be VTh .
3. Thevenin's resistance RTh is found out by the method depending upon whether the network
contains dependent sources or not.
a. With dependent sources: RTh = Voc / Isc
b. Without dependent sources : RTh = Equivalent resistance looking into the concerned
terminals with all voltage & current sources replaced by their internal impedances (i.e.
ideal voltage sources short circuited and ideal current sources open circuited)
4. Replace the network with VTh in series with RTh and the concerned branch resistance (or)
load resistance across the load terminals(A&B) as shown in below fig.
Fig.(a)

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Example: Find VTH, RTH and the load current and load voltage flowing through R L resistor as shown
in fig. by using Thevenin’s Theorem?
Solution:
The resistance RL is removed and the terminals of the resistance R L are marked as A & B as shown
in the fig. (1)
Fig.(1)
Calculate / measure the Open Circuit Voltage. This is the Thevenin Voltage (V TH). We have
already removed the load resistor from fig.(a), so the circuit became an open circuit as shown in
fig (1). Now we have to calculate the Thevenin’s Voltage. Since 3mA Current flows in both
12kΩ and 4kΩ resistors as this is a series circuit because current will not flow in the 8kΩ resistor
as it is open. So 12V (3mA x 4kΩ) will appear across the 4kΩ resistor. We also know that current
is not flowing through the 8kΩ resistor as it is open circuit, but the 8kΩresistor is in parallel with
4k resistor. So the same voltage (i.e. 12V) will appear across the 8kΩ resistor as 4kΩ resistor.
Therefore 12V will appear across the AB terminals.
So, VTH = 12V
Fig(2)
All voltage & current sources replaced by their internal impedances (i.e. ideal voltage sources short
circuited and ideal current sources open circuited) as shown in fig.(3)
Calculate /measure the Open Circuit Resistance. This is the Thevenin's Resistance (R TH)We
have Reduced the 48V DC source to zero is equivalent to replace it with a short circuit as shown
in figure (3) We can see that 8kΩ resistor is in series with a parallel connection of 4kΩ resistor
and 12k Ω resistor. i.e.:
8kΩ + (4k Ω || 12kΩ) ….. (|| = in parallel with)
RTH = 8kΩ + [(4kΩ x 12kΩ) / (4kΩ + 12kΩ)]
RTH = 8kΩ + 3kΩ
RTH = 11kΩ
Fig(4)
Connect the RTH in series with Voltage Source VTH and re-connect the load resistor across the load
terminals(A&B) as shown in fig (5) i.e. Thevenin's circuit with load resistor. This is the
Thevenin’s equivalent circuit.
VTH
Fig(5)
Now apply Ohm’s law and calculate the load current from fig 5. IL
= VTH/ (RTH + RL)= 12V / (11kΩ + 5kΩ) = 12/16kΩ
IL= 0.75mA
And VL = ILx RL= 0.75mA x 5kΩ
VL= 3.75V
Norton’s Theorem Statement:

Any linear, bilateral two terminal network consisting of sources and
resistors(Impedance),can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a current source in
parallel with a resistance (Impedance),the current source being the short circuited current across
the load terminals and the resistance being the internal resistance of the source network looking
through the open circuited load terminals.
(a) (b)
Figure (a)shows a simple block representation of a network with several active / passive
elements with the load resistance RL connected across the terminals ‘a&b’ and figure (b) shows
the Norton equivalent circuit with INconnected across RN& RL .
Main steps to find out IN and RN:
• The terminals of the branch/element through which the current is to be found out are marked
as say a & b after removing the concerned branch/element.
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• Open circuit voltage VOC across these two terminals and ISC through these two terminals are
found out using the conventional network mesh/node analysis methods and they are same as
what we obtained in Thevenin’s equivalent circuit.
• Next Norton resistance RN is found out depending upon whether the network contains
dependent sources or not.
a) With dependent sources: RN= Voc/ Isc
b) Without dependent sources : RN= Equivalent resistance looking into the concerned
terminals with all voltage & current sources replaced by their internal impedances
(i.e. ideal voltage sources short circuited and ideal current sources open circuited)
• Replace the network with IN in parallel with RN and the concerned branch resistance across
the load terminals(A&B) as shown in below fig
Example:Find the current through the resistance R L (1.5 Ω) of the circuit shown in the figure
(a) below using Norton’s equivalent circuit.
Fig(a)
Solution: To find out the Norton’s equivalent ckt we have to find out IN= Isc ,RN=Voc/ Isc. Short
the 1.5Ω load resistor as shown in (Fig 2), and Calculate / measure the Short Circuit Current.
This is the Norton Current (IN).
Fig(2)
We have shorted the AB terminals to determine the Norton current, I N. The 6Ω and 3Ω are then in
parallel and this parallel combination of 6Ω and 3Ω are then in series with 2Ω.So the Total
Resistance of the circuit to the Source is:-
2Ω + (6Ω || 3Ω) ….. (|| = in parallel with)
RT = 2Ω + [(3Ω x 6Ω) / (3Ω + 6Ω)]
RT = 2Ω + 2Ω
RT = 4Ω
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IT = V / R T
IT = 12V / 4Ω= 3A..
Now we have to find ISC = IN… Apply CDR… (Current Divider Rule)… I SC = IN = 3A
x [(6Ω / (3Ω + 6Ω)] = 2A. ISC= IN = 2A.
Fig(3)
ll voltage & current sources replaced by their internal impedances (i.e.ideal voltage sources short circuited
and ideal current sources open circuited) and Open Load Resistor. as shown in fig.(4)
Fig(4)
Calculate /measure the Open Circuit Resistance. This is the Norton Resistance (R N) We have Reduced the
12V DC source to zero is equivalent to replace it with a short circuit as shown in fig (4), We can see that
3Ω resistor is in series with a parallel combination of 6Ω resistor and 2Ω resistor. i.e.:
3Ω + (6Ω || 2Ω) ….. (|| = in parallel with)R N = 3Ω

+ [(6Ω x 2Ω) / (6Ω + 2Ω)]
RN = 3Ω + 1.5Ω
RN = 4.5Ω
Fig(5)
Connect the RN in Parallel with Current Source I N and re-connect the load resistor. This is shown in
fig (6) i.e. Norton Equivalent circuit with load resistor.
Fig(6)
Now apply the Ohm’s Law and calculate the load current through Load resistance across the
terminals A&B. Load Current through Load Resistor is
IL = IN x [RN / (RN+ RL)]
IL= 2A x (4.5Ω /4.5Ω +1.5kΩ)

IL = 1.5A IL = 1. 5A
Superposition Theorem:
The principle of superposition helps us to analyze a linear circuit with more than
one current or voltage sources sometimes it is easier to find out the voltage across or current in a
branch of the circuit by considering the effect of one source at a time by replacing the other
sources with their ideal internal resistances.
Superposition Theorem Statement:
Any linear, bilateral two terminal network consisting of more than one sources, the
total current or voltage in any part of a network is equal to the algebraic sum of the currents or
voltages in the required branch with each source acting individually while other sources are
replaced by their ideal internal resistances. (i.e. Voltage sources by a short circuit and current
sources by open circuit)
Steps to Apply Super position Principle:

1. Replace all independent sources with their internal resistances except one source. Find the output
(voltage or current) due to that active source using nodal or mesh analysis.
2. Repeat step 1 for each of the other independent sources.
3. Find the total contribution by adding algebraically all the contributions due to the independent
sources.
Example:By Using the superposition theorem find I in the circuit shown in figure?
Fig.(a)
Solution: Applying the superposition theorem, the current I2 in the resistance of 3 Ω due to the
voltage source of 20V alone, with current source of 5A open circuited [ as shown in the figure.1
below ] is given by :
Fig.1
I2 = 20/(5+3) = 2.5A
Similarly the current I5 in the resistance of 3 Ω due to the current source of 5A alone with voltage
source of 20V short circuited [ as shown in the figure.2 below ] is given by :
Fig.2

I5= 5 x 5/(3+5) = 3.125 A
The total current passing through the resistance of 3Ω is then = I2 + I5= 2.5 + 3.125 = 5.625 A
Let us verify the solution using the basic nodal analysis referring to the node marked with V in fig.
(a).Then we get :
𝑉 − 20 𝑉
+ =5
5 3
3V-60+5V=15× 5
8V-60=75
8V=135
V=16.875
The current I passing through the resistance of 3Ω =V/3 = 16.875/3 =5.625 A.

UNIT-2 A.C. CIRCUITS
2.1 RMS VALUE:
• The RMS (Root Mean Square) value (also known as effective or virtual value) of of an
alternating current (AC) is the value of direct current (DC) when flowing through a circuit or
resistor for the specific time period and produces same amount of heat which produced by the
alternating current (AC) when flowing through the same circuit or resistor for a specific time.
• The value of an AC which will produce the same amount of heat while passing through in a
heating element (such as resistor) as DC produces through the element is called R.M.S Value.
• In short,
• The RMS Value of an Alternating Current is that when it compares to the Direct Current, then
both AC and DC current produce the same amount of heat when flowing through the same circuit
for a specific time period.
For a sinusoidal wave , or

IRMS = 0.707 x IM , ERMS = 0.707 EM
• Actually, the RMS value of a sine wave is the measurement of heating effect of sine wave. For
example, when a resistor is connected to across an AC voltage source, it produces specific amount
of heat (Fig 2 – a). When the same resistor is connected across the DC voltage source as shown in
(fig 2 – b). By adjusting the value of DC voltage to get the same amount of heat generated before
in AC voltage source in fig a. It means the RMS value of a sine wave is equal to the DC Voltage
source producing the same amount of heat generated by AC Voltage source.
• In more clear words, the domestic voltage level in US is 110V, while 220V AC in UK. This
voltage level shows the effective value of (110V or 220V R.M.S) and it shows that the home wall
socket is capable to provide the same amount of average positive power as 110V or 220V DC
Voltage.
• Keep in mind that the ampere meters and volt meters connected in AC circuits always showing
the RMS values (of current and voltage).
• For AC sine wave, RMS values of current and voltage are:
IRMS = 0.707 x IM , VRMS = 0.707 VM
• Let’s see how to find the R.M.S values of a sine wave.
• We know that the value of sinusoidal alternating current (AC) =
Im Sin ω θ = Im Sin θ
• While the mean of square of instantaneous values of current in in half or complete cycle is:

The Square root of this value is:
Hence, the RMS value of the current is (while putting I = Im Sin θ):
Now,
Therefore, We may find that for a symmetrical sinusoidal current:

IRMS = Max Value of Current x 0.707 Average
Value:
If we convert the alternating current (AC) sine wave into direct current (DC) sine wave through
rectifiers, then the converted value to the DC is known as the average value of that alternating
current sine wave.
Fig 4 – Average Value of Voltage
If the maximum value of alternating current is “IMAX“, then the value of converted DC current through
rectifier would be “0.637 IM” which is known as average value of the AC Sine wave (IAV).
Average Value of Current = IAV = 0.637 IM
Average Value of Voltage = EAV = 0.637 EM

The Average Value (also known as Mean Value) of an Alternating Current (AC) is expressed by that
Direct Current (DC) which transfers across any circuit the same amount of charge as is transferred
by that Alternating Current (AC) during the same time.
Keep in mind that the average or mean value of a full sinusoidal wave is “Zero” the value of current
in first half (Positive) is equal to the the next half cycle (Negative) in the opposite direction. In other
words, There are same amount of current in the positive and negative half cycles which flows in the
opposite direction, so the average value for a complete sine wave would be “0”. That’s the reason
that’s why we don’t use average value for plating and battery charging. If an AC wave is converted
into DC through a rectifier, It can be used for electrochemical works.
Fig 5- Average Value of Current
In short, the average value of a sine wave taken over a complete cycle is always zero, because the
positive values (above the zero crossing) offset or neutralize the negative values (below the zero
crossing.)
We know that the standard equation of alternating current is i
= Sin ω θ = Im Sin θ
• Maximum value of current on sine wave = Im
• Average value of current on sine wave = IAV
• Instantaneous value of current on sine wave = i
• The angle specified fir “i” after zero position of current = θ
• Angle of half cycle = π radians
• Angle of full cycle = 2π radians
(a) Average value of complete cycle:
Let i = Sin ω θ = Im Sin θ

Thus, the average value of a sinusoidal wave over a complete cycle is zero.
(b) Average value of current over a half cycle
Average Value of Current (Half Cycle)

IAV = 0.637 VM
Similarly, the average value of voltage over a half cycle
VAV = 0.637 VM
What is Peak Voltage or Maximum Voltage Value ?

Peak value is also known as Maximum Value, Crest Value or Amplitude. It is the maximum value
of alternating current or voltage from the “0” position no matter positive or negative half cycle in a
sinusoidal wave as shown in fig 8. Its expressed as IM and EM or VP and IM. Equations of Peak
Voltage Value is:
VP = √2 x VRMS = 1.414 VRMS
VP = VP-P/2 = 0.5 VP-P
VP = π/2 x VAV = 1.571 x VAV
In other words, It is the value of voltage or current at the positive or the negative maximum (peaks)
with respect to zero. In simple words, it is the instantaneous value with maximum intensity.

Fig 8 – Peak or Maximum Values of Voltages
Peak to Peak Value:

The sum of positive and negative peak values is known as peak to peak value. Its expressed as
IPP or VPP.
Equations and formulas for Peak to Peak Voltage are as follow:
VP-P = 2√2 x VRMS = 2.828 x
VRMS VP-P =2 x VP
VP-P = π x VAV = 3.141 x VAV
In other words, the peak to peak value of a sine wave, is the voltage or current from positive
peak to the negative peak and its value is double as compared to peak value or maximum
value as shown in fig 8 above.
Peak Factor:
Peak Factor is also known as Crest Factor or Amplitude Factor.
It is the ratio between maximum value and RMS value of an alternating wave.
For a sinusoidal alternating voltage:
For a sinusoidal alternating current:
Form Factor:
The ratio between RMS value and Average value of an alternating quantity (Current or Voltage) is
known as Form Factor.

Other Terms Related To AC Circuits
Waveform
• The path traced by a quantity (such as voltage or current) plotted as a function of some
variable (such as time, degree, radians, temperature etc.) is called waveform.

Cycle
1. One complete set of positive and negative values of alternating quality (such as voltage and
current) is known as cycle.
2. The portion of a waveform contained in one period of time is called cycle.
3. A distance between two same points related to value and direction is known as cycle.
4. A cycle is a complete alternation.
Period
• The time taken by a alternating quantity (such as current or voltage) to complete one cycle is
called its time period “T”.
• It is inversely proportional to the Frequency “f” and denoted by “T” where the unit of time
period is second. Mathematically;
T = 1/f
Frequency
• Frequency is the number if cycles passed through per second. It is denoted by “f” and has the
unit cycle per second i.e. Hz (Herts).
• The number of completed cycles in 1 second is called frequency.
• It is the number of cycles of alternating quantity per second in hertz.
• Frequency is the number of cycles that a sine wave completed in one second or the number of
cycles that occurs in one second.
f = 1/T
Amplitude
• The maximum value, positive or negative, of an alternating quantity such as voltage or current
is known as its amplitude. Its denoted by VP, IP or EMAX and IMAX.Alternation
• One half cycle of a sine wave (Negative or Positive) is known as alternation which span is 180
degrees

Page 48
Fig 9 – Different Terms used in AC Circuits and Sine Wave
2.2 Introduction to Single Phase AC Circuit:

• In a dc circuit the relationship between the applied voltage V and current flowing
through the circuit I is a simple one and is given by the expression I = V/R but in an a
c circuit this simple relationship does not hold good. Variations in current and applied
voltage set up magnetic and electrostatic effects respectively and these must be taken
into account with the resistance of the circuit while determining the quantitative
relations between current and applied voltage.
• With comparatively low-voltage, heavy- current circuits magnetic effects may be very
large, but electrostatic effects are usually negligible. On the other hand with
highvoltage circuits electrostatic effects may be of appreciable magnitude, and
magnetic effects are also present.
• Here it has been discussed how the magnetic effects due to variations in current do
and electrostatic effects due to variations in the applied voltage affect the relationship
between the applied voltage and current.
Purely Resistive Circuit:
• A purely resistive or a non-inductive circuit is a circuit which has inductance so small

that at normal frequency its reactance is negligible as compared to its resistance.
Ordinary filament lamps, water resistances etc., are the examples of non-inductive

resistances. If the circuit is purely non-inductive, no reactance emf (i.e., self- induced
or back emf) is set up and whole of the applied voltage is utilized in overcoming the
ohmic resistance of the circuit.
• Consider an ac circuit containing a non-inductive resistance of R ohms connected
across a sinusoidal voltage represented by v = V sin wt, as shown in Fig.
As already said, when the current flowing through a pure resistance changes, no back emf is set up,
therefore, applied voltage has to overcome the ohmic drop of i R only:

And instantaneous current may be expressed as:

i = Imax sin ωt
From the expressions of instantaneous applied voltage and instantaneous current, it is evident that in
a pure resistive circuit, the applied voltage and current are in phase with each other, as shown by
wave and phasor diagrams in Figs. 4.1 (b) and (c) respectively. Power in Purely Resistive Circuit:
The instantaneous power delivered to the circuit in question is the product of the instantaneous values
of applied voltage and current.
Where V and I are the rms values of applied voltage and current respectively.
Thus for purely resistive circuits, the expression for power is the same as for dc circuits. From the
power curve for a purely resistive circuit shown in Fig. 4.1 (b) it is evident that power consumed in
a pure resistive circuit is not constant, it is fluctuating.
However, it is always positive. This is so because the instantaneous values of voltage and current are
always either positive or negative and, therefore, the product is always positive. This means that the
voltage source constantly delivers power to the circuit and the circuit consumes it.

Purely Inductive Circuit:

in inductive circuit is a coil with or without an iron core having negligible resistance. Practically
pure inductance can never be had as the inductive coil has always small resistance. However, a coil
of thick copper wire wound on a laminated iron core has negligible resistance arid is known as a
choke coil.
When an alternating voltage is applied to a purely inductive coil, an emf, known as self-induced emf, is
induced in the coil which opposes the applied voltage. Since coil has no resistance, at every instant applied
voltage has to overcome this self-induced emf only.
From the expressions of instantaneous applied voltage and instantaneous current flowing through a
purely inductive coil it is observed that the current lags behind the applied voltage by π/2 as shown
in Fig. 4.2 (b) by wave diagram and in Fig 4.2 (c) by phasor diagram.

Inductive Reactance:
ωL in the expression Imax = V max/ωL is known as inductive reactance and is denoted by X L i.e., XL =
ω L If L is in henry and co is in radians per second, then XL will be in ohms.
Power in Purely Inductive Circuit:
Instantaneous power, p = v × i = Vmax sin ω t Imax sin (ωt – π/2)
Or p = – Vmax Imax sin ω t cos ω t = Vmax Imax/2 sin 2 ωt
The power measured by wattmeter is the average value of p which is zero since average of a
sinusoidal quantity of double frequency over a complete cycle is zero. Hence in a purely inductive
circuit power absorbed is zero. Physically the above fact can be explained as below:
During the second quarter of a cycle the current and the magnetic flux of the coil increases and the
coil draws power from the supply source to build up the magnetic field (the power drawn is positive
and the energy drawn by the coil from the supply source is represented by the area between the
curve p and the time axis). The energy stored in the magnetic field during build up is given as W max =
1/2 L I2max.
In the next quarter the current decreases. The emf of self-induction will, however, tends to oppose its
decrease. The coil acts as a generator of electrical energy, returning the stored energy in the magnetic
field to the supply source (now the power drawn by the coil is negative and the curve p lies below the
time axis).
The chain of events repeats itself during the next half cycles. Thus, a proportion of power is
continually exchanged between the field and the inductive circuit and the power consumed by a
purely inductive coil is zero.
Purely Capacitive Circuit:

When a dc voltage is impressed across the plates of a perfect condenser, it will become charged to
full voltage almost instantaneously. The charging current will flow only during the period of “build
up” and will cease to flow as soon as the capacitor has attained the steady voltage of the source. This
implies that for a direct current, a capacitor is a break in the circuit or an infinitely high resistance.
In Fig. 4.4 a sinusoidal voltage is applied to a capacitor. During the first quarter-cycle, the applied
voltage increases to the peak value, and the capacitor is charged to that value. The current is
maximum in the beginning of the cycle and becomes zero at the maximum value of the applied
voltage, so there is a phase difference of 90° between the applied voltage and current. During the
first quarter-cycle the current flows in the normal direction through the circuit; hence the current is
positive.
In the second quarter-cycle, the voltage applied across the capacitor falls, the capacitor loses its
charge, and current flows through it against the applied voltage because the capacitor discharges into
the circuit. Thus, the current is negative during the second quarter-cycle and attains a maximum
value when the applied voltage is zero.
The third and fourth quarter-cycles repeat the events of the first and second, respectively, with the
difference that the polarity of the applied voltage is reversed, and there are corresponding current
changes.
In other words, an alternating current flow in the circuit because of the charging and discharging of the
capacitor. As illustrated in Figs. 4.4 (b) and (c) the current begins its cycle 90 degrees ahead of the
voltage, so the current in a capacitor leads the applied voltage by 90 degrees – the opposite of the
inductance current-voltage relationship.
Let an alternating voltage represented by v = V max sin ω t be applied across a capacitor of capacitance
C farads. The expression for instantaneous charge is given as:

q = C Vmax sin ωt
Since the capacitor current is equal to the rate of change of charge, the capacitor current may be obtained
by differentiating the above equation:
From the equations of instantaneous applied voltage and instantaneous current flowing through
capacitance, it is observed that the current leads the applied voltage by π/2, as shown in Figs. 4.4 (b)
and (c) by wave and phasor diagrams respectively.
Capacitive Reactance:
1/ω C in the expression Imax = Vmax/1/ω C is known as capacitive reactance and is denoted by X C i.e.,
XC = 1/ω C If C is in farads and ω is in radians/s, then Xc will be in ohms.
Power in Purely Capacitive Circuit:
Hence power absorbed in a purely capacitive circuit is zero. The same is shown graphically in Fig.
4.4 (b). The energy taken from the supply circuit is stored in the capacitor during the first quarter- cycle
and returned during the next.
The energy stored by a capacitor at maximum voltage across its plates is given by the expression:
This can be realized when it is recalled that no heat is produced and no work is done while current is
flowing through a capacitor. As a matter of fact, in commercial capacitors, there is a slight energy
loss in the dielectric in addition to a minute I 2 R loss due to flow of current over the plates having
definite ohmic resistance.

The power curve is a sine wave of double the supply frequency. Although it raises the power factor from
zero to 0.002 or even a little more, but for ordinary purposes the power factor is taken to be zero.
Obviously the phase angle due to dielectric and ohmic losses decreases slightly.
Resistance — Capacitance (R-C) Series Circuit:
Consider an ac circuit consisting of resistance of R ohms and capacitance of C farads connected in series,
as shown in Fig. 4.18 (a).
Let the supply frequency be of fHz and current flowing through the circuit be of I amperes (rms value).
Voltage drop across resistance, VR = I R in phase with the current.
Voltage drop across capacitance, VC = I XC lagging behind I by π/2 radians or 90°, as shown in Fig.
4.18 (b).
The applied voltage, being equal to phasor sum of VR and VC, is given in magnitude by-
The applied voltage lags behind the current by an angle ɸ:
If instantaneous voltage is represented by:

v = Vmax sin ω t
Then instantaneous current will be expressed as:

i = Imax sin (ω t + ɸ)
And power consumed by the circuit is given by:
P = VI cos ɸ

Voltage triangle and impedance triangle Fig. 4.19 are shown in Figs. 4.19 (a) and 4.19 (b) respectively.
2.3 Apparent Power, True Power, Reactive Power and Power Factor:
The product of rms values of current and voltage, VI is called the apparent power and is measured
in volt-amperes or kilo-volt amperes (kVA).
The true power in an ac circuit is obtained by multiplying the apparent power by the power factor and
is expressed in watts or kilo-watts (kW).
The product of apparent power, VI and the sine of the angle between voltage and current, sin ɸ is
called the reactive power. This is also known as wattless power and is expressed in reactive volt-
amperes or kilo-volt amperes reactive (kVA R).
The above relations can easily be followed by referring to the power diagram shown in Fig. 4.7 (a).

Power factor may be defined as:
(i) Cosine of the phase angle between voltage and current,
(ii) The ratio of the resistance to impedance, or
(iii) The ratio of true power to apparent power.
The power factor can never be greater than unity. The power factor is expressed either as fraction or
as a percentage. It is usual practice to attach the word ‘lagging’ or ‘leading’ with the numerical value
of power factor to signify whether the current lags behind or leads the voltage.
2.4 CONCEPT OF REACTANCE, IMPEDANCE, SUSCEPTANCE AND ADMITTANCE:
Reactance is essentially inertia against the motion of electrons. It is present anywhereelectric or

magnetic fields are developed in proportion to applied voltage or current, respectively; but most
notably in capacitors and inductors. When alternating current goes through a pure reactance, a
voltage drop is produced that is 90o out of phase with the current. Reactance is mathematically
symbolized by the letter “X” and is measured in the unit of ohms (Ω).
Impedance is a comprehensive expression of any and all forms of opposition to electronflow,

including both resistance and reactance. It is present in all circuits, and in all components. When
alternating current goes through an impedance, a voltage drop is produced that is somewhere

o o
between 0 and 90 out of phase with the current. Impedance is mathematically symbolized by the
letter “Z” and is measured in the unit of ohms (Ω), in complex form
Admittance is also a complex number as impedance which is having a real part,Conductance (G)
and imaginary part, Susceptance (B)

(it is negative for capacitive susceptance and positive for inductive susceptance)
Susceptance (symbolizedB) is an expression of the ease with which alternating current (AC) passes
through a capacitance or inductance.
AC Circuits with Series Elements
1. AC through Series R-L Circuit
2. AC through Series R-C Circuit
3.AC through Series R-L-C Circuit
Series RL circuit
Consider a circuit consisting of pure Resistance R ohms connected in series with Inductance L henries
The series combination is connected across ac supply is given by v=
Vm sinwt
The voltage drops in the circuit are,
Drop across pure resistance VR = IR
Drop across pure inductance VL =IXL

Where XL = 2πfL
I = rms value of current drawn , VR,
VL = rms value of voltage drops

By applying KVL, V = VR + VL(phasor addition)
V = IR + IXL
2.5 Phasor Diagram:

Steps to draw the Phasor Diagram of RL Series Circuit
1. Current I is taken as a reference.
2. The Voltage drop across the resistance VR = IR is drawn in phase with the current I.
3. The voltage drop across the inductive reactance VL =IXL is drawn ahead of the current I. As the
current lags voltage by an angle of 90 degrees in the pure Inductive circuit.
4. The vector sum of the two voltages drops VR and VL is equal to the applied voltage V.
In right-angle triangle OAB
VR = IR and VL = IXL where XL = 2πfL
➢ The applied voltage v is equal to the phasor addition of VR and VL.
V = VR + VL …..(phasor addition) …(1)
Substituting, VR = IR and VL = IXL we get,
V = IR + IXL
Note: In RL series circuit current lags the voltage by an angle voltage
by 90 degrees angle known as phase angle.

Impedance: Impedance is defined as the opposition of circuit to flow of alternating current, it is denoted
by Z and its unit is ohms.
From the Impedance triangle

R = Z cos ø
X L= Zsin ø
Impedance in Rectangular form, Z=R+j X L Ω
Impedance in phasor form,
Power in R L Series Circuit
Instantaneous power
Averagepower
RLC Series Circuit

Consider a circuit containing a resistor of resistance R, a inductor of inductance L and a capacitor
of capacitance C connected across an alternating voltage source .
In the RLC Series circuit v=
Vm sin wt
Drop across resistance R is: VR = IR

It is the voltage across the resistance R and is in phase with the current I.
Drop across inductance L is: VL = IXL
It is the voltage across the inductance L and it leads the current I by an
angle of 90 degrees. XL = 2πfL
Drop across capacitance C is: VC = IXC
It is the voltage across capacitor C and it lags the current I by an angle of 90 degrees.
XC = 1/2πfC Phasor
diagram:
Steps to draw a Phasor Diagram
1.Take the current I (r.m.s value) as a reference vector.
2.VR is in phase with I
3. VL leads current by 90 degrees
4.VC lags current I by 90 degrees
5. Obtain the resultant of VL and VC, Both VL and VC are in phase opposition
6. Add that with VR by law of parrelogram to get the supply voltage
The phasor diagram depends on the conditions of the magnitudes of VL and VC which ultimately
depends on the values of XL and XC
.

Conclusion of series resonance

❖ At resonance condition, XL = XC the impedance of the circuit is minimum and is reduced to
the resistance of the circuit. i.e Zr = R
❖ At the resonance condition, as the impedance of the circuit is minimum, the current in the
circuit is maximum. i.e Ir = V/Zr = V/R
❖ As the value of resonant current Ir is maximum hence, the power drawn by the circuit is
Also maximized. i.e Pr = I2Rr
❖ At the resonant condition, the current drawn by the circuit is very large or we can say that the
maximum current is drawn. Therefore, the voltage drop across the inductance L i.e (VL =
IXL = I x 2πfrL) and the capacitance C i.e (VC = IXC = I x I/2πfrC) will also be very large.
❖ Voltage and currents are in phase(Phase angle = 0 degree ) ❖ Power factor = unity
In RL parallel circuit resistor and inductor are connected in parallel with each other and this
combination is supplied by a voltage source, Vin. The output voltage of circuit is V out. Since the
resistor and inductor are connected in parallel, the input voltage is equal to output voltage but the
currents flowing in resistor and inductor are different.
The parallel RL circuit is not used as filter for voltages because in this circuit, the output voltage is
equal to input voltage and for this reason it is not commonly used as compared to series RL circuit.
Let us say: IT = the total current flowing from voltage source in amperes.
IR = the current flowing in the resistor branch in amperes.
IL = the current flowing in the inductor branch in amperes.
θ = angle between IR and IT. So the total current IT,
In complex form the currents are written as,

Impedance of Parallel RL Circuit
Let, Z = total impedance of the circuit in ohms. R

= resistance of circuit in ohms.
L = inductor of circuit in Henry. XL
= inductive reactance in ohms.
Since resistance and inductor are connected in parallel, the total impedance of the circuit is given
by,
In order to remove “j” from the denominator multiply and divide numerator and denominator by (R
– j XL),

Parallel RLC Circuit
In parallel RLC Circuit the resistor, inductor and capacitor are connected in parallel across a
voltage supply. The parallel RLC circuit is exactly opposite to the series RLC circuit. The applied
voltage remains the same across all components and the supply current gets divided.
The total current drawn from the supply is not equal to mathematical sum of the current flowing in
the individual component, but it is equal to its vector sum of all the currents, as the current flowing
in resistor, inductor and capacitor are not in the same phase with each other; so they cannot be added
arithmetically.
Three phase circuits:
There are two types of system available in electric circuit, single phase and three phase system. In
single phase circuit, there will be only one phase, i.e the current will flow through only one wire and
there will be one return path called neutral line to complete the circuit. So in single phase minimum
amount of power can be transported. Here the generating station and load station will also be single
phase. This is an old system using from previous time.
-
The three phases can be used as single phase each. So if the load is single phase, then one phase can
be taken from the three phase circuit and the neutral can be used as ground to complete the circuit.
There are various reasons for this question because there are numbers of advantages over single
phase circuit. The three phase system can be used as three single phase line so it can act as three
single phase system. The three phase generation and single phase generation is same in the generator
except the arrangement of coil in the generator to get 120 o phase difference. The conductor needed

in three phase circuit is 75% that of conductor needed in single phase circuit. And also the
instantaneous power in single phase system falls down to zero as in single phase we can see from the
sinusoidal curve but in three phase system the net power from all the phases gives a continuous
power to the load.
Till now we can say that there are three voltage source connected together to form a three phase
circuit and actually it is inside the generator. The generator is having three voltage
The size or metal quantity of three phase devices is not having much difference. Now if we consider
the transformer, it will be almost same size for both single phase and three phase because
transformer will make only the linkage of flux. So the three phase system will have higher efficiency
compared to single phase because for the same or little difference in mass of transformer, three phase
line will be out whereas in single phase it will be only one. And losses will be minimum in three
phase circuit. So overall in conclusion the three phase system will have better and higher efficiency
compared to the single phase system.
In three phase circuit, connections can be given in two types:
1. Star connection
2. Delta connection
3. Less commonly, there is also an open delta connection where two single-phase
transformers are used to provide a three-phase supply. These are generally only used in
emergency conditions, as their efficiency is low when compared to delta-delta (closed
delta) systems (which are used during standard operations).
4. Star Connection
5. In star connection, there is four wire, three wires are phase wire and fourth is neutral
which is taken from the star point. Star connection is preferred for long distance power
transmission because it is having the neutral point. In this we need to come to the concept
of balanced and unbalanced current in power system.
6. When equal current will flow through all the thr
When equal current will flow through all the three phases, then it is called as balanced current. And
when the current will not be equal in any of the phase, then it is unbalanced current. In this case,
during balanced condition there will be no current flowing through the neutral line and hence there
is no use of the neutral terminal. But when there will be unbalanced .
Delta Connection

In delta connection, there is three wires alone and no neutral terminal is taken. Normally delta
connection is preferred for short distance due to the problem of unbalanced current in the circuit. The
figure is shown below for delta connection. In the load station, ground can be used as neutral

2.6 Applications of 3 Phase AC Circuits
1. 3 phase induction motors.

2. 3 phase synchronous motors.
3. Submersible water pumps.
4. Various machines-tool applications (lathe machine, grinder, milling machine etc.)
5. Large factories and educational institutions.

BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING DEPARFTMENT OF EEE
UNIT-3 TRANSFORMERS
3.1 Introduction to transformers

The main advantage of alternating currents over direct current is that, the alternating
currents can be easily transferable from low voltage to high voltage or high voltage to low.
Alternating voltages can be raised or lowered as per requirements in the different stages of
electrical network as generation, transmission, distribution and utilization. This is possible
with a static device called transformer. The transformer works on the principle of mutual
induction. It transfers an electric energy from one circuit to other when there is no
electrical connection between the two circuits. Thus we can define transformer as below:
Key point: The transformer is a static piece of apparatus by means of which an
electrical power is transformed from one alternating current circuit to another with
the desired change in voltage and current, without any change in the
frequ5ency.The use of transformers in transmission system is shown in the Fig.
Fig. 1.1 Use of transformer in transmission system
3.2 Principle of working:
❖ The principle of mutual induction states that when tow coils are inductively coupled
and if current in one coil is changed uniformly then an e.m.f. gets induced in the
other
❖ coil. This e.m.f can drive a current, when a closed path is provided to it. The
transformer works on the same principle. In its elementary form, it consists of tow
inductive coils which are electrically separated but linked through a common
magnetic circuit. The two coils have high mutual inductance. The basic transformer is
shown in the Fig 1.2.
❖ One of the two coils is connected to source of alternating voltage. This coil in which
electrical energy is fed with the help of source called primary winding (P). The other
winding is connected to load. The electrical energy transformed to this winding is
drawn out to the load.
Page 74
❖ This winding is called secondary winding (S). The primary winding has N 1 number of
turns while the secondary winding has N2 number of turns. Symbolically the
transformer is indicated as shown in the Fig 1.3.
❖ When primary winding is excited by an alternating voltage, it circulates an
alternating current. This current produces an alternating flux (Φ)which completes its
path through common magnetic core as shown dotted in the Fig 1.2. Thus an
alternating, flux links with the secondary winding. As the flux is alternating,
according to Faraday's law of an electromagnetic induction, mutually induced e.m.f.
gets developed in the secondary winding. If now load is connected to the secondary
winding, this e.m.f. drives a current through it.
❖ Thus through there is no electrical contact between the two windings, an electrical
energy gets transferred from primary to the secondary.

Key point : The frequency of the mutual induced e.m.f. is same as that of the alternating
source which is supplying energy to the primary winding.
Can D.C. Supply be used for Transformer?

❖ The d.c. supply can not be used for the transformers.
❖ The transformer works on the principle of mutual induction, for which current in one
coil must change uniformly. If d.c. supply is given, the current will not change due to
constant supply and transformer will not work.
❖ Practically winding resistance is very small. For d.c., the inductive reactance X Lis
zero as d.c. has no frequency. So total impedance of winding is very low for d.c. Thus
winding will draw very high current if d.c. supply is given to it. This may cause the
burning of windings due to extra heat generated and may cause permanent damage to
the transformer.
❖ There can be saturation of the core due to which transformer draws very large current
from the supply when connected to d.c.
❖ Thus d.c. supply should not be connected to the transformers.
3.3 CONSTRUCTION OF 1- PHASE TRANSFORMERS:
The various constructions used for the single phase

transformers are,
1. Core type 2. Shell type and 3. Berry type
1. Core Type Transformer:
❖ It has a single magnetic circuit. The core rectangular having two limbs. The winding
encircles the core. The coils used are of cylindrical type. As mentioned earlier, the
coils are wound in helical layers with different layers insulated from each other by
paper or mica. Both the coils are placed on both the limbs. The low voltage coil is
placed inside near the core while high voltage coil surrounds the low voltage coil.
Core is made up of large number of thin laminations.
❖ As The windings are uniformly distributed over the two limbs, the natural cooling is
more effective. The coils can be easily removed by removing the laminations of the
top yoke, for maintenance.
❖ The Fig. 1(a) shows the schematic representation of the core type transformer while
the
Page 76

❖ Fig 1(b) shows the view of actual construction of the core type transformer
Shell Type Transformer:
❖ It has a double magnetic circuit. The core has three limbs. Both the windings are placed
on the central limb. The core encircles most part of the windings. The coils used are
generally multilayer disc type or sandwich coils. As mentioned earlier, each high
voltage coil is in between tow low voltage coils and low voltage coils are nearest to top
and bottom of the yokes.
❖ The core is laminated. While arranging the laminations of the core, the care is taken
that all the joints at alternate layers are staggered. This is done to avoid narrow air gap
at the joint, right through the cross-section of the core. Such joints are called over
lapped or imbricated joint. Generally for very high voltage transformers, the shell type
construction is preferred. As the windings are surrounded by the core, the natural
cooling does not exist. For removing any winding for maintenance, large number of
laimnations are required to be removed.
❖ The Fig. 2(a) shows the schematic representation while the Fig. 2(b) shows the outaway
view of the construction of the shell typetransformer.
Berry Type Transformer:
❖ This has distributed magnetic circuit. The number of independent magnetic circuits are
more than 2. Its core construction is like spokes of a wheel. Otherwise it is symmetrical
to that of shell type.
❖ Diagramatically it can be shown as in the Fug. 3.

❖ The transformers are generally kept in tightly fitted sheet metal tanks. The tanks are
constructed of specified high quality steel plate cut, formed and welded into the rigid
structures. All the joints are painted with a solution of light blue chalk which turns dark
in the presence of oil, disclosing even the minutes leaks. The tanks are filled with the
special insulating oil. The entire transformer assembly is immersed in the oil. Oil serves
two functions : i) Keeps the coil cool by circulation and ii) Provides the transformers an
additional insulation.
❖ The oil should be absolutely free from alkalies, sulphur and specially from moisture.
Presence of very small moisture lowers the dielectric strength of oil, affecting its
performance badly. Hence the tanks are sealed air tight to avoid the contact of oil with
atmospheric air and moisture. In large transformers, the chambers called breather are
provided. The breathers prevent the atmospheric moisture to pass on to the oil. The
breathers contain the silica gel crystal which immediately absorb the atmospheric
moisture. Due to long and continuous use, the sludge is formed in the oil which can
contaminate the oil. Hence to keep such sludge separate from the oil in main tank, an
air tight metal drum is provided, which is placed on the top of tank. This is called
conservator.
3.4. Comparison of Core and Shell Type Transformers:

3.5 E.M.F. EQUATION OF A TRANSFORMER:
❖ When the primary winding is excited by an alternating voltage V 1, it circulates

alternating current, producing an alternating flux Φ. The primary winding has
N1number of turns. The alternating flux Φ linking with the primary winding itself
induces an e.m.f in it denoted as E 1. The flux links with secondary winding through
the common magnetic core. It produces induced e.m.f. E 2 in the secondary winding.
This is mutually induced e.m.f. Let us derive the equations for E1 and E2.
❖ The primary winding is excited by purely sinusoidal alternating voltage. Hence the flux
produced is also sinusoidal in nature having maximum value of Φ mas show in the Fig.
1.
The various quantities which affect the magnitude of the induced e.m.f. are :
Φ = Flux
Φm = Maximum value of flux
N1 = Number of primary winding turns N2 = Number of secondary winding
turns f = Frequency of the supply voltage

E1 = R.M.S. value of the primary induced e.m.f.

E2 = R.M.S. value of the secondary induced e.m.f.
From Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction the voltage e.m.f. induced in each turn is
proportional to the average rate of change of flux.
... average e.m.f. per turn = average rate of change of flux
... average e.m.f. per turn = dΦ/dt
Now dΦ/dt = Change in flux/Time required for change in flux Consider the 1/4 th cycle
of the flux as shown in the Fig.1. Complete cycle gets completed in 1/f seconds. In 1/4 th
time period, the change in flux is from 0 to Φ m. ... dΦ/dt = (Φm - 0)/(1/4f) as dt for 1/4 th
time period is 1/4f seconds
= 4 f Φm
are,
E1 = 4.44 f Φm N1 volts ........................ (1)

E2 = 4.44 f Φm N2 volts.......................... (
... Average e.m.f. per turn = Φm volts 4 f
As is sinusoidal, the induced e.m.f. in each turn of both the windings is also sinusoidal in nature.
For sinusoidal quantity,
From factor = R.M.S. value/Average value = 1.11
.
. . R.M.S. value of induced e.m.f. per turn
= 1.11 x 4 f Φm = 4.44 f Φm
There are number of primary turns hence the R.M.S value of induced e.m.f. of primary
denoted as is E1,
E1 = N1 x 4.44 f Φm volts
While as there are number of secondary turns the R.M.S values of induced e.m.f. of
secondary denoted is E2 is,
E2 = N2 x 4.44 f Φm volts
The expression of E1 and E2 are called e.m.f. equation of a transformer. Thus e.m.f. equations
3.6 RATIOS OF A TRANSFORMER:
Consider a transformer shown in Fig.1 indicating various voltages and currents.

1. VOLTAGE RATIO:
We know from the e.m.f. equations of a transformer that
E1 = 4.44 f Φm N1 and E2 = 4.44 f Φm N2
Taking ratio of the two equations we get,
This ratio of secondary induced e.m.f. to primary induced e.m.f. is known as voltage
transformation ratio denoted as K,
Thus,
If N2 > N1 i.e. K > 1, E2 > E1 we get then the transformer is called step-up transformer. If
N2 < N1 i.e. K < 1, we get E2 < E1 then the transformer is called step-down transformer.
If i.e. K= 1, we get E 2 = E1 then the transformer is called isolation transformer or 1:1

transformer.
2. Concept of Ideal Transformer:

A transformer is said to be ideal if it satisfies following properties:
i) It has no losses.
ii) Its windings have zero resistance. iii) Leakage flux is zero i.e. 100% flux
produced by primary links with the secondary.
iv) Permeability of core is so high that negligible current is required to establish the flux in it.
Key point : For an ideal transformer, the primary applied voltage V 1 is same as the
primary induced e.m.f. V2 as there are no voltage drops.
Similarly the secondary induced e.m.f. E2 is also same as the terminal voltage V 2
across the load. Hence for an ideal transformer we can write,

No transformer is ideal in practice but the value of E 1 is almost equal to V1 for properly
designed transformer.
Current ratio:
For an ideal transformer there are no losses. Hence the product of primary voltage V 1
and primary current I1, is same as the product of secondary voltage V 2 and the secondary
current I2.
So V1 I1 = input VA and V2 I2 = output VA For an ideal transformer,
V1 I1 = V2
I2 Key point : Hence the currents are in the
inverse ratio of the voltage transformation ratio.
Voltage ampere rating:

When electrical power is transferred from primary winding to secondary there are few
power losses in between. These power losses appear in the form of heat which increase the
temperature of the device.Now this temperature must be maintained below certain limiting
values as it is always harmful from insulation point of view. As current is the main cause in
producing heat, the output maximum rating is generally specified as the product of output
voltage and output current i.e.V2 I2. This always indicates that when transformer is
operated under this specified rating, its temperature rise will not be excessive. The copper
loss (I2R) in the transformer depends on the current 'I' through the winding while the iron
or core loss depends on the voltage 'V' as frequency of operation is constant. None of these
losses depend on the power factor (cos Φ) of the load. Hence losses decide the temperature
and hence the rating of the transformer. As losses depend on V and I only, the rating of the
transformer is specified as a product of these two parameters VxI.
Key point : Thus the transformer rating is specified as the product of voltage and current
called VA rating.
On both sides, primary and secondary VA rating remains same. This rating is generally
expresses in KVA (kilo volt amperes rating).

Now V1 /V2 = I2 /I1 = K
... V1 I1 = V2 I2
If V1 and V2 are the terminal voltages of primary and secondary then from specified KVA
rating we can decide full load currents of primary and secondary, I 1and I2. This is the safe
maximum current limit which may carry, keeping temperature rise below its limiting value.
Key point : The full load primary and secondary currents indicate the safe maximum values
of currents which transformer windings can carry.
Example 1 : A single phase, 50 Hz transformer has 80 turns on the primary winding and
400 turns on the secondary winding. The net cross-sectional area of the core is 200 cm 2. If
the primary winding is connected at a 240 V , 50 Hz supply, determine : (i) The e.m.f.
induced in the secondary winding.(ii) The maximum value of the flux density in the core.
Solution:
N1 = 80 , f = 50 Hz , N2 = 400 , a = 200 cm2 = 200 x 10-4 cm2 E1 = 240
K = N2 /N1 = 400/80 = 5/1
. K =E2 /E1 = E2 /240= 5/1 E2 = 5 x 240 = 1200V
Now E1 = 4.44 f Φm N1
240 = 4.44 x 50 x Φm x 80
... Φm = 240/(4.44 x 50 x 80) = 0.01351 Wb

... Bm = Φm/a = 0.01351/(200 x 10-4) = 0.6756 Wb/m2
Example 2 : For a single phase transformer having primary and secondary turns of 440 and
880 respectively, determine the transformer KVA rating if half load secondary current is
7.5 A and maximum value of core flux is 2.25 Wb.
Solution:

N1 =440, N2 =880 , (I2)H.L. = 7.5 A, fm = 2.25mWb , E2 = 4.44 Φm f

N2
Assuming f = 50 Hz,
.
.. E2 = 4.44 x 2.25 x 10-3x 50x880 = 439.56V
(I2)F.L. = KVA rating / E2 And
(I2)H.L. = 0.5(I2)F.L.
... (I2)H.L. = 0.5 x (KVA rating /E2 )
... 7.5 = 0.5 x (KVA rating / 439.56)
... KVA rating = 2 x 7.5 x 439.56 x 10-3
= 6.5934 KVA .....(10-3 for

KVA)
Example 3: A single phase transformer has 350 primary and 1050 secondary turns. The
primary is connected to 400 V, 50 Hz a.c. supply. If the net cross-sectional area of
the core is 50 cm2, calculate i) The maximum value of the flux density in the core ii)
The induced e.m.f. in the secondary winding.
Solution:
The given value are,
N1 =350 turns, N2 = 1050turns
V1 = 400 V , A = 50 cm2= 50 x 10-4 m2
The e.m.f. of the transformer is, E1 = 4.44 f Φm N1
E1 = 4.44 BmA f N1 as Φm = Bm A
Flux density Bm = E1 / (4.44 A f N1)

= 400 / (4.44 x 50 x 10-4 x50 x 350) assume E1=V1
= 1.0296 Wb/m2
K = N2 /N1 = 1050/350 = 3 And
K = E2 /E1 =3
... E2 = 3 x E1 = 3 x 400 = 1200V
3.7 IDEAL TRANSFORMER ON NO LOAD:
❖ Consider an ideal transformer on no load as shown in the Fig. 3. The supply voltage is
and as it is V1 an no load the secondary current I2 = 0.
❖ The primary draws a current I1 which is just necessary to produce flux in the core. As it
magnetizing the core, it is called magnetizing current denoted as I m. As the transformer
is ideal, the winding resistance is zero and it is purely inductive in nature.
The magnetizing current is Im is very small and lags V1 by 30o as the winding is purely
inductive. This Im produces an alternating flux Φ which is in phase with Im.

❖ The flux links with both the winding producing the induced e.m.f.s E 1 and E2 , in the
primary and secondary windings respectively. According to Lenz's law, the induced
e.m.f. opposes the cause producing it which is supply voltage V 1. Hence E1is in antiphase
with V1 but equal in magnitude. The induced E2 also opposes V1hence in antiphase with V1 but its
magnitude depends on N2. Thus E1 and E2 are in phase. ❖ The phasor diagram for the ideal
transformer on no load is shown in the Fig. .2.
❖ It can be seen that flux Φ is reference. I m produces Φ hence in phase with Φ. V1 leads Im
by 90o as winding is purely inductive so current has to lag voltage by 90o.
❖ E1 and E2 are in phase and both opposing supply voltage.
❖ The power input to the transformer is V1 I1 cos (V1 ^ I1 ) i.e. V1 Im cos(90o) i.e. zero. This
is because on no load output power is zero and for ideal transformer there are no losses
hence input power is also zero. Ideal no load p.f. of transformer is zero lagging.
3.8 PRACTICLE TRANSFORMER ON NO LOAD:
❖ Actually in practical transformer iron core causes hysteresis and eddy current losses as
it is subjected to alternating flux. While designing the transformer the efforts are made
to keep these losses minimum by,
❖ Using high grade material as silicon steel to reduce hysteresis loss.
❖ Manufacturing core in the form of laminations or stacks of thin lamination to reduce
eddy current loss.
❖ Apart from this there are iron losses in the practical transformer. Practically primary
winding has certain resistance hence there are small primary copper loss present.
❖ Thus the primary current under no load condition has to supply the iron losses i.e.

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hysteresis loss and eddy current loss and a small amount of primary copper loss. This
current is denoted as Io.
❖ Now the no load input current Io has two components :
❖ A purely reactive component Im called magnetising component of no load current

required to produce the flux. This is also called wattless component.
❖ An active component Ic which supplies total losses under no load condition called
power component of no load current. This also called wattful component or core loss
component of Io.
❖ The total no load current Io is the vector addition of Im andIc.
❖ In practical transformer, due to winding resistance, no load current I o is no longer at 90o

with respect to V1. But it lags V1 by angle Φo which is less than 90o . Thus cos Φo is
called no load power factor of practical transformer.
The phasor diagram is shown in the Fig. 1. It can be seen that the two components I o are
This is magnetizing component lagging V1 exactly by 90o .
This is core loss component which is in phase with V 1. The magnitude of the no load current
is given by,
While Φo = no load primary power factor angle

The total power input on no load is denoted as Wo and is given by,
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This is magnetizing component lagging V1 exactly by 90o.
It may be denoted that the current is very small, about 3 to 5% of the full load rated
current. Hence the primary copper loss is negligibly small hence Ic is called core loss or
iron loss component. Hence power input Wo on no load always represent the iron losses,
as copper loss is negligibly small. The iron losses are denoted as Pi and are constant for all
load conditions.
a) Im = Io sin Φo = magnetizing component

Φo = cos-1(0.25) = 75.522o
... Im = 10 x sin (75.522o ) = 9.6824 A
b) Pi = iron loss = power input on no load
= Wo = V1 Io cos Φo = 400 x 10 x 0.25
= 1000 W
c) On no load, E1 = V1 =
400V and N1 = 500
Now E1 = 4.44 f
Φm N1
... 400 = 4.44 x 50 x Φm x500
... Φm = 3.6036mWb
Example 1 : The no load current of a transformer is 10 A at a power factor 0f 0.25 lagging,
when connected to 400 V, 50 Hz supply. Calculate, (a) Magnetizing component of the no

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load current (b) Iron loss and c) Maximum value of flux in the core. Assume primary
winding turns as 500.
Solution : The given value are, = 10 A, cos = 0.25, = 400 V and f = 50 Hz
3.9 Equivalent circuit of Transformer
The term equivalent circuit of a machine means the combination of fixed and variable
resistances and reactances, which exactly simulates performance and working of the
machine.
For a transformer, no load primary current has two components, Im = IosinΦo

= Magnetizing component
Ic = IocosΦo = Active component
Im produces the flux and is assumed to flow through reactance X o called no load
reractance while Ic is active component representing core losses hence is assumed to flow
through the reactance Ro. Hence equivalent circuit on no load can be shown as in the Fig. 1.
This circuit consisting of Ro and Xo in parallel is called exciting circuit. From the equivalent
circuit we can

Page 84
I2' = I2/ K. Now I1 is the phasor addition of Io and I2'. This I1 causes thevoltage drop across
primary resistance R1 and reactance X1.
Hence the equivalent circuit can be shown as in the Fig. 2.
But in the equivalent circuit, windings are not shown and it is further simplified by
transferring all the values to the primary or secondary. This makes the transformer calculation
much easy.
So transferring secondary parameters to primary we get,
write,
Ro = V1/Ic
and Xo= V1/Im
When the is connected to the transformer then secondary current I2 flows. This causes
voltage drop across R2and R2. Due to I2, primary draws an additional current.
Where, R2'= R2/K2, E2' = E2/K’, K = N2 /N1 X2' = X2/K2’, I2’ = K I2 Z2' = Z2/K2
Where While transferring the values remember the rule that
Low voltage winding High current Low impedance High voltage winding Low
current High impedance
Thus the exact equivalent circuit referred to primary can be shown as in the Fig. 3.
Fig. 3 Exact equivalent circuit referred to primary
Similarly all the primary value can be referred to secondary and we can obtain the
equivalent circuit referred to secondary.
R1' = K2 R1, X1' = K2 X1, Z1' = K2 Z1 E1'= K E1, Io' = I1 /K' Io' = Io /K

Page 85
Similarly the exciting circuit parameters also gets transferred to secondary as R o'and Xo
Now as long as no load branch i.e. exciting branch is in between Z 1 and Z2', the
impedances can not be combined. So further simplification of the circuit can be done. Such
circuit is called approximate equivalent circuit.
'. The circuit is shown in the Fig.4.
Fig. 4 Exact equivalent circuit referred to secondary
Approximate Equivalent Circuit
To get approximate equivalent circuit, shift the no load branch containing R oand Xo to
the left of R1 and X1. By doing this we are creating an error that the drop across R 1 and X1due
to Io is neglected. Hence such an equivalent circuit is called approximate equivalent circuit.
So approximate equivalent circuit referred to primary can be as shown in the Fig. 5.
In this circuit now R1 and R2' can be combined to get equivalent resistance referred to
primary R1e as discussed earlier. Similarly X1and X1' can be combined to get X1e. And
equivalent circuit can be simplified as shown in the Fig. 6.

Page 86
We know that, R1e = R1 + R2'= R1 + R2/K2X1e
2
= X1 + X2' = X1 + X2/K Z1e
= R1e + j X1e
Ro = V1/Ic and Xo = V1 /Im
Ic = Io cosΦo and Im = Io sinΦo

In the similar fashion, the approximate equivalent circuit referred to secondary also can
be obtained.
3.10 VOLTAGE REGULATION OF TRANSFORMER:
Because of the voltage drop across the primary and secondary impedances it is
observed that the secondary terminal voltage drops from its no load value (E2) to load value
(V2) as load and load current increases.This decrease in the secondary terminal voltage
expressed as a fraction of the no load secondary terminal voltage is called regulation of a
transformer.
The regulation is defined as change in the magnitude of the secondary terminal

Page 87
voltage, when full load i.e. rated load of specified power factor supplied at rated voltage is
reduced to no load, with primary voltage maintained constant expressed as the percentage
of the rated terminal voltage.
Let E2 = Secondary terminal voltage on no load
V2 = Secondary terminal voltage on given load then mathematically
voltage regulation at given load can be expressed as,
The ratio (E2 - V2 / V2 ) is called per unit regulation.

The secondary terminal voltage does not depend only on the magnitude of the load
current but also on the nature of the power factor of the load. If V2 is determined for full
load and specified power factor condition the regulation is called full load regulation.
As load current increases, the voltage drops tend to increase V 2 and drops more and
more. In case of lagging power factor V2 < E2 and we get positive voltage regulation, while
for leading power factor E2 < V2 and we get negative voltage regulation.The voltage drop
should be as small as possible hence less the regulation better is the performance of a
transformer.
3.11 Expression for Voltage Regulation:
The voltage regulation is defined as,
%R = (E2 - V2 /V2 ) x 100 = (Total voltage drop/V2) x
100
The expression for the total approximate voltage drop is already derived.
Total voltage drop = I2 R2e cos Φ ± I2 X2e sin Φ
Hence the regulation can be expressed as,

'+' sing for lagging power factor while '-' sing for leading power factor
loads.
The regulation van be further expressed interms of I1 , V1, R1e and
X1e.
V2 /V1 =I1 /I2 = K
V2 = KV1 , I2 = I1/K

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While R1e =R2e/K2 , X1e = X2e /K2 Substituting in the regulation expression
we get,
3.12 Zero Voltage Regulation:
We have seen that for lagging power factor and unity power factor condition V 2< E2
and we get positive regulation. But as load becomes capacitive, V 2 starts increasing as load
increase. At a certain leading power factor we get E2 = V2 and the regulation becomes zero.
If the load is increased further, E2 becomes less than V2 and we get negative regulation.
For zero voltage regulation, E2 = V2
E2 - V2 = 0
(or) VR cos Φ - Vx sin Φ = 0 .......... -ve sing as leading
power factor where VR = I2 R2e /V2 = I1 R1e /V1 and Vx = I2 X2e /V2 =
I1 X1e /V1
... VR cos Φ = Vx sin Φ
... tan Φ = VR /Vx
... cos Φ = cos {tan-1(VR /Vx)}
This is the leading p.f. at which voltage regulation becomes zero while
supplying the load.
Example 1 : 250/125 V, 5 KVA single phase transformer has primary resistance of 0.2
Ω and reactance of 0.75Ω. The secondary resistance is 0.05 Ω and reactance of 0.2Ω
i) Determine its regulation while supplying full load on 0.8 leading p.f. ii)
The secondary terminal voltage on full load 0.8 and leadingp.f.
Solution : The given values are,
R1 = 0.2 Ω, X1 = 0.75 Ω, R2 = 0.05 Ω, X2 = 0.2 Ω, cos Φ = 0.8 leading K= E2 /E1 =
125/250 = 1/2 = 0.5
(I2) F.L.= KVA/V2 = 5x103 /125 = 40 A ........................................ full load R2e = R2 +
K2 R1 = 0.05 + (0.5)2 x 0.2 = 0.1 Ω
X2e = X2 + K2 X1 = 0.2 + (0.5)2 x 0.75 = 0.3875 Ω
i) Regulation on full load, cos Φ = 0.8 leading
sin Φ = 0.6
... %R = ((I2 R2e cos Φ - I2 X2e sin Φ )/E2 ) x 100 where I2 = Full
load current

Page 89
... % R = ((40 x 0.1 x 0.8 - 40 x 0.3875 x 0.6)/125) x 100 = -4.88% ii) For
secondary terminal voltage, use basic expression of regulation % R = ((E2 - V2 )/E2
) x 100
... -4.88 = ((125- V2) /125) x 100
... -6.1 = 125 - V2
... V2 = 131.1 V
It can be seen that for leading p.f. E2 <V2.
Example 2 : Calculate the regulation of a transformer in which the copper loss is 1% of

output and the percentage reactance drop is 5% when load power factor is
i) 0.9 lagging and ii) 0.9 leading.
Now copper loss is, Pcu = I22 R2e and output is, Pout = V2 I2
... % Copper loss = (Pcu/Pout) x100 = (I22 R2e /V2 I2 ) x
100
% VR = (I2 R2e / V2)x 100
Solution : Given values are,
%X = 5%
= (I2 R2e /V2 ) x (I2 /I2 ) x 100 = (I22 R2e /V2 I2 ) x
100
= % copper loss
... VR = 1% = 0.01 and Vx = 5% = 0.05
i) cos Φ = 0.9 lagging
... sin Φ = 0.4358
... % R = (VR cos Φ + Vx sin Φ ) x 100 =
(0.01 x 0.9 + 0.05 x 0.4358) x 100
= + 3.08%
ii) cos Φ = 0.9 leading
... % R = (VR cos Φ - Vx sin Φ ) x 100
= (0.01 x 0.9 - 0.05 x 0.4358) x 100 =
-1.28%
3.13 LOSSES IN A TRANSFORMER:

In a transformer, there exists two types of losses.
i) The core gets subjected to an alternating flux, causing core losses.
ii) The windings carry currents when transformer is loaded, causing copper losses.
Core or Iron Losses
Page 90
Due to alternating flux set up in the magnetic core of the transformer, it

undergoes a cycle of magnetisation and demagnetisation. Due to hysteresis effect
there is loss of energy in this process which is called hysteresis loss. It is given by,
hysteresis loss =
Kh Bm1.67 f v watts
where
Kh = Hysteresis constant depends onmaterial.
Bm = Maximum flux density. f
= Frequency.
v = Volume of the core.
The induced e.m.f. in the core tries to set up eddy currents in the core and hence responsible
for the eddy current losses. The eddy current loss is given by,
Eddy current loss = KeBm2 f2 t2 watts/ unit volume
where,
Ke = Eddy current constant t
= Thickness of the core
As seen earlier, the flux in the core is almost constant as supply voltage V 1
at rated frequency f is always constant. Hence the flux density B m in the core and
hence both hysteresis and eddy current losses are constants at all the loads. Hence
the core or iron losses are also called constant losses. The iron losses are denoted as
Pi.The iron losses are minimized by using high grade core material like silicon steel
having very low hysteresis loop by manufacturing the core in the form of
laminations.
Copper Losses
The copper losses are due to the power wasted in the form of I 2 R loss due to
the resistances of the primary and secondary windings. The copper loss depends on
the magnitude of the currents flowing through the windings.
Total Cu loss = I12 R21 + I 2 R2 = I12 ( R1 + R2' )= 2I 2 ( R2 +R1' )
= I12 R1e = I22 R2e

Page 91
The copper looses are denoted as. If the current through the windings is full
load current, we get copper losses at full load. If the load on transformer is half
then we get copper losses at half load which is less than full load copper losses.
Thus copper losses are called variable losses. For transformer VA rating is or. As is
constant, we can say that copper losses are proportional to the square of the KVA
rating.
So, Pcu α I2 α (KVA)2 Thus for
a transformer,
Total losses = Iron losses + Copper losses
= Pi + Pcu
Key point : It is seen that the iron losses depend on the supply voltage
while the copper losses depend on the current. The losses are not dependent on the
phase angle between voltage and current. Hence the rating of the transformer is
expressed as a product of voltage and current and called VA rating of transformer. It
is not expressed in watts or kilo watts. Most of the times, rating is expressed in
KVA.
3.14 EFFICIENCY OF A TRANSFORMER:
Due to the losses in a transformer, the output power of a transformer is less than the
input power supplied.
.
.. Power output = Power input - Total losses
.
.. Power input = Power output + Total losses
= Power output + Pi + Pcu
The efficiency of any device is defined as the ratio of the power output to power input.
So for a transformer the efficiency can be expresses as,
η = Power output/power input
... η = Power output/(power output + Pi + Pcu )
Now power output = V2 I2 cos Φ
Where cos Φ = Load power factor
The transformer supplies full load of current I2 and with terminal voltage V2.
2
Pcu = Copper losses on full load = I2 R2e
... η = (V2 I2 cos Φ2 )/(V2 I2 cos Φ22 + Pi + I 2 R2e)
But V2 I2 = VA rating of a transformer

Page 92
2
... η = (VA rating x cos Φ) / (VA rating x cos Φ + Pi + I2 R2e)
This is full load percentage efficiency with, I2 = Full load secondary current
But if the transformer is subjected to fractional load then using the appropriate values of
various quantities, the efficiency can be obtained. Let n =Fraction by which load is less than full
load = Actual load/Full load For example, if transformer is subjected to half load then,
n = Half load/Full load = (1/2)/2 = 0.5 when load changes, the

load current changes by same proportion.
... new I2 = n (I2) F.L.
❖ Similarly the output V2 I2 cosΦ2 also reduces by the same fraction. Thus fraction of VA
rating is available at the output.
❖ Similarly as copper losses are proportional to square of current then, new P cu = n2 (Pcu ) F.L.
Key Point : So copper losses get reduced by n2.
In general for fractional load the efficiency is given by,
where n = Fraction by which load power factor lagging, leading and unity the
efficiency expression does not change, and remains same.
Example : A 4 KVA, 200/400 V, 50 Hz, single phase transformer has equivalent
resistancereferred to primary as 0.15 Ω Calculate,(i) The total copper losses on full load.
(ii) The efficiency while supplying full load at 0.9 p.f. lagging.(iii) The efficiency while
supplying half load at 0.8 p.f.leading. Assume total iron losses equal to 60 W.
Solution : The given values are,
V1 = 200 V, V2 = 400 V, S = 4 KVA, R1e= 0.15 Ω , Pi = 60 W K = 400/200 = 2
... R2e = K2 R1e = (2)2 x 0.15 = 0.6 Ω (I2)F.L.

= KVA/V2 = 4 x 103/400 = 10 A (i)
Total copper losses on full load,

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(Pcu)F.L. = {(I2) F.L.}2 R2e = (10)2 x 0.6 = 60 W (ii)

cos Φ = 0.9 lagging and full load
(i) cos Φ = 0.8

leading, half
load As half
load, n = 0.5
3.15. Condition for Maximum Efficiency:
When a transformer works on a constant input voltage and frequency then efficiency
varies with the load. As load increases, the efficiency increases. At a certain load current, it
achieves a maximum value. If the transformer is loaded further the efficiency starts
decreasing.
The graph of efficiency against load current I2 is shown in the Fig.1
The load current at which the efficiency attains maximum value is denoted as I2m and
maximum efficiency is denoted as ηmax.

Page 94
Let us determine,
1. Condition for maximum efficiency.

2. Load current at which ηmax occurs. 3. KVA supplied at
maximum efficiency.
The efficiency is a function of load i.e. load current I2 assuming cos Φ constant. The
secondary terminal voltage V2 is also assumed constant. So for maximum efficiency, dη /d I2
=0
η = (V2 I2 cos Φ2 )/(V2 I2 cos Φ2 + Pi + I2 R2e)
... (V2 I2 cos Φ2 + Pi + I22 R2e)(V2 cos Φ2) - (V2 I2 cos Φ2)(V2 cos Φ2 + 2I2 R2e) = 0
Cancelling (V2 cos Φ2) from both the terms we get,
V2 I2 cos Φ2 + Pi +I22 R2e - V2 I2 Φ2 - 2I22 R2e = 0
... Pi - I22 R2e=0
... Pi = I22 R2e = Pcu
So condition to achieve maximum efficiency is that,

Copper losses = Iron losses
Load Current I2m at Maximum Efficiency :
For ηmax, I22 R2e = Pi but I2 = I2m
I2m = √(Pi / R2e) =This is the load current at ηmax,
Let (I2)F.L. = Full load current

... I2m /(I2) F.L.= (1/(I2) F.L.)√(Pi / R2e)
... I2m /(I2) F.L.= √(Pi )/({(I2) F.L.}2R2e)

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= √(Pi )/((Pcu) F.L.)
... I2m = (I2 )F.L.√(Pi )/((Pcu) F.L.)
This is the load current at ηmax in terms of full load current.

KVA supplied at maximum Efficiency
For constant V2 the KVA supplied is the function of.
KVA at ηmax = I2m V2= V2 (I2) F.L. x √(Pi) /((Pcu)F.L.)
KVA at ηmax = (KVA rating) x √(Pi) /((Pcu)F.L.)
Substituting condition for in the expression of efficiency, we can write expression

for ηmax as,
3.16 AUTO-TRANSFORMER:
It is a transformer with one winding only, part of this being common to both primary
and secondary. Obviously, in this transformer the primary and secondary are not electrically
isolated from each other as is the case with a 2-winding transformer. But its theory and
operation are similar to those of a two-winding transformer. Because of one winding, it uses
less copper and hence is cheaper. It is used where transformation ratio differs little from unity.
Fig. 32.60 shows both step down and step-up auto-transformers. As shown in Fig.
32.60 (a), AB, is primary winding having N1 turns and BC is secondary winding having N2
turns. Neglecting iron losses and no-load current
The current in section CB is vector difference* of I2 and I1. But as the two currents
are practically in phase opposition, the resultant current is (I2 − I1) where I2 is greater than
I1. As compared to an ordinary 2- winding transformer of same output, an auto-transformer
has higher efficiency but smaller size. Moreover, its voltage regulation is also superior.

Page 96
USES:
As said earlier, auto-transformers are used when K is nearly equal to unity and where there
is no Objection to electrical connection between primary and secondary. Hence, such
transformers are Used:
1. To give small boost to a distribution cable to correct the voltage drop.
2. As auto-starter transformers to give up to 50 to 60 % of full voltage to an induction motor
during starting.
3. as furnace transformers for getting a convenient supply to suit the furnace winding from a
230-V supply
4. As interconnecting transformers in 132 kV/330 kV system.
5. in control equipment for 1-phase and 3-phase electrical locomotives
3.17 THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER CONNECTIONS:
The following 4 ways of connecting the 3-phase transformers will be discussed here.
(i) Delta - Delta (∆ - ∆)
(ii) Star - Star ( Y - Y ) (iii) Delta - Star (∆- Y) (iv)

Star - Delta (Y - ∆)
In 3-phase systems, the above connections may be made by banks of suitably
connected single phase transformers in which the magnetic circuit of three phases
is inter linked. 1.Star - Star connection:
❖ In Star - Star connection both the primary and secondary windings are connected in Star.
❖ The neutral point is denoted by N for high voltage winding and n for low voltage
winding and the connection is shown in Fig.1.
❖ The phase current is equal to the line current but the line voltage is (√3) times the phase
voltage in both the primary and secondary windings.
❖ Under balanced load conditions, whether the neutrals are earthed or unearthed. ❖ IA + IB
+ IC = 0 and Ia + Ib + Ic = 0
❖ Where IA , IB and IC refer to primary side Ia + Ib and Ic to secondary.
❖ The Star - Star connection is not used in a three phase three wire system due to

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❖ undesirable effects of a third harmonic current.
2.Delta - Delta connection:
❖ In delta connection both the primary and secondary windings are connected in Delta as
shown in Fig. 2.
❖ Here the line voltage is equal to phase voltage on each side and the phase current is line
current divided by (√3).
❖ As compared to a star - star connection for the same terminal voltage and current, a delta
- delta connection has more number of turns in each phase winding but less cross-
section area of conductors. Hence a delta connection is more economical for large
transformers of relatively lower voltage rating.
❖ The 3rd harmonic exciting current will circulate within the closed ∆ and shall not appear
on the line.
❖ The ∆ connection also acts as a block to the flow of Zero-sequence currents.
❖ The ∆ closed serves to damp out third harmonic voltages.
❖ It is possible to operate the transformer on 58% of its normal rating in V-connection if
one of the phases develop fault.
❖ The absence of star-point may be disadvantageous. If one line gets earthed due to fault,
maximum voltage between windings and the core will be full line voltage.
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3.Star - Delta connection:

❖ Fig. 3 shows the connection for a three phase Star - delta transformer.
❖ On the primary side the line voltage is ( √3) times the phase voltage while the line and
phase voltages are equal on the secondary side.
Generally, the high voltage winding is star connected for reducing cost of insulation.
This connection is generally used for step down transformers at receiving end substations.
4. Delta - Star connection:
❖ The connection of a three phase delta - star transformer is shown in Fig. 4.

❖ On the primary side the line and phase voltages are equal, but on the secondary side
the line voltage is ( √3) times the phase voltage
❖ It has the advantage of Y-point for mixed loading and winding to carry third
harmonic currents, which stabilize the star point potential.
❖ These transformers are used at sending and receiving end substations. At power
stations the generator feeds the delta winding and the star winding is connected to
h.v. transmission lines. In distribution transformers, feeders are connected to delta winding
and the star winding supplies three-phase four-wire distributors.
UNIT-4 ELECTRICAL MACHINES

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4.1THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR:

INTRODUCTION:
An electric motor is a device which converts an electrical energy into a mechanical

energy. The motors operating on a.c. supply are called a.c. motor. As a.c. supply is
commonly available, the a.c. motors are very popularly used in practice. The a.c.
motors are classified as three phase induction motors, single phase induction motor,
universal motors, synchronous motors etc. The three phase induction motors are widely
used for various industrial application. The important features of three phase induction
motors are self starting, higher power factor, good speed regulation and robust
construction. This chapter explains the construction, working principle and
characteristics of three phase induction motors as well as universal motors. The
working of three phase induction motors is based on the principle of rotating magnetic
field. Let us discuss, the production of rotating magnetic field.
4.2 ROTATING MAGNETIC FIELD (R.M.F.):
❖ The rotating magnetic field can be defined as the field or flux having constant amplitude
but whose axis is continuously rotating in a plane with a certain speed. So if the
arrangement is made to rotate a permanent magnet, then the resulting field is a rotating
magnetic field. But ion this method, it is necessary to rotate a magnet physically to
produce rotating magnetic field.
❖ But in three phase induction motors such a rotating magnetic field is produced by
supplying currents to a set of stationary windings, with the help of three phase a.c. supply.
The current carrying windings produce the magnetic field or flux. And due to interaction
of three phase fluxes produced due to three phase supply, resultant flux has a constant
magnitude and its axis rotating in space, without physically rotating the windings. This
type of field is nothing but rotating magnetic field. Let us study how it happens.
Production of R.M.F.:
A three phase induction motor consists of three phase winding as its stationary part called
stator. The three phase stator winding is connected in star or delta. The three phase windings are displaced
from each other by 120o. The windings are supplied by a balanced three phase a.c. supply.
This is shown in the Fig. 1. The three phase windings are denoted as R-R' , Y-Y' and B- B'.

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The three phase currents flow simultaneously through the windings and are displaced
from each other by 120o electrical. Each alternating phase current produces its own flux
which is sinusoidal. So all three fluxes are sinusoidal and are separated from each other by
120o. If the phase sequence of the windings is R-Y-B, then mathematical equations for the
instantaneous values of the three fluxes ΦR , ΦY and ΦB can be written as,
ΦR = Φm sin(ωt) = Φmsin θ .......................................................(1)
ΦY = sin (ωt - 120o) = Φm sin (θ - 120o) ..................................... (2)
ΦB = Φm sin (ωt - 240o) = Φm sin (θ - 240o)..................................... (3)
As winding are identical and supply is balanced, the magnitude of each flux is Φ m. Due
to phase sequence R-Y-B, flux lags behind ΦR by 120o and ΦB lags ΦY by 120o. So ΦB
ultimately lags ΦR by 240o. The flux ΦR is taken as reference while writing the equations.
The Fig. 2(a) shows the waveforms of three fluxes in space. The Fig.2(b) shows the
phasor diagram which clearly shows the assumed positive directions of each flux. Assumed
positive direction means whenever the flux is positive it must be represented along the
direction shown and whenever the flux is negative it must be represented along the opposite
direction to the assumed positive direction.
Let ΦR, ΦY and ΦB be the instantaneous values of the three fluxes. The resultant flux Φ T is
the phasor addition of ΦR, ΦY and ΦB.

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Let us find ΦT at the instants 1, 2, 3 and 4 as shown in the Fig. 2(a) which represents
the values of θ as 0o, 60o, 120o and 180o respectively. The phasor addition can be
performed by obtaining the values of ΦR, ΦY and ΦB by substituting values of θ in the
equation (1), (2) and (3).
Case 1 : θ = 0o Substituting in the equations (1), (2) and (3) we get,

ΦR = Φm sin 0o = 0 ΦY
= Φm sin(-
120o ) = -
0.866 Φm ΦB =
Φm sin (-240o)
= + 0.866Φm
The pahsor addition is shown in the Fig. 3(a). The positive values are are shown in
assumed positive directions while negative values are shown in opposite direction to the

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assumed positive directions of the respective fluxes. Refer to assumed positive directions
shown in the Fig 3(b).
BD is drawn perpendicular from B on ΦT. It bisects ΦT.

... OD = DA = ΦT/2
In triangle ∟OBD = 30o
... cos 30o = OD/OB = (ΦT/2)/(0.866 Φm )
... ΦT = 2 x 0.866 Φm x cos30o

= 1.5 Φm
So magnitude of ΦT is 1.5 Φm and its position is vertically upwards at θ = 0o.
Case 2 θ = 60o Equation (1),(2) and (3) give us,

ΦR = Φm sin 60o = +0.866 Φm ΦY
= Φm sin (-60o) = -0866 Φm
ΦB = Φm sin (-180o) = 0
So ΦR is positive and ΦY is negative and hence drawing in appropriate directions

we get phasor diagram as shown in the Fig. 3(b).
Doing the same construction, drawing perpendicular from B on at D we get the same
result as, ΦT = 1.5 Φm But it can be seen that though its magnitude is 1.5 Φm it has rotated
through 60o in space, in clockwise direction, from its previous position
Case 3 : θ = 120o

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Equations (1),(2) and (3) give us,
ΦR = Φm sin 120o = +0.866 Φm
ΦY = Φm sin 0o = 0
ΦB = Φm sin (-120o ) = -0.866 Φm
So ΦR is positive and ΦB is negative. showing ΦR and ΦB in the appropriate directions, we get

the phasor diagram as shown in the Fig . 3(c).
After doing the construction same as before i.e. drawing perpendicular from B
on ΦT, it can be provided again that,
ΦT = 1.5 Φm
But the position of ΦT is such that it has rotated further through 60 o from
its previous position, in clockwise direction. And from its position at θ = 0o, it
has rotated through 120o in space, in clockwise direction.
Case 4 : θ = 180o
From equations (1),(2) and (3),
ΦR = Φm sin (180o) = 0
ΦY = Φm sin (60o) = +0.866 Φm

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ΦB = Φm sin (-60o)
= -0.866 Φm
So ΦR = 0 , ΦY is positive and ΦB is negative. Drawing ΦY and ΦB in the appropriate directions,

we get the phasor diagram as shown in the Fig. 3(d).
From phasor diagram, it can be easily proved that,
ΦT = 1.5 Φm
❖ Thus the magnitude of ΦT once again remains same. But it can be seen that it has further
rotated through 60o from its previous position in clockwisedirection.
❖ So for an electrical half cycle of 180o, the resultant ΦT has also rotated through . This is
applicable for the windings from the above discussion we have following conclusions:
❖ The resultant of the three alternating fluxes, separated from each other by , has a constant
amplitude of 1.5 Φm where Φm is maximum amplitude of an individual flux due to any phase.
❖ The resultant always keeps on rotating with a certain speed in space.
Key point : This shows that when a three phase stationary windings are excited by balanced
three phase a.c. supply then the resulting field produced is rotating magnetic field. Though
nothing is physically rotating, the field produced is rotating in space having constant
amplitude.
4.3 SPEED OF R.M.F:

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There exists a fixed relation between frequency f of a.c. supply to the windings, the
number of poles P for which winding is wound and speed N r.p.m. of rotating magnetic
field. For a standard frequency whatever speed of R.M.F. results is called synchronous
speed, in case of induction motors. It is denoted as .
= (120 f)/P = speed of R.M.F.
Where f = Supply frequency in Hz p = Number of poles for which winding is wound
This is the speed which R.M.F rotates in space. Let us see how to
change direction of rotation of R.M.F. Direction of R.M.F:
❖ The direction of the R.M.F. is always from the axis of the leading phase of the three phase
winding towards the lagging phase of the winding. In a phase sequence of R-Y-B, phase R
leads Y by 120o and Y leads B by120o. So R.M.F. rotates from axis of R to axis of Y and then
to axis of B and so on. So its direction is clockwise as shown in the Fig. 4(a). This direction
can be reversed by interchanging any two terminals of the three phase windings while
connecting to the three phase supply. The terminals Y and B are shown interchanged in the
Fig.
4(b). In such case the direction of R.M.F. will be anticlockwise.

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❖ As Y and B of windings are connected to B and Y from winding point of view the phase
sequence becomes R-Y-B. Thus R.M.F. axis follows the direction from R to B to Y which is
anticlockwise.
Key point : Thus by interchanging any two terminals of three phase winding while connecting
it to three phase a.c. supply, direction of rotation of R.M.F. gets reversed.
4.4 CONSTRUCTION OF THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR:
Basically the induction motor consists of two main parts, namely
1. The part i.e. three phase windings, which is stationary called stator. 2. The part which
rotates and is connected to the mechanical load through shaft called rotor.
The conversion of electrical power to mechanical power takes place in a rotor. Hence
rotor develops a driving torque and rotates.
Stator:
The stator has a laminated type of construction made up of stampings which are 0.4 to 0.5
mm thick. The stampings are slotted in its periphery to carry the stator winding. The
stampings are insulated from each other. Such a construction essentially keeps the iron losses
to a minimum value. The number of stampings are stamped together to build the stator core.
The built up core is then fitted in a casted or fabricated steel frame. The choice of material for
the stampings is generally silicon steel, which minimises the hysteresis loss. The slots in the
periphery of the stator core carries a three phase winding, connected either in star or delta.
This three phase winding is called stator winding. It is wound for definite number of poles.
This winding when excited by a three phase supply produces a magnetic rotating field as
discussed earlier. The choice of number of poles depends on the speed of the rotating
magnetic field required. The radial ducts are provided for the cooling purpose. In some cases,
all the six terminals of three phase stator winding are brought out which gives flexibility to
the user to connect them either in star or delta. The Fig. 1 shows a stator lamination.

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Fig. 1 Stator lamination
Rotor:
The rotor is placed inside the stator. The rotor core is also laminated in construction
and uses cast iron. It is cylindrical, with slots on its periphery. The rotor conductors or
winding is placed in the rotor slots. The two typed of rotor constructions which are used
for induction motors are,
✓ Squirrel cage rotor and
✓ Slip ring wound rotor Squirrel Cage Rotor:
The rotor core is cylindrical and slotted on its periphery. The rotor consists of un
insulated copper or aluminum bars called rotor conductors. The bars are placed in the slots.
These bars are permanently shorted at each end with the help of conducting copper ring
called end ring. The bars are usually brazed to the end rings to provide good mechanical
strength. The entire structure looks like a cage, forming a closed electrical circuit. So the
rotor is called squirrel cage rotor. The construction is shown in the Fig. 1.
❖ As the bars are permanently shorted to each other through end ring, the entire rotor
resistance is very very small. Hence this rotor is also called short circuited rotor. As rotor
itself is short circuited, no external resistance can have any effect on the rotor resistance.
Hence no external resistance can be introduced in the rotor circuit. So slip ring and brush
assembly is not required for this rotor. Hence the construction of this rotor is very simple.
❖ Fan blades are generally provided at the ends of the rotor core. This circulates the air
through the machine while operation, providing the necessary cooling. The air gap
between stator and rotor is kept uniform and as small as possible.

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❖ In this type of rotor, the slots are not arranged parallel to the shaft axis but are skewed as
shown in the Fig. 2.
The advantages of skewing

are,
1. A magnetic hum i.e. noise gets reduced due to skewing hence skewing makes the motor
operation quiter.
2. It makes the rotor operation smooth.
3. The stator and rotor teeth may get magnetically locked. Such a tendency of magnetic
locking gets reduced due to skewing.
4. It increases the effective transformation ratio between stator and rotor.
Slip Ring Rotor or Wound Rotor:
In this type of construction, rotor winding is exactly similar to the stator. The rotor
carries a three phase star or delta connected, distributed winding, wound for same number of
poles as that of stator. The rotor construction is laminated and slotted. The slots contain the
rotor winding. The three ends of three phase winding, available after connecting the winding
in star or delta, are permanently connected to the slip rings. The slip rings are mounted on the
same shaft. We have seen that slip slip rings are used to connect external stationary circuit to
the internal rotating circuit. So in this type of rotor, the external resistances can be added with
the help of brushes and slip ring arrangement, in series with each phase of the rotor winding.
This arrangement is shown in the Fig. 1.
Key point: This way the value of rotor resistance per phase ca be controlled. This helps us to control some of the
important characteristics of the motor like starting torque, speed etc.
In the running condition, the slip rings are shorted. This is possible by connecting a metal
collar which gets pushed and connects all the slip rings together, shorting them. At the same
time brushes are also lifted from the slip rings. This avoids wear and tear of the brushes due

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to friction. The possibility of addition of an external resistance in series with the rotor, with
the help of slip sings is the main feature of this type of rotor.
Comparison of Squirrel Cage and Wound Rotor:

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4.5 WORKING OF A THREE-PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR:
❖ Three phase induction motor works on the principle of electromagnetic induction. Due
to the similarity in the working principle of transformer, it is also known as rotating
transformer.
❖ The three phase induction motors are the most widely used electric motors in industry.
They run at essentially constant speed from no load to full load. However, the speed is
frequency dependent and consequently these motors are not easily adapted to speed
control. We usually prefer d.c. motors when large speed variations are required.
Principle of Operation:
For explaining the principle of operation of a three phase induction motor, consider a
portion of three phase induction motor as shown in the figure. The operation of the motor can
be explained as under: When three phase stator winding of an induction motor is energized
from a 3 phase supply, a rotating magnetic field is set up which rotates round the stator at
synchronous speed (Ns = 120 f/P).
✓ The rotating field passes through the air gap and cuts the rotor conductors, which as
yet, are stationary. Due to the relative speed between the rotating flux and the

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stationary rotor, e.m.f.s are induced in the rotor conductors. Since the rotor circuit is
short-circuited, currents start flowing in the rotor conductors.
✓ The current-carrying rotor conductors are placed in the magnetic field produced by
the stator. Consequently, mechanical force acts on the rotor conductors. The sum of
the mechanical forces on all the rotor conductors produces a torque which tends to
move the rotor in the same direction as the rotating field.
✓ The fact that rotor is urged to follow the stator field (i.e., rotor moves in the direction
of stator field) can be explained by Lenz’s law. According to this law, the direction
of rotor currents will be such that they tend to oppose the cause producing them.
✓ Now, the cause producing the rotor currents is the relative speed between the
rotating field and the stationary rotor conductors. Hence to reduce this relative
speed, the rotor starts running in the same direction as that of stator field and tries to
catch it.
✓ The rotor speed (N) of a three phase induction motor is always less than the stator
field speed (Ns). This difference in speed depends upon load on the motor. The
difference between the synchronous speed Ns of the rotating stator field and the
actual rotor speed N is called slip.
Can N = Ns?
When rotor starts rotating, it tries to catch the speed of rotating magnetic field.
❖ If it catches the speed of the rotating magnetic field, the relative motion between rotor
and the rotating magnetic field will vanish ( Ns - N = 0). In fact the relative motion is
the main cause for the induced e.m.f. in the rotor. So induced e.m.f. will vanish and
hence there can not be rotor current and the rotor flux which is essential to produce the

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torque on the rotor. Eventually motor will stop. But immediately there will exist a
relative motion between rotor and rotating magnetic field and it will start. But due to
inertia of rotor, this does not happen in practice and motor
continues to rotate with a speed slightly less than the synchronous speed of the
rotating magnetic field in the steady state. The induction motor never rotates at
synchronous speed. The speed at which it rotates is hence called subsynchronous
speed and motor sometimes called synchronous motor.
... N < Ns
So it can be said that rotor slips behind the rotating magnetic field produced by
stator. The difference between the two is called slip speed of the motor.
Ns - N = Slip speed of the motor in r.p.m.
❖ This speed decides the magnitude of the induction e.m.f. and the rotor current, which in
turn decides the torque produced. The torque produced is as per the requirements of
overcoming the friction and iron losses of the motor along with the torque demanded by
the load on the rotor.
Torque-Slip Characteristics
As the induction motor is located from no load to full load, its speed decreases hence slip
increases. Due to the increased. load, motor has to produce more torque to satisfy load
demand. The torque ultimately depends on slip as explained earlier. The behavior of motor
can be easily judged by sketching a curve obtained by plotting torque produced against slip of
induction motor. The curve obtained by plotting torque against slip from s = 1 (at start) to s =
0 (at synchronous speed) is called torque-slip characteristics of the induction motor. It is very
interesting to study the nature of torque-slip characteristics.
We have seen that for a constant supply voltage, E2 is also constant. So we can write
torque equations as,
Now to judge the nature of torque-slip characteristics let us divide the slip range (s = 0 to s =1)
into two parts and analyze them independently.
i) Low slip region:
In low slip region’s’ is very small. Due to this, the term (s X 2)2 is so small as compared to
R 2 that it can be neglected.
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❖ Hence in low slip region torque is directly proportional to slip. So as load increases,
speed decreases, increasing the slip. This increases the torque which satisfies the load
demand.
❖ Hence the graph is straight line in nature.
❖ At N = Ns , s = 0 hence T = 0. As no torque is generated at N = N s, motor stops if it
tries to achieve the synchronous speed. Torque increases linearly in this region, of
low slip values.
i) High slip region :
In this region, slip is high i.e. slip value is approaching to 1. Here it can be
a2ssumed that the term R 2 is very very small as compared to (s X ) 2. Hence neglecting
from the denominator, we get
❖ So in high slip region torque is inversely proportional to the slip. Hence its nature is like
rectangular hyperbola.
❖ Now when load increases, load demand increases but speed decreases. As speed
decreases, slip increases. In high slip region as T α1/s, torque decreases as slip increases.
❖ But torque must increases to satisfy the load demand. As torque decreases, due to extra
loading effect, speed further decreases and slip further increases. Again torque decreases
as T α1/s hence same load acts as an extra load due to reduction in torque produced.
Hence speed further drops. Eventually motor comes to standstill condition. The motor can
not continue to rotate at any point in this high slip region. Hence this region is called
unstable region of operation.
So torque - slip characteristics has two parts,

1. Straight line called stable region of operation 2.
Rectangular hyperbola called unstable region of operation.
❖ Now the obvious question is upto which value of slip, torque - slip characteristics
represents stable operation?
❖ In low slip region, as load increases, slip increases and torque also increases linearly.
Every motor has its own limit to produce a torque. The maximum torque, the motor can

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produces as load increases is T m which occurs at s = sm. So linear behaviour continues till
s = sm.
If load is increased beyond this limit, motor slip acts dominantly pushing motor into high
slip region. Due to unstable conditions, motor comes to standstill condition at such a
load. Hence i.e. maximum torque which motor can produce is also called breakdown
torque or pull out torque. So range s = 0 to s = s m is called low slip region, known as
stable region of operation. Motor always operates at a point in this region. And range s =
sm to s = 1 is called high slip region which is rectangular hyperbola, called unstable
region of operation.
Motor cannot continue to rotate at any point in this region. At s = 1, N = 0 i.e. start,
motor produces a torque called starting torque denoted as Tst.
The entire torque - slip characteristics is shown in the Fig. 1.

Full load torque
❖ When the load on the motor increases, the torque produced increases as speed decreases
and slip increases. The increases torque demand is satisfied by drawing motor current
from the supply.
❖ The load which motor can drive safely while operating continuously and due to such
load, the current drawn is also within safe limits is called full load condition of motor.
When current increases, due to heat produced the temperature rise. The safe limit of
current is that which when drawn for continuous operation of motor, produces a

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temperature rise well within the limits. Such a full load point is shown on the torque-slip
characteristics torque as TF.L.
❖ The interesting thing is that the load on the motor can be increased beyond point C till
maximum torque condition. But due to high current and hence high temperature rise
there is possibility of damage of winding insulation, if motor is operated for longer time
duration in this region i.e. from point C to B. But motor can be used to drive loads more
than full load, producing torque up to maximum torque for short duration of time.
Generally full load torque is less than the maximum torque.
❖ So region OC up to full load condition allow motor operation continuously and safely
from the temperature point pf view. While region CB is possible to achieve in practice
but only for short duration of time and not for continuous operation of motor. This is the
difference between full load torque and the maximum or breakdown torque. The breakdown
torque is also called stalling torque.
4.6 Losses in Induction Motor:
The various power losses in an induction motor can be classified as,

i) Constant losses
ii) Variable losses
i) Constant losses:
These can be further classified as core losses and mechanical losses.
Core losses occur in stator core and rotor core. These are also called iron losses. These
losses include eddy current losses and hysteresis losses. The eddy current losses are
minimized by using laminated construction while hysteresis losses are minimized by
selecting high grade silicon steel as the material for stator and rotor.
The iron losses depend on the frequency. The stator frequency is always supply
frequency hence stator iron losses are dominate. As against this in rotor circuit, the
frequency is very small which is slip times the supply frequency. Hence rotor iron losses
are very small and hence generally neglected, in the running condition.
The mechanical losses include frictional losses at the bearings and windings losses.
The friction changes with speed but practically the drop in speed is very small hence these
losses are assumed to be the part of constant losses.

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ii) Variable losses:

This includes the copper losses in stator and rotor winding due to current flowing in
the winding. As current changes as load changes as load changes, these losses are said to
be variable losses.
Generally stator iron losses are combined with stator copper losses at a particular load to
specify total stator losses at particular load condition.
Rotor copper loss = 3 I 2 R ................................ Analyzed separately
2r 2
Where I2r = Rotor current per phase at a particular load R2 = Rotor resistance
per phase
4.7 Efficiency of an Induction Motor:

The ratio of net power available at the shaft (Pout) and the net electrical power input
(Pin) to the motor is called as overall efficiency of an induction motor.
The maximum efficiency occurs when variable losses become equal to constant losses.
When motor is on no load, current drawn by the motor is small. Hence efficiency is low. As
load increases, current increases so copper losses also increases. When such variable losses
achieve the same value as that of constant losses, efficiency attains its maximum value. If
load is increased further, variable losses becomes greater than constant losses hence
deviating from condition for maximum, efficiency starts decreasing. Hence the nature of the
curve of efficiency against output power of the motor is shown in the Fig. 1.
Speed Control of Three Phase Induction Motor:

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A three phase induction motor is practically a constant speed motor like a d.c. shunt
motor. But the speed of d.c. shunt motor can be varied smoothly just by using simple
rheostats. This maintains the speed regulation and efficiency of d.c. shunt motor. But in case
of three phase induction motors it is very difficult to achieve smooth speed control. And if the
speed control is achieved by some means, the performance of the induction motor in terms of
its power factor, efficiency etc. gets adversely affected. For the induction motor we know that,
❖ From this expression it can be seen that the speed of induction motor can be changed
either by changing its synchronous speed or by changing the slip s.
❖ Similarly torque produced in case of three phase induction motor is given by,
N = Ns (1 -s)
❖ So as the parameters like R 2, E2 are changed then to keep the torque constant for constant
load condition, motor reacts by change in its slip. Effectively its speed changes. Thus
speed of the induction motor can be controlled by basically two methods:
1. from stator side 2. From rotor side
From stator side, it includes following methods:

1) Supply frequency control to control Ns, called V / f control.
2) Supply voltage control.
3) Controlling number of stator poles to control Ns.
4) Adding rheostats in stator circuit. From rotor side, it includes following
methods:
1. Adding external resistance in the rotor circuit.

2. Cascade control.
3. Injecting slip frequency voltage into the rotor circuit.
Supply Frequency Control or V / f Control:
The synchronous speed is given by, Ns = 120f / P. Thus by controlling the supply frequency
smoothly, the synchronous speed can be controlled over a wide range. This gives smooth speed
control of an induction motor.

Page 118
But the expression for the air gap flux is given by,
This is according to the e.m.f. equation of a transformer where, K 1 = Stator winding

constant Tph1 = Stator turns per phase V = Supply voltage f = Supply frequency
❖ It can be seen from this expression that if the supply frequency f is changed, the value of
air gap flux also
gets affected. This may result into saturation of stator and rotor cores. Such saturation
leads to the sharp increase in the (magnetization) no load current of the motor. Hence it is
necessary to maintain air gap flux constant when supply frequency f is changed.
❖ To achieve this, it can be seen from the above expression that along with f, V also must
be changed so as to keep (V/f) ratio constant. This ensures constant air gap flux giving
speed control without affecting the performance of the motor. Hence this method is
called V / f control.
❖ Hence in this method, the supply to the induction motor required is variable voltage
variable frequency supply and can be achieved by an electronic scheme using converter
and inverter circuitry. The scheme is shown in the Fig. 1.
❖ The normal supply available is constant voltage constant frequency a.c. supply. The
converter converts this supply into a d.c. supply. This d.c. supply is then given to the
inverter. The inverter is a device which converts d.c. supply, to variable voltage variable
frequency a.c. supply which is required to keep V / f ratio constant. By selecting the proper
frequency and maintaining V / f constant, smooth speed control of the induction motor is
possible.
❖ If f is the normal working frequency then the Fig. 2 shows the torque-slip characteristics
for the frequency f1 > f and f2 < f i.e. for frequencies above and below the
normal frequency.

Page 119
Supply Voltage Control:

We know that, T α (k s E22 R2)/(R 2 +2(s X2)2)
Now E2, the rotor induced e.m.f. at standstill depends on the supply voltage V.
... E2 α V
Also for low slip region, which is operating region of the induction motor, (s X 2)2<<R2
and hence can be neglected.
T α ( s E22 R2)/R22) α sV2 for constant R2
Now if supply voltage is reduced below rated value, as per above equation torque
produced also decreases. But to supply the same load it is necessary to developed same
torque hence value of slip increases so that torque produced remains same. Slip increases
means motor reacts by running at lower speed, to decrease in supply voltage. So motor
produces the required load torque at a lower speed. The speed-torque characteristics for the
motor using supply voltage control are shown in the Fig. 1.
But in this method, due to reduction in voltage, current drawn by the motor
increases. Large change in voltage for small change in speed is required is the biggest
disadvantage. Due to increased current, the motor may get overheated. Additional voltage
Page 120
changing equipment is necessary. Hence this method is rarely used in practice. Motors
driving fan type of loads use this method of speed control. Due to reduced voltage, E 2
decreases, decreasing the value of maximum torque too. 4.8 SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION
MOTOR:
For general lighting purpose in shops, offices, houses, schools etc. Single phase a.c.
supply is commonly used. Hence instead of d.c. motors, the motors which work on single
phase a.c. supply are very popularly in use. These a.c. motors are called single phase
induction motors. The numerous domestic applications use single phase motors. The power
rating of such motors is very small. Some of them are even fractional horse power motors,
which are used in applications like small toys, small fans, hair dryers etc. This chapter
explains the construction, working principle and applications of various types of single phase
induction motors.
CONSTRUCTION OF SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR:
Similar to a d.c. motor, single phase induction motor has basically two main parts.one
rotating and other stationary. The stationary part in single phase induction motors is called
stator while the rotating part is called rotor.
The stator has laminated construction, made up of stampings. The stampings are slotted
on its periphery to carry the winding called stator winding or main winding. This is excited
by a single phase a.c. supply. The laminated construction keeps iron losses to minimum. The
stampings are made up of material like silicon steel which minimizes the hysteresis loss. The
stator winding is wound for certain definite number of poles means when excited by single
phase a.c. supply, stator produces the magnetic field which creates the effect of certain
definite number of poles. The number of poles for which stator winding is wound, decides the
synchronous speed of the motor. The synchronous speed is denoted as N s and it has a fixed
relation with supply frequency f and number of poles P. The induction motor never rotates
with the synchronous speed but rotates at a speed which is slightly less than the synchronous
speed.
The rotor construction is of squirrel cage type. In this type, rotor consists of un insulated
copper or aluminum bars, placed in the slots. The bars are permanently shorted at both the
ends with the help of conducting rings called end rings. The entire structure looks like cage
hence called squirrel cage rotor. The construction and symbol is shown in the Fig..1

Page 121
As the bars are permanently shorted to each other, the resistance of the entire rotor is
very very small. The air gap between stator and rotor is kept uniform and as small as
possible. The main feature of this rotor is that it automatically adjusts itself for same number
of poles as that of the stator winding. The schematic representation of two pole single phase
induction motor is shown in the Fig.2.
Working Principle of 1-phase Induction Motor:
For the motoring action, there must exist two fluxes which interact with each other to
produce the torque. In d.c. motors, field winding produces the main flux while d.c. supply
given to armature is responsible to produce armature flux. The main flux and armature flux
interact to produce the torque.
❖ In the single phase induction motor, single phase a.c. supply is given to the stator winding.
The stator winding carries an alternating current which produces the flux which is also
alternating in nature. This flux is called main flux. This flux links with the rotor
conductors and due to transformer action e.m.f. gets induced in the rotor. The induced
e.m.f. drives current through the rotor as rotor circuit is closed circuit. This rotor current
produces another flux called rotor flux required for the motoring action. Thus second flux
is

Page 122
produced according to induction principle due to induced e.m.f. hence the motor is called
induction motor. As against this in d.c. motor a separate supply is required to armature to
produce armature flux. This is an important difference between d.c. motor and an
induction motor.
❖ Another important difference between the two is that the d.c. motors are self starting while
single phase induction motors are not self starting.
❖ Let us see why single phase induction motors are not self starting with the help of a theory
called double revolving field theory 4.9 Double Revolving Field Theory:
According to this theory, any alternating quantity can be resolved into two rotating
components which rotate in opposite directions and each having magnitude as half of the
maximum magnitude of the alternating quantity. In case of single phase induction motors,
the stator winding produces an alternating magnetic field having maximum magnitude of
Φ1m.
According to double revolving field theory, consider the two components of the stator
flux, each having magnitude half of maximum magnitude of stator flux i.e. (Φ1m/2). Both
these components are rotating in opposite directions at the synchronous speed Ns which is
dependent on frequency and statorpoles.
Let Φf is forward component rotating in anticlockwise direction while Φb is the
backward component rotating in clockwise direction. The resultant of these two components
at any instant gives the instantaneous value of the stator flux at the instant. So resultant of
these two is the original stator flux.
Fig. 1 Stator flux and its two components
The Fig. 1 shows the stator flux and its two components Φ f and Φb. At start both the
components are shown opposite to each other in the Fig.1 (a). Thus the resultant Φ R = 0. This
is nothing but the instantaneous value of the stator flux at start. After 90 o, as shown in the Fig.

Page 123
1(b), the two components are rotated in such a way that both are pointing in the same
direction.
Hence the resultant ΦR is the algebraic sum of the magnitudes of the two components. So ΦR
= (Φ1m/2) + (Φ1m/2) =Φ1m. This is nothing but the instantaneous value of the stator flux at θ =
90o as shown in the Fig 1(c). Thus continuous rotation of the two components gives the
original alternating stator flux.
Both the components are rotating and hence get cut by the motor conductors. Due to
cutting of flux, e.m.f. gets induced in rotor which circulates rotor current. The rotor current
produces rotor flux. This flux interacts with forward component Φ f to produce a torque in one
particular direction say anticlockwise direction. While rotor flux interacts with backward
component Φb to produce a torque in the clockwise direction.
So if anticlockwise torque is positive then clockwise torque is negative.
At start these two torque are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction. Each torque
tries to rotate the rotor in its own direction. Thus net torque experienced by the rotor is zero
at start. And hence the single phase induction motors are not self starting.
Torque speed characteristics:
The two oppositely directed torques and the resultant torque can be shown effectively
with the help of torque-speed characteristics. It is shown in the Fig.2.
Fig. 2 Torque-speed characteristic
It can be seen that at start N = 0 and at that point resultant torque is zero. So single phase
motors are not self starting. However if the rotor is given an initial rotation in any direction,
the resultant average torque increase in the direction in which rotor initially rotated. And

Page 124
motor starts rotating in that direction. But in practice it is not possible to give initial torque to
rotor externally hence some modifications are done in the construction of single phase
induction motors to make them self starting.
Another theory which can also be used to explain why single phase induction motors is
not self starting is cross-field theory.
4.10 Construction of a Practical D.C. Machine:
As stated earlier, whether a machine is d.c. generator or a motor the construction

basically remains the same as shown in the Fig. 1.
It consists of the following parts : 1 Yoke
a) Functions :

Page 125
b) It serves the purpose of outermost cover of the d.c. machine. So that the insulating
materials get protected from harmful atmospheric elements like moisture, dust and
various gases like SO2, acidic fumes etc.
c) It provides mechanical support to the poles.
d) It forms a part of the magnetic circuit. It provides a path of low reluctance for
magnetic flux. The low reluctance path is important to avoid wastage of power to
provide same flux. Large current and hence the power is necessary if the path has high
reluctance, to produce the same flux.
b) Choice of Material : To provide low reluctance path, it must be made up of some

magnetic material. It is prepared by using cast iron because it is cheapest. For large machines
rolled steel, cast steel, silicon steel is used which provides high permeability i.e. low
reluctance and gives good mechanical strength.
2. Poles
Each pole is divided into two parts namely, I) Pole core and II) Pole shoe. This is shown
in the Fig. 2.
Fig. 2 Pole Structure
a) Functions of pole core and pole shoe:
b) Pole core basically carries a field winding which is necessary to producethe flux.
c) It directs the flux produced through air gap to armature core, to the next pole.
d) Pole shoe enlarges the area of armature core to come across the flux, which is necessary
to produce larger induced e.m.f. To achieve this, pole shoe has been given a particular
shape.
b) Choice of Material: It is made up of magnetic material like cast iron or cast steel. As it
requires a definite shape and size, laminated construction is used. The laminations of required
size and shape are stamped together to get a pole which is then bolted to the yoke.

Page 126
3 Field Winding (F1-F2)

The field winding is wound on the pole core with a definite direction.
a). Functions : To carry current due to which pole core, on which the field winding is placed
behaves as an electromagnet, producing necessary flux. As it helps in producing the magnetic
field i.e exciting the pole electro magnet it is called field winding or exciting winding.
b). Choice of material : It has to carry current hence obviously made up of some conducting
material. So aluminum or copper is the choice. But field coils are required to take any type of
shape and bend about pole core and copper has good pliability i.e. it can bend easily. So
copper is the proper choice.
Note : Field winding is divided into various coils called field coils. These are connected
in series with each other and in such a direction around pole cores, such that alternate
'N' and 'S' poles are formed.
By using right hand thumb rule for current carrying circular conductor, it can be
easily determined that how a particular core is going to behave as 'N' or 'S' for a
particular winding direction around it. The direction of winding and flux can be
observed in the Fig
3.
4 Armature:
It is further divided into two parts namely,
I) Armature core and II) Armature winding
I) Armature core : Armature core is cylindrical in shape mounted on the shaft. It

consists of slots on its periphery and the air ducts to permit the air flow through
armature which serves cooling purpose.
a) Functions :
i). Armature core provides house for armature winding i.e. armatureconductors. ii)
To provide a path of low reluctance to the magnetic flux produced by the field
winding.
b) Choice of Material :
i). As it has to provide a low reluctance path to the flux, it is made up of magnetic
material like cast iron or cast steel.
ii). It is made up of laminated construction to keep eddy current loss as low as
possible. A single circular lamination used for the construction of the armature core
is shown in the Fig. 4.
Page 127
Fig. 4 Single Circular lamination of Armature core
II) Armature winding: Armature winding is nothing but the interconnection of the armature
conductors, placed in the slots provided on the armature core periphery. When the armature is
rotated, in case of generator, magnetic flux gets cut by armature conductors and e.m.f. gets
induced in them. a) Functions :
i). Generation of e.m.f takes place in the armature winding in case of generators.
ii). To carry the current supplied in case of d.c. motors.
iii). To do the useful work in the external circuit.

b) Choice of material : As armature winding carries entire current which depends on
external load, it has to be made up of conducting material, which is copper. Armature
winding is generally former wound. The conductors are placed inthe armature slots which
are lined with tough insulating material.
5 Commutator
We have seen earlier that the basic nature of e.m.f. induced in the armature conductors
is alternating. This needs rectification in case of d.c. generator, which is possible by a device
called commutator. a) Functions:
1. To facilitate the collection of current from the armature conductors.
2. To convert internally developed alternating e.m.f. to unidirectional (d.c.) e.m.f.
3. To produce unidirectional torque in case of motors.

b) Choice of material: As it collects current from armature, it is also made up of copper
segments.
1. It is cylindrical in shape and is made up of wedge shaped segments of the hard drawn,
high conductivity copper.
2. These segments are insulated from each other by thin layer of mica. Each commutator
segment is connected to the armature. Conductor by means of copper lug or strip. This
connection is shown in the Fig. 5.
Fig. 5 Commutator
6 Brushes and Brush Gear:
Brushes are stationary and resting on the surface of the commutator.
Function: To collect current from commutator and make it available tothe stationary external
circuit. Choice of material: Brushes are normally made up of soft material like carbon.
Brushes are rectangular in shape. They are housed in brush holders, which are usually
of box type. The brushes are made to press on the commutator surface by means of a spring,
whose tension can be adjusted with the help of lever. A flexible copper conductor called pig
tail is used to connect the brush to the external circuit. To avoid wear and tear of commutator,
the brushes are made up of soft material like carbon.
7 Bearings
Ball-bearings are usually used as they are more reliable. For heavy duty machines,
roller bearings are preferred
D.C. Motors
Introduction:
A motor is a device which converts an electrical energy into the mechanical energy .
The energy conversion process is exactly opposite to that involved in a d.c. generator. In a
generator the input mechanical energy is supplied by a prim mover while in a d.c. motor,
input electrical energy is supplied by a d.c. supply. The construction of a d.c. machine is
same whether it is a motor or a generator.
Principle of Operation of a D.C. Motor:
The principle of operation of a d.c. motor can be stated in a single statement as 'when a
current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field' it experiences a mechanical force'.
In a practical d.c. motor, field winding produces a required magnetic field while armature
conductors play a role of a current carrying conductors and hence armature conductors
experience a force. As a conductors are placed in the slots which are in the periphery, the
individual force experienced by the conductors acts as a twisting or turning force on the
armature which is called a torque. The torque is the product of force and the radius at which
this force acts. So overall armature experiences a torque and starts rotating. Let us study this
motoring action in detail.
Consider a single conductor placed in a magnetic field as shown in the Fig .1(a). The
magnetic field is produced by a permanent magnet but in a practical d.c. motor it is produced
by the field winding when it carries a current.
Fig. 1
Now this conductor is excited by a separate supply so that it carries a current in a

particular direction. Consider that it carries a current away from an observe as shown in the
Fig. 1(b). Any current carrying conductor produces its own magnetic field around it. hence
this conductor also produces its own flux, around. The direction of this flux can be
determined by right hand thumb rule. For direction of current considered, the direction of
flux around a conductor is clockwise. For simplicity of understanding, the main flux
produced by the permanent magnet is not shown in the Fig. 1(b). Now there are two fluxes
present,
1. The flux produced by the permanent magnet called flux.
2. The flux produced by the current carrying conductor.
There are shown in the Fig.2(a). Form this, it is clear that on one side of the conductor,
both the fluxes are in same direction. In this case, on the left of the conductor there is
gathering of the flux lines as two fluxes help each other. As against this, on the right of the
conductor, the two fluxes are in opposite direction and hence try to cancel each other. Due to
this, the density of the flux lines in this area gets weakened. So on the left, there exists high
flux density area while on the right of the conductor there exists low flux density area as
shown in the Fig. 2(b).

Fig. 2
This flux distribution around the conductors acts like a stretched rubber band under
tension. This exerts a mechanical force on the conductor which acts from high flux density
area towards low flux density area. i.e. from left to right for the case considered as shown in
the Fig. 2(b).
Key point: In the practical d.c. motor, the permanent magnet is replaced by a field winding
which produces the required flux called main flux and all the armature conductors, mounted
on the periphery of the armature drum, get subjected to the mechanical force. Due to this,
overall armature experiences a twisting force called torque and armature of the motor starts
rotating.
Torque Equation of a D.C. Motor:
It is seen that the turning or twisting force about an axis is called torque. Consider a
wheel of radius R meters acted upon by a circumferential force F newtons as shown in the
Fig.
1.
Fig. 1
r.p.m. then, Power in armature = Armature torque x ω
...Ta0=Tf
. Eb Ia= x (2N/60) but Eb in a motor is givenby,

..
Eb = (ΦPNZ) / (60A)
. (ΦPNZ / 60A) x Ia = Ta x(2πN/60)
..
The wheel is rotating at a speed of N r.p.m. Then angularspeed of the wheel is, ω
= (2πN)/60 rad/sec
So work done in one revolution is, W = F x distance travelled in one revolution
= F x 2 R joules And P
= Power developed = Workdone/Time
= (F x 2πR) / (Time for 1 rev) = (F x 2πR) / (60/N) = (F x R) x (2πN/60)
.
.. P = T x ω watts Where
T = Torque in N - m ω = Angular
speed in rad/sec.
Let Ta be the gross torque developed by the armature of the motor. It is also called
armature torque. The gross mechanical power developed in the armature is E b Ia, as seen from
the power equation. So if speed of the motor is N
Example 1: A 4 pole d.c. motor takes a 50 A armature current. The armature has lap
connected 480 conductors. The flux per pole is 20 mWb. Calculate the gross torque
developed by the armature of the motor.
Solution: P = 4, A = P = 4, Z = 480
-3
Φ = 20 mWb = 20 x 10 Wb, Ia = 50 A
-3
Now Ta = 0.159 x ΦIa . (PZ/A) = 0.159 x 20 x 10 x 50 x (4x480/4)
= 76.394 N-m
Types of Torque in the Motor:
Basically the torque is developed in the armature and hence gross torque produced is
denoted as Ta
Fig. 2 Type of torque
The mechanical power developed in the armature is transmitted to the load through the
shaft of the motor. It is impossible to transmit the entire power developed by the armature to
the load. This is because while transmitting the power through the shaft, there is a power loss
due the friction, windage and the iron loss. The torque required to overcome theses losses is
called lost torque, denoted as Tf. These losses are also called stray losses.
The torque which is available at the shaft for doing the useful work is known as load
torque or shaft torque denoted as T sh. The shaft torque magnitude is always less than the
armature torque, (Tsh < Ta).
The speed of the motor remains same all along the shaft say N r.p.m. Then the product
of shaft torque Tsh and the angular speed ω rad/sec is called power available at the shaft i.e.
net output of the motor. The maximum power a motor can deliver to the load safely is called
output rating of a motor. Generally it is expressed in H.P. It is called H.P. rating of a motor.
No Load Condition of a Motor:
On no load, the load requirement is absent. So T sh = 0. This does not mean that motor
is at hault. The motor can be rotate at a speed say r.p.m. on no load. The motor draws an
armature current of Ia0.
Where Eb0 is back e.m.f. on no load, proportional to speed

N0. Now armature torque Ta for a motor is,
Ta α ΦIa
As flux is present and armature current is present, hence Ta0 i.e. armature torque exists
on no load.
Now Ta = Tsh +Ta
but on no load, Tsh = 0
So on no load, motor keeps on rotating at a speed of N 0 r.p.m. drawing an

armature current of Ia0. This is just enough to produce a torque T a0 which satisfies the
friction, windage and iron losses of the motor. On no load, speed of the motor is large
hence Eb0 is also large hence (V - E b0) is very small hence armature current I a0 is also
small. So motor draws lees current on no load and takes more and more current as
motor load increases. So on no load, Torque developed = Torque required to overcome

friction, wind age, iron losses.
Where Eb0 = Back e.m.f. on noload. and
Ia0 = Armature current drawn on noload.
This component of stray losses i.e. is E b0 Ia0 practically assumed to be constant

through the load on the motor is changed from zero to the full capacity of the motor. So T f
is practically assumed constant for all load conditions.
Example 2 : A 4 pole, lap wound d.c. motor has 540 conductors. Its speed found to be 1000
r.p.m. when it is made to run light. The flux per pole is 25 mWb. It is connected to i) Induced
e.m.f. ii) Armature current iii) Stray losses iv) Lost torque
Solution: given P = 4, A = P = 4
Running light means it is on no load.
.
. . N0 = 1000 r.p.m.
-3
Z = 540 and Φ = 25 x 10 Wb
. -3
.. e= (ΦPN0 Z)/(60A) = (25 x 10 x 4 x 1000 x 540)/(60 x 4) = 225 V
(i) Induced e.m.f., Eb0 = 225 V
(ii) From voltage equation, V = Eb + IaRa
... V = Eb0 + Ia0Ra
.
.. 230 = 225 + Ia0 x 0.8
.
.. Ia0 = 6.25 A
(iii) On no load, power developed is fully the power required to overcome stray losses.
.
. . Stray losses = Eb0 Ia0 = 225 x 6.25 = 1406.25 W
iv) Lost torque = (Eb0 Ia0)/ ωa0 = 1406.25/(2πN0 /60) = (1406.25 x 60)/(2x1000) =13.428
N-m.
4.11 Torque and Speed Equations:
Before analysing the various characteristics of motors, let us revise the torque and
speed equations are applied to various types of motors.
.
.. T α Φ Ia from torque equation.
This is because, 0.159(PZ)/A is a constant for a given motor. Now Φ is the flux produced
by the field winding and is proportional to the current passing through the field winding.
Φ α Ifield
But for various types of motors, current through the field winding is different.
Accordingly torque equation must be modified. For a d.c. shunt motor, I sh is constant as
long as supply voltage is constant. Hence Φ flux is also constant.
.
. . T α Ia for shunt motors
Ise is same as Ia. Hence flux Φ is proportional to the armature current I a. For a d.c. series
motor,
. 2
. . aT α Ia α I for series motors.
Similarly as Eb = (ΦPNZ)(60A), we can write the speed equation as,
Eb α Φ N
.
. . N α Eb/Φ
But V = E b + Ia R a neglecting brush drop
... E b = V - I a Ra
.
. . Speed equation becomes, N α (V-Ia Ra)/Φ So
for shunt motor as flux is constant, N α V - Ia Ra While for
series motor, flux Φ is proportional to Ia.
Speed Regulation:
The speed regulation for a d.c. motor is defined as the ratio of change in speed corresponding to
no load and full load condition to speed corresponding to full load.
Mathematically it is expressed as,
4.12 SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR:

Introduction:
It is known that the electric supply used, now a days for commercial as well as domestic
purposes, is of alternating type. Similar to d.c. machines, the a.c. machines associated with
alternating voltages, are also classified as generators and motors.The machines generating
a.c. e.m.f. are called alternators or synchronous generators. While the machine accepting
input from a.c. supply to produce mechanical output are called synchronous motors. Both
these machines work at a specific constant speed called synchronous speed and hence in
general called synchronous machines.
All the modern power stations consists of large capacity three phase alternators. In this
chapter, the construction, working principle and the e.m.f. equation of three phase alternator
is discussed.
Difference between D.C. Generator and Alternator:
It is seen that in case of a d.c. generator, basically the nature of the induced e.m.f. in
the armature conductors is of alternating type. By using commutator and brush assembly it is
converted to d.c. and made available to the external circuit. If commutator is dropped from a
d.c. generator and induced e.m.f. is tapped from an armature directly outside, the nature of
such
e.m.f. will be alternating. Such a machine without commutator, providing an a.c. e.m.f. to the
external circuit is called an alternator. The obvious question is how is it possible to collect an
e.m.f. from the rotating armature without commutator?
Note : So the arrangement which is used to collect an induced e.m.f. from the rotating
armature and make it available to the stationary circuit is called slip ring and brush assembly.
Whenever there is a need of developing a contact between rotating element and the stationary
circuit without conversion of an e.m.f. from a.c. to d.c., the slip rings and brush assembly can
be used.
In case of three phase alternators, the armature consist of three phase winding and an
a.c. e.m.f. gets induced in these windings. After connecting windings in star or delta, the
three ends of the windings are brought out. Across these terminals three phase supply is
available. But the armature i.e. these terminals are rotating and hence stationary load can not
be connected directly to them. Hence slip rings, made up of conducting material are mounted
on the shaft. Each terminal of winding is connected to an individual slip ring, permanently.
Hence three phase supply is now available across the rotating slip rings. The brushes are
resting on the slip rings, just making contact.
Note : The brushes are stationary. Hence as brushes make contact with the slip rings, the three
phase supply is now available across the brushes which are stationary.
Hence any stationary load can then by connected across these stationary terminals
available from the brushes. The schematic arrangement is shown in the Fig. 1.
Fig. 1 Arrangement of slip rings
Not only the induced e.m.f. can be taken out from the rotating winding check outside
but an induced e.m.f. can be injected to the rotating winding from outside with the help of
slip ring and brush assembly. The external voltage can be applied across the brushes, which
gets applied across the rotating due to the springs.
Now the induced e.m.f. is basically the effect of the relative motion present between an
armature and the field. Such a relative motion is achieved by rotating armature with the help
of prime mover, in case of a d.c. generator. As armature is connected to commutator in a d.c.
generator, armature must be rotating member while field as a stationary. But in case of
alternators it is possible to have,
1) The rotating armature and stationaryfield.

2) The rotating field and stationaryarmature.
Note: But practically most of the alternators prefer rotating field type construction with
stationary armature due to certain advantages.
4.13 Construction of Synchronous Generator (Stator and Rotor):
Most of the alternators prefer rotating field type of the construction. In case of
alternators the winding terminology is slightly different than in case of d.c. generators. In
alternators the stationary winding is called 'Stator' while the rotating winding is called 'Rotor'.
Constructional details of rotating field type of alternator are discussed below.
Note: so most of alternator has stator as armature and rotor as field, in practice.
Stator:
The stator is a stationary armature. This consists of a core and the slots to hold the
armature winding similar to the armature of a d.c. generator. The stator core uses a laminated
construction. It is built up of special steel stampings insulated from each other with varnish
or paper. The laminated construction is basically to keep down eddy current losses. Generally
choice of material is steel to keep down hysteresis losses.
The entire core is fabricated in a frame made of steel plates. The core has slots on its
periphery for housing the armature conductors. Frame does not carry any flux and serves as
the support to the core. Ventilation is maintained with the help of holes cast in the frame. The
section of an alternators stator is shown in the Fig. 1
Rotor: There are two types of rotors used in alternators,

1) Salient pole type, and 2) Smooth cylindrical type.
1) Salient Pole Type:
This is also called projected pole type as all the poles are projected out from the surface of
the rotor.
The poles are built up of thick steel laminations. The poles are bolted to the rotor as
shown in the Fig. 2. The pole face has been given a specific shape. The field winding is
provided on the pole shoe. These rotors have large diameter and small axial length. The
limiting factor for the size of the rotor is the centrifugal force acting on the rotating member
of the machine. As mechanical strength of salient pole type is less, this is preferred for low
speed alternators ranging from 125 r.p.m. to 500 r.p.m. The prime movers used to drive such
rotor are generally water turbines and I.C. engines.
Fig.2 Salient pole type rotor
2) Smooth Cylindrical Type:
This is also called non-salient type or non-projected pole type or round rotor construction.
The Fig. 3 shows smooth cylindrical type of rotor.
he rotor consists of small solid steel cylinder, having number of slots to accommodate the field coil. The
slots are covered at the top with the help of steel or manganese wedges. The un slotted
portions of the cylinder itself act as the poles. The poles are not projecting out and the surface
of the rotor is smooth which maintains uniform air gap between stator and the rotor. These
rotors have small diameters and large axial lengths. This is to keep peripheral speed within
limits.
The main advantage of this type is that these are mechanically very strong and thus
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Difference between Salient and Cylindrical Type of Rotor:
4.14 Working Principle of Synchronous Generator:
The alternators work on the principle of electromagnetic induction. When a relative motion
between the conductors and the flux, e.m.f. is gets induced in the conductors. The
d.c. generators also work on the same principle. The only difference in practical alternator
and a d.c. generator is that in an alternator the conductors are stationary and field is rotating.
But for understanding purpose we can always consider relative motion of conductors with
respect to the flux produced by the field winding.
Consider a relative motion of a single conductor under the magnetic field produced by
two stationary poles. The magnetic axis of the two poles produced by field is vertical, shown
dotted in the Fig.4.
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Fig. 4 Two pole alternator
Let conductor starts rotating from position 1. At this instant, the entire velocity
component is parallel to the flux lines. Hence there is no cutting of flux lines by the
conductor. So dΦ/dt at this instant is zero and hence induced e.m.f. in the conductor is also
zero. As the conductor moves from position 1 towards position 2, the part of the velocity
component becomes perpendicular to the flux lines and proportional to that, e.m.f. gets
induced in the conductor. The magnitude of such an induced e.m.f. increases as the conductor
moves from position 1 towards 2.
At position 2, the entire velocity component is perpendicular to the flux lines. Hence
there exists maximum cutting of the flux lines. And at this instant, the induced e.m.f. in the
conductor is at its maximum. As the position of conductor changes from 2 towards 3, the
velocity component perpendicular to the flux starts decreasing and hence induced e.m.f.
magnitude also starts decreasing. At position 3, again the entire velocity component is
parallel to the flux lines and hence at this instant induced e.m.f. in the conductor is zero.
As the conductor moves from 3 towards 4, the velocity component perpendicular to the
flux lines again starts increasing. But the direction of velocity component now is opposite to
the direction of velocity component existing during the movement of the conductor from
position 1 to 2. Hence an induced e.m.f. in the conductor increases but in the opposite
direction. At position 4, it achieves maxima in the opposite direction, as the entire velocity
component becomes perpendicular to the flux lines.
Again from position 4 to 1, induced e.m.f. decreased and finally at position 1, again becomes
zero. This cycle
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Fig. 5 alternating nature of the induced e.m.f.

continues as conductor rotates at a certain speed. So if we plot the magnitudes of the
induced e.m.f. against the time, we get an alternating nature of the induced e.m.f. as shown in
the Fig. 5.
Synchronous speed (Ns)

From the above expression, it is clear that for fixed number of poles, alternator has to be
rotated at a particular speed to keep the frequency of the generated e.m.f. constant at the
required value. Such a speed is called synchronous speed of the alternator denoted as Ns.
Ns=120f/p
Where f= Required frequency

In our nation, the frequency of an alternating e.m.f. is standard equal to 50 Hz. To get 50
Hz frequency, for different number of poles, alternator must be driven at different speeds
called synchronous speeds. Following table gives the values of the synchronous speeds for
the alternators having different number of poles.
UNIT-5 ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS

5.1 Introduction
• The apparatus used for switching, controlling and protecting the electrical circuits and
equipment is known as switchgear.
• The term ‘switchgear’ is a generic term encompassing a wide range of products like
circuit breakers, switches, switch fuse units, off- load isolators, HRC fuses, contactors,
earth leakage circuit breakers (ELCBs), etc. Function of a switch gear:
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• Switchgear has to perform the functions of carrying, making and breaking the normal
load current like a switch.
• In addition, it has to perform the function of clearing the fault current for which
sensing devices like current transformers, potential transformers and various types of
relays, depending on the application, are employed.
• There also has to be provision for metering, controlling and data, wherein
innumerable devices are used for achieving the switching function.
Features:
1. Complete Reliability: It is added to the power system to improve reliability. It should

not provide any interruption in the power supply, it should have smooth operation.
2. Certain discrimination: When a fault occurs on any section of the power system, the
switchgear must be able to discriminate between the faulty section and the healthy
section.
3. Quick operation:When a fault occurs on any part of the power system, the
switchgear must operate quickly so that no damage is done to generators, transformers
and other equipment by the short-circuit currents.
If the fault is not cleared quickly, it is likely to spread into healthy parts, thus endangering
complete shutdown of the system
4. Provision for manual control and instruments:Switchgear must have provision for
manual control. In case the electrical (or electronics) control fails, the necessary
operation can be carried out through manual control.
Classification of Switchgear:
Switchgear can be classified on the basis of voltage level into the following:
1. Low voltage (LV) Switchgear:
Switchgear for low voltage applications is generally rated up to 1000 V AC and 1500V
DC.
The commonly used low voltage devices include oil circuit breakers(OCBs), air circuit
breakers (ACBs), switch fuse units (SFUs), off-load isolators, HRC fuses, earth leakage
circuit breakers (ELCBs), Residual Current Protective Devices (RCCB & RCBO),
miniature circuit breakers (MCB) and moulded case circuit breakers (MCCB) etc i.e. all
the accessories required to protect the LV system.
The commonly used low voltage devices include oil circuit breakers(OCBs), air circuit
breakers (ACBs), switch fuse units (SFUs), off-load isolators, HRC fuses, earth leakage
circuit breakers (ELCBs), Residual Current Protective Devices (RCCB & RCBO),
miniature circuit breakers (MCB) and moulded case circuit breakers (MCCB) etc i.e. all
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the accessories required to protect the LV system. The most common use of this is in LV
distribution board.
2. Medium voltage (MV) Switchgear:
Switchgear for medium voltage applications is rated from 3.3 kV to 33 kV class.
It is mainly used for the distribution of electrical energy connected to various electrical
networks. They include most of the substation equipment such as minimum oil circuit
breakers, bulk oil circuit breakers, air magnetic, SF6 gas-insulated, vacuum, and
gasinsulated switchgear.
Medium voltage switchgear should be capable of, Normal ON/OFF switching operation,
short circuit current interruption, switching of capacitive currents, Switching of inductive
currents, Some special application. 3. High voltage (HV) Switchgear:
The power system deals with the voltage above 33kV is referred to as high voltage.
High voltage circuit breakers (such as SF6 Circuit breaker or Vacuum Circuit breaker) are
the main component of HV switchgear.
Hence high voltage circuit breaker should have special features for safe and reliable
operation. Faulty tripping and switching operation of high voltage circuit breakers are
comparatively very rare. Most of the time these circuit breakers remain at ON condition
and may be operated after a long period of time. So Circuit Breakers must be reliable
enough to ensure safe operation, as when required.
Indoor and Outdoor Switchgear
Indoor switchgear: For voltages below 66 kV, switchgear is generally installed indoor
because of economic considerations.
It is generally of metal-clad type. In this type of construction, all live parts are completely
enclosed in an earthed metal casing.
Outdoor Switchgear:For voltages beyond 66 kV, we install outdoor

switchgear equipment. It is because, for such voltages, the clearances between conductors
and the space required for switches, circuit breakers, transformers, and others equipment
become so great that it is not economical to install all such equipment indoor.
5.2 Components of Switchgear
However, the switchgear detects the fault and disconnects the unhealthy section from the
system.
Similarly, switching and current interrupting devices play a significant role in the modern
electrical network, right fromSwitchgear essentially consists of switching and protecting
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devices such as switches, fuses, isolators, circuit breakers, protective relays, control
panels, lightning arrestors, current transformers, potential transformers, auto reclosures,
and various associated equipment.
The term LT Switchgear includes low voltage Circuit Breakers, Switches, off load
electrical isolators, HRC fuses, Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker, Miniature Circuit Breakers
(MCB) and Molded Case Circuit Breakers (MCCB) etc i.e. all the accessories required to
protect the LV system.
During normal operation, switchgear permits to switch on or off generators, transmission

lines, distributors and other electrical equipment. On the other hand, when a failure (e.g.
short circuit) occurs on any part of the power system, a heavy current flows through the
equipment, threatening damage to the equipment and interruption of service to the
customers generating stations, transmission substations at different voltages, distribution
substations, and load centers. The switching device here is called a circuit breaker.
• The circuit breaker, along with associated devices for protection, metering, and
control regulation, is called switchgear.
5.3 Switchgear Equipment
A switch is a device which is used to open or close an electrical circuit in a convenient way.
It can be used under full-load or no-load conditions but it cannot interrupt the fault currents.
• i.Air-break switch –It is an air switch and is designed to open a circuit under load. In
order to quench the arc that occurs on opening such a switch, special arcing horns are
provided. Read different types of air break switch.
• ii.Isolator or disconnecting switch – It is essentially a knife switch and is designed
to open a circuit under no load.
• iii.Oil switches – As the name implies, the contacts of such switches are opened under
oil, usually transformer oil.
5.4 Fuse:
A fuse is a short piece of wire or thin strip which melts when excessive current flows
through sufficient time.The electrical equipment are designed to carry a particular rated
value of current under normal conditions. Under abnormal conditions such as short
circuits, overload, or any fault; the current rises above this value, damaging the equipment
and sometimes resulting in fire hazard. Fuses come into operation under fault conditions.
Under normal operating conditions it designed to carry the full load current. If the current
increases beyond this designed value due to any of the reasons mentioned above, the fuse
melts, isolating the power supply from the load.
(a) Desirable characteristics of a Fuse Element:
The material used foe fuse wires must have the following characteristics:
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i. Low melting point e.g., tin, lead.

ii. High conductivity e.g., copper.
iii. Free from deterioration due oxidation e.g., silver.
iv. Low cost e.g., tin, copper.
(b) Materials: Material used are tin lead or silver having low melting points. Use of
copper or iron is dangerous, though tinned copper may be used.
(c) Types of Fuses: Fuses are classified into following types (i) Re-wirable or kit-Kat
fuse and (ii) High rupturing capacity (H.R.C) cartridge fuse
1. Re-wirable or Kit-Kat Fuse:
Re-wirable fuse is used where low values of fault current are to be interrupted. These fuses
are simple in construction, cheap and available up to a current rating of 200A.
They are erratic in operation and their performance deteriorates with time. An image of re-
wirable fuse is as shown in figure (12.7)
2. High Rupturing Capacity (HRC) Cartridge Fuse:
Figure (12.8) shown an image of HRC cartridge fuse and figure (12.9) shown the essential
parts of a typical HRC cartridge fuse. It consists of a heat resisting ceramic body having
metal end-caps to which a silver current-carrying element is welded. The space within the
body surrounding the elements is completely packed with a filling powder. The filling
material my be chalk, plaster of Paris, quartz or marble dust and acts as an arc quenching
and cooling medium.
Therefore, it carries the normal current without overheating Under normal loading
conditions, the fuse element is at a temperature below its melting point. When a fault
occurs, the current increases and the fuse element melts before the fault current reaches its
first peak. The heat produced in the process vaporizes the melted silver element. The
chemical reaction between the silver vapors and the filling powder results in the formation
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of a high resistance substance which helps in quenching the arc.
5.5 Circuit Breaker
A circuits breaker essentially consists of fixed and moving contacts, called electrodes.
Under normal operating conditions, these contacts remain closed and will not open
automatically until and unless the system becomes faulty. The contacts can be opened
manually or by remote control whenever desired. When a fault occurs in any part of the
system, the trip coils of the breaker get energized and the moving contacts are pulled apart
by some mechanism, thus opening the circuits.
The main types of circuits breakers are
i. Miniature circuits breakers (MCB) ii. Earth leakage circuits breakers

(ELCB) or Residual Current Breaker (RCCB) iii. Air blast Circuits Breaker
(ACB) iv. Molded Case Circuits Breakers (MCCB) v. Vacuum Circuits Breaker
(VCB) vi. SF6 Circuits Breaker
1.Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB): Minimum circuits breakers are electromechanical
devices which protect an electrical circuits from over currents. Over currents in an
electrical circuit may results from short circuits overload, or faulty design.
An MCB is better alternative than fuse, since it does not require replacement once an
overload is detected. An MCB functions by interrupting the continuity of electrical flow
through the circuits once a fault is detected. In simple terms, MCB is a switch which
automatically turns off when the current flowing through it passes the maximum allowable
limit.
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Generally MCB is designed to protect against over current and over temperature faults
(over heating). Working Principle: There are two contact - one is fixed and the other is
moveable.
When the current exceeds the predefined limit, a solenoid forces the moveable contact to
open (i.e., disconnect from the fixed contact) and the MCB turns off, thereby stopping the
current from flowing in the circuits.
Operation : An image of MCB is shown in figure (12.10) and internal parts of an MCB
are shown in figure (12.11). It mainly consists of one bimetallic strip, one trip coil and
one hand operated on-off lever. Electric current carrying path of a MCB is as follows –
first left hand side power terminal-then bimetallic strip - then current coil - then moving
contact - then fixed contact and - lastly right hand side power terminal, and all are
arranged in series.
if circuits is overload for a long time, the bi -metallic strip becomes over heated and
deformed. This deformation of bi-metallic strip causes displacement of latch point. The
moving contact of the MCB is so arranged by means of spring, with this latch point, that a
little displacement of latch causes releases of spring and makes the moving contact to
move for opening the MCB.
The current coil or trip coil placed in such a manner that during SC faults, the MMF of that
coil causes its plunger to hit the same latch point and force the latch to be displaced.
Hence, the MCB will open in the same manner.
Again, when operating lever of the MCB is operated by hand, that means when we make
the MCB at off position manually, the same latch point is displaced as a result moving
contact separated from fixed contact in same manner.
So, whatever may be the operating mechanism, i.e., may be due to deformation of bi-
metallic strip or may be due to increased MMF of trip coil or may be due to manual
operation - actually the same latch point is displaced and the deformed spring is released,
which is ultimately responsible for movement of the moving contact.
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When the moving contacts is separated from fixed contact, there may be a high chance of
arc. This are then goes up thorough the arc runner and enters into arc splitters and is finally
quenched. When we switch on the MCB, we actually reset the displaced operating
latch to its previous on position and make the MCB ready for another switch off or trip
operation.
These are available in single pole, double pole, triple pole, and four pole versions with
neutral poles, if required. The normal current ratings are available from 0.5-63 A with a
sym-metrical short circuits rupturing capacity of 3-10kA, at a voltage level of 230/440v.
MCBs are generally designed to trip within 2.5 millisecond when an over current fault
arises. In case of temperature rise or over heating it may take 2 seconds to 2 min. For the
MCB to trip
Advantages :
i. MCBs are replacing the re-wireable switch i.e., fuse units for low power domestic and
industrial applications.
ii. The disadvantages of fuses, like low SC interrupting capacity (say 3kA), Etc. Are
overcome with high SC breaking capacity of 10kA.
iii. MCB is combination of all three functions in a wiring system like switching, overload and short circuits
protection. Overload protection can be obtained by using bi-metallic strips where as shorts
circuits protection can be obtained by using solenoid
Earth Leakage Circuits Breaker (ELCB): None of the protection devices like MCB,
MCCB, etc. Can protect the human life against electric shocks or avoid fire due to leakage
current.
The human resistance noticeably drops with an increase in voltage. It also depends upon
the duration of impressed voltage and drops with increase in time.
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As per IS code, a contact potential of 65V is within tolerable limit of human body for 10
seconds, where as 250V can be withstood by human body for 100 milliseconds. The actual
effect of current thorough human body varies from person to person with reference to
magnitude and duration. The body resistance at 10V is assessed to be 19 kΩ for 1 second
and 8kΩ for 15 min.
At 240V, 3 to 3.6 kΩ for dry skin and 1-1.2 kΩ for wet skin. An Earth Leakage Circuits
Breakers (ELCB) is a device used to directly detect currents leaking to earth from an
installation and cut the power. There are two types of ELCBs:
(i) Voltage Earth Leakage Circuits Breaker (voltage -ELCB)
(ii) Current Earth Leakage Circuits Breaker (Current -ELCB)
(i) Voltage Earth Leakage Circuits Breaker (voltage -ELCB): Voltage –ELCB is a
voltage operated circuits breaker. The device will function when the current passes
thorough the ELCB.
Voltage-ELCB contains relay coil and one end of the coil is connected to metallic load
body and the other end is connected to ground wire as shown in figure (12.12).
If the voltage of the equipment body rises (by touching phase to metal part or insulation
failure of equipment), which could cause the difference between earth and load body
voltage and the danger of electric shock will occur.
This voltage difference will produce an electric current from the load metallic body and
phase through the loop to the Earth. When voltage on the equipment metallic body rises to
danger level i.e., which exceed to 50V, the flowing current through relay loop could move
the relay contact by disconnecting the supply current avoid from any danger electric
shock.
The ELCB detects fault currents from line to the earth (ground) wire within the installation
it protects. If sufficient voltage appears across the ELCB’s sensing coil, it will switch off
the power, and remain off until manually reset. A voltage – sensing ELCB does not sense
fault current from line to any other earthed body.
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Fig:12:12
(i) Current Earth Leakage Circuits Breaker (Current -ELCB): Current –ELCB is a
current operated circuits breaker which is a commonly used ELCB. Current-ELCB
consists of a 3- winding transformer, which has two primary windings and 1 secondary
winding as shown in figure (12.13).
Neutral and line wires act as the two primary windings. A wire wound coil is the secondary
winding. The current thorough the secondary winding is zero at the balanced condition. In
the balanced condition, the flux due to current through the phase wire will be neutralized
by the current through the neutral wire, since the current which flows from the phase will
be returned back to the neutral. When a fault occurs, a small current will flow to the
ground also.
This makes an unbalanced between line and neutral currents and creates an unbalanced
magnetic field. This induces a current through the secondary winding, which is connected
to the sensing circuits. This will sense the leakage and send a signal to the tripping system
and trips the contact.
Molded Case Circuits Breaker(MCCB):
Molded case circuits breakers are electromechanical devices which protect a circuits from
over current and short circuits. They provide over current and short circuits protection for
circuits ranging from 63A up to 3000 A.
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Their primary function are to provide a means to manually open a circuits and
automatically open a circuits under overload or short circuits conditions respectively. The
over current, in an electrical circuit, may result from short circuits, overload of faulty
design. MCCB is an alternative to a fuse, since it does not require replacement once an
overload is detected.
Unlike a fuse, an MCCB can be easily reset after a fault and offer improved operational
safety and convenience without incurring operating cost.
Molded case circuits breakers generally have a
i. Thermal element for over current and ii. Magnetic element for short
circuits release which has to operate faster.
The MCCBs are comprised of five major components such as molded case or frame
operating mechanism, arc extinguishers, contacts and trip components as shown in figure
(12.14)
are manufactured such that the end user will not have access to internal workings of the over-current
protection device. Generally constructed of two pieces of heavy-duty electrically insulated
plastic, these halves are riveted together to form the whole. Inside the plastic shell is series
of thermal elements and a spring-loaded trigger. When the thermal element gets too warm,
from an over current situation, the spring trips, which in turn will shut off the electrical
circuits.
Operating mechanism:
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At its core, the protection mechanism employed by MCCBs is based on the same physical
principles used by all type of thermal – magnetic circuits breakers. Overload protection is
accomplished by means of a thermal mechanism. MCCBs have a bimetallic contact that
expands and contacts in response to changes on temperature. Under normal operating
conditions, the contact allows electric current through the MCCB.
However as soon as the current exceeds the adjusted trip value, the contact will start to
heat and expend until the circuits the circuit is interrupted. The thermal protection against
overload is designed with a time delay to allow short duration over current, which is a
normal part of operation for many devices. However, any over current conditions that last
more than what is normally expected represent an overload, and the MCCB is tripped to
protect the equipment and personnel.
On the other hand, fault protection is accomplished with electromagnetic induction, and
the response is instant. Fault currents should be interrupted immediately, no matter if their
duration is short or long. Whenever a fault occurs, the extremely high current induces a
magnetic field in a solenoid coillocated inside the breaker – this magnetic induction trips a
contact and current it interrupted. As a complement to the magnetic protection mechanism,
MCCBs have internal arc dissipation measure to facilitate interruption. As with all types of
circuits breakers, the MCCB includes a disconnection switch which is used to trip the
breaker manually. It is used whenever the electric supply must be disconnected to carry
out field work such as maintenance or equipment upgrades. Applications :
Molded case circuits breakers can have very high current ratings, which allows them to be
used in heavy duty applications such as main electric feeder protection, capacitor bank
protection, generator protection, welding applications, low current application that require
adjustable trip setting and motor protection. Safety precautions in Handling Electrical
Appliance: It is essentially important to take precautions when we are working with
electricity and using electrical appliances.
Here, some of the basic precautions are mentioned for safe usage of electrical appliance
:
(i) Follow the manufacturer’s instructions : Always read the manufacture’s

instructions carefully before using a new appliance.
(ii) Replace or repair damaged power cords : Exposed wiring is a danger that
cannot be ignored. If you see the protective coating on a wire is stripped away,
be sure to replace it or cover it with electrical tape as soon as possible.
(iii) Keep electrical equipment or outlets away from water : Avoid water at all
times when working with electricity. Never touch or repairing any electrical
equipment or circuits with wet hands. It increases the conductivity of electrical
current. Keep all electrical appliance away from water such as sinks, bathtubs,
pools or overhead vents that may drip.
(iv) use insulated tools while working : Always use appropriate insulated rubber
gloves, goggles, protective clothes and shoes with insulated soles while
working on any branch circuits or any other electrical circuits.
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Use only tools and equipment with non-conducting handles when working on electrical
devices. Never use metallic pencils or rulers or wear rings or metal watchbands when
working with electrical equipment as they cause a strong electric shock.|
(v) Don’t overload your outlets : Every outlet in your home is designed to deliver
a certain amount of electricity; by plugging too many devices into it at once,
you could cause a small explosion or a fire. If you have a lot of things to plug
in, use a power strip that can safely accommodate your needs.
(vi) Shut-off the power supply : Always make sure that the power source should be
shut- off before performing any work related to electricity. For example;
inspecting, installing, maintaining or repairing.
(vii) Avoid extension cords as much as possible : Running extension cords through
the house can trip up residence; this can cause injury and damage to the wire
or outlet if it cause the cord to be ripped out of the wall. If you find yourself
using extension cords very often, consider having an electrician install new
outlets throughout your home.
(viii) When to repair : Everyone want to have the safe electrical environment.
Equipment producing “tingle” sound should be disconnected and reported promptly for
repair.
(ix) Avoid the usage of flammable liquids : Never use highly flammable liquids
near electrical equipment. Never touch another person’s equipment or
electrical control devices unless instructed to do so.
(x) Use electric tester : Never try repairing energized equipment. Always check
that it is de-energized first by using a tester. When an electric tester touches a
live or hot wire, the bulb inside the tester lights up showing that an electrical
current is flowing through the respective wire. Check all the wires, the outer
metallic covering of the service panel any other hanging wires with an
electrical tester before proceeding with your work.
(xi) In case of electric shock : If an individual comes in contact with a live

electrical conductor, do not touch the equipment, cord person. Disconnect the
power source from the circuits breaker or pull out the plug using a leather belt.
By enclosing all electric conductors and contacts can save people from getting
the electric shock. Use three-pin plugs, which have earth wire connection
which prevents electrical shock.
(xii) Display danger board : Danger board should be displayed at the work place.
We should not allow any unauthorized person to enter in the working place
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and we should not put any new equipment into the service without necessary
testing by the concern authority
(xiii) Usage of proper ladder : Never use an aluminium or steel ladder if you are
working on any receptacle at height in your home. An electrical surge will
ground you and the whole electric current will pass through your body. Use a
bamboo, wooden or a fiberglass ladder instead.
(xiv) Usage of circuits breaker or fuse : Always use a circuits breaker or fuse with
the appropriate current rating. Circuits breakers and fuses are protection
devices that automatically disconnect the live wire a condition of short circuits
or over current occurs. The selection of the appropriate fuse or circuit breaker
is essential. Normally for protection against short circuits a fuse rated of 150%
of the normal circuit current is selected. In the case of a circuit with 10
amperes of current, a 15 ampere fuse will against direct short circuits a 9.5
amperes fuse will blow out.
(xv) Use ceiling on live wire : Always put a cap on the hot/live wire while working
on an electric board or service panel as you could end up short circuiting the
bare ends of the live wire with the neutral. The cap insulates the copper ends
of the cable thus preventing any kind of shock even if touched mistakenly.
(xvi) Precaution during soldering : Always take care while soldering your circuits
boards. Wear goggles and keep yourself away from the fumes. Keep the solder
iron in its stand when not in use; it can get extremely hot and can easily cause
burns.
(xvii) Things to remember: The circuits is bad, electricity appliances are not working
well, and lights are fluctuating. It means you need an electrical inspection or
repair. In this case, either you’ll call an electrician or do it yourself. So if you
are trying to repair, always remember that your hands are well dry, you have
essential tools, rubber gloves & shoe are good, As all these acts as an insulator.
Do not wear loose clothing or tied near electrical equipment.
(xviii) Keep heaters away from bedclothes, clothing and curtains to avoid risk fire.
Be extra careful when using electrical appliances attached to power outlets
near kitchen or bathroom sinks, tubs, swimming pools, and other wet areas.
Don’t cover an electric heater with clothing or other items.
VACCUME CIRCUIT BREAKER
In a Vacuum circuit breaker, vacuum interrupters are used for breaking and making load
and fault currents. When the contacts in vacuum interrupter separate, the current to be
interrupted initiates a metal vapour arc discharge and flows through the plasma until the
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next current zero.The arc is then extinguished and the conductive metal vapour condenses
on the metal surfaces within a matter of micro seconds. As a result the dielectric strength
in the breaker builds up very rapidly.
SF6 CIRCUIT BREAKER
In an SF6 circuit-breaker, the current continues to flow after contact separation through the
arc whose plasma consists of ionized SF6 gas. For, as long as it is burning, the arc is
subjected to a constant flow of gas which extracts heat from it. The arc is extinguished at a
current zero, when the heat is extracted by the falling current. The continuing flow of gas
finally de-ionises the contact gap and establishes the dielectric strength required to prevent
a re-strike.
Types of Wires and Cables
Wire and cable: The use of Conductors and their insulation is regulated by Indian
Electricity (IE) regulation and Indian Standard (IS) Code Of Practice. Wires and cables are
the most common forms of conductors. They carry electric current through all types of
circuits and systems. A conductor is a wire or cable or any other form of mental, suitable
for carrying current from generating station the point where it is used.
Difference Between Wire and Cable:
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According to Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS), wire and cable can be defined as follows:
Bare Conductors:They have no covering. The best example is overhead transmission and
distribution lines.
Wire: If bare conductors are provided with Insulation, then it is known as a wire.
The insulation separates the conductor electrically from other conductors.
Cable: It consists of two or more conductors covered with suitable insulation and
surrounded by a protecting cover. The necessary requirements of a cable are that it should
conduct electricity efficiently, cheaply, and safely. This should neither be so small that it
has a large internal voltage drop nor be too large so that it costs too much. Its insulation
should be such that it prevents leakage of current in unwanted direction to minimize risk
of fire and shock.
The cable essentially consists of three parts:
(i) Conductor or core- the metal wire, or strand of wires, carrying the current
(ii) insulation of dielectric- a covering of insulating material to avoid leakage of
current from the conductor and
(iii) protective covering for protection of insulation from mechanical damage Basically,
there is no difference between a cable and a wire. It is a relative term. The term
cable is used for all heavy section insulated conductors, whereas a wire means a
thin (i.e., smaller) section insulated conductor used for carrying current from one
point to another point.
5.6 Classifications of Wire / Cables:
The wires/ cables used for domestic or industrial wiring are classified into different groups
as follows:
(i) According to the conductor material used

(a) Copper conductor cables
(b) Aluminium conductor cable
(ii) According to number of cores
(a) Singles core cable (SCC)
(b) Double core or twin core cables (DCC)
(c) Three core cables
(d) four core cables
(e) Two core with earth continuity conductor cables
(iii) According to type of insulation
(a) Vulcanized Indian rubber (VIR) insulated wires/cables
(b) Tough rubber sheathed (TRS) or cable tyre sheathed (CTS) cables
(c) Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) cables
(d) Lead sheathed cables
(e) Weather proof cables
(f) Flexible cords and cables
(g) XLPE cables
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(IV) According to the voltage at which they are manufactured
(a) Low tension (LT) cables – up to 1000V

(b) High tension (HT) cables – up to 11kV
(c) Super tension (ST) cables – from 22-33kV
(d) Extra high tension (EHT) cables – from 33-66kV
(e) Extra super voltage cables – beyond 132 kV Specifications of Cables:
Cables are specified by providing

(i) Size of the cable in metric system (e.g., 19/2.24, 7/1.70, 7/2.24, 7/2.50 etc) giving
the Number of strands used and diameter of each strand, or giving the area of
cross- section of conductor used.
(ii) Type of conductor used in cables (copper or aluminium)
(iii) Number of cores that cable consists of e.g. single core, twin core, three core, four
core etc.
(iv) Voltage grade (240/415V or 650/1100V grade)
(v) Type of cable with clear description regarding insulation, shielding, armouring,
bedding etc.
A few specifications of a cable are given below:
(i) 7/20, VIR, aluminium conductor, twin core,650/1100 grade. in this case, the
numerator 7 indicates the number of stands in cable and denominator 20 represents
the gauge number of each strand. The cable has two cores made with Aluminium,
With VIR insulation and is used for 650/1100 voltage
(ii) (ii) 19/1.12, aluminium conductor,3 ½ core, 1100V, PVC cable, PVC sheathed.in
this case, the cable consists of 19 strands, each strand has a diameter of 1.12mm.
The conductor is made with aluminium, insulation is made with PVC, is covered
with PVC sheathing, and is used for 1100Vsupply system
5.7 Earthing of Grounding:
The process of connecting the metallic frame (i.e., non- current carrying part) of electrical
equipment or some electrical part of the system (e.g., neutral point in a star-connected
system, one conductor of the secondary of a transformer, etc.) to the earth (i.e., soil) is
called grounding or Earthing. The potential of the earth is to be considered zero for all
practical purposes. Earthing is to connect any electrical equipment to earth with a very low
resistance wire, making it to attain earth’s potential, This ensures safe discharge of
electrical energy due to failure of the insulation line coming in contact with the casing, etc.
Earthing brings the potential of the body of the equipment to zero i.e., to the earth’s
potential, thus protecting the operating personnel against electrical shock.
The earth resistance is affected by the following factors:
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(a) Material properties of the earth, wire and the electrode
(b) Temperature and moisture content of the soil
(c) Depth of the pit
(d) Quantity of the charcoal used
Necessity of Earthing:
The requirement for provision of earthing can be listed as follows:
(1) To protect the operating personnel from the danger of shock.
(2) To maintain the line voltage constant, under unbalanced load condition.
(3) To avoid risk of fire due to earth leakage current through unwanted path.
(4) Protection of the equipment. (5) Protection of large buildings and all machines fed from
overhead lines against lighting.
Methods of Earthing:
The various methods of earthing in common use are

(i) Plate earthing
(ii) Pipe earthing
(iii) Rod earthing
(iv) Strip or wire earthing
(i) Plate earthing: In this method either a copper plate of 60cm × 60cm ×3.18 or GI
plate of 60cm × 60cm × 6.35 is used forearthing. The plate is buried into the ground
not less than 3m from the ground level. The earth plate is embedded in alternate
layers of coal and salt for a thickness of 15cm as shown in figure (12.4). In
addition, water is poured for keeping the earth’s electrode resistance value below a
maximum of 5Ω. The earth wire is securely bolted to the earth plate. A cement
masonry chamber is built with a cast iron cover for easy regular maintenance
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(ii) Pipe earthing: Earth electrode made of a GI (galvanized iron) pipe of 38mm in
diameter and length of 2m (depending on the current) with 12mm holes on the
surface is placed upright at a depth of 4.75cm in a permanently wet ground. To keep
the value of the earth resistance at the desired level, the area (15 cm ) surrounding
the GI pipe is filled with a mixture of salt and coal. The efficiency of the earthing
system is improved by pouring water through the funnel periodically. The GI earth
wires of sufficient cross-sectional area are run through a 12.7mm diameter pipe (at
60cm below) from the 19mm diameter pipe and secured tightly at the top as shown
in figure (12.5)
When compared to the plate earth system the pipe earth system can carry larger leakage
currents due to larger surface area is in contact with the soil for given electrode size. This
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system also enables easy maintenance as the earth wire connection is housed at the ground
levels.
(iii) Rod earthing: It is the same method as pipe earthing, A copper rod of 12.5cm (1/2
inch) diameter or 16mm (0.6in) diameter of galvanized steel or hollow section
25mm (1 inch) of GI pipe of length above 2.5m (8.2 ft) are buried upright in the
earth manually or with the help of a pneumatic hammer. The length of embedded
electrodes in the soil reduces earth resistance to a desired value.
(iv) Strip or wire earthing:In this method of earthing strip electrodes of cross- section
not less than 25mm × 1.6mm (1 in × 0.06in) is buried in a horizontal trench of a
minimum depth of 0.5m.
If copper with a cross-section of 25mm × 4mm (1in × 0.15in ) is used and a dimension of
3.0 mm2 if it’s a galvanized iron or steel.
If at all round conductors are used, their cross-section area should not be too small, say
less than 6.0 mm2 if it’s a galvanized iron or steel.
The length of the conductor buried in the ground would give a sufficient earth resistance
and this length should not be less than 15m.
The electrodes shall be as widely distributed as possible in a single straight or circular

trench radiating from a point.
This type of earthing is used where the earth bed has a rocky soil and excavation work is
difficult. Selection of Earthing:
The type of earthing to be provided depends on many factors such as type of soil, type of
installation, etc..
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The following table helps in selecting a type of earthing for a particular application
Earth Resistance: The earth resistance should be kept as low as possible so that the
neutral of any electrical system, which is earthed, is maintained almost at the earth
potential.
The earth resistance for copper wire is 1Ω and that of GI wire less than 3Ω. The typical
value of the earth resistance at large power stations is 0.5Ω , major substations is 1Ω,
small sub-stations is 2 Ω and
in all other cases 5 Ω.
The resistance of the earth depends on the following factors i.Condition of
soil.
ii. Moisture content of soil.

iii. Temperature of soil.
iv. Depth of electrode at which it is embedded.
v. Size, material and spacing of earth electrode.

vi. Quality and quantity of coal and salt in the earth pit.
Difference Between Earth Wire and Neutral Wire:
Neutral Wire :
(i) In a 3-phase 4-wire system, the fourth wire is a neutral wire.

(ii) IT acts a return path for 3-phase currents when the load is not balanced.
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(iii) IN domestic single phase AC circuit, the neutral wire acts as return path for the line
current Earth Wire :
(i) Earth wire is actually connected to the general mass of the earth and metallic body of
the equipment
(ii) It is provided to transfer any leakage current from the metallic body to the earth.
5.8 Batteries:
A battery is a devices which converts chemical energy into electrical energy and is made
up of a number of cells. Batteries consists of two or more voltaic cell that are connected in
series to provide a steady DC voltage at the battery’s output terminals.
The voltage is produced by a chemical reaction inside the cell. Electrodes are immersed in
an electrolyte, which forces the electric charge to separate in the from of ions and free
electrons. A battery’s voltage output and current rating are determined by the elements
used for the electrodes, the size of the electrodes, and the type of electrolyte used. Whether
a battery may be recharged or not depends on the cells used to make up the
battery. Batteries are classified into two types such as primary batteries and secondary
batteries
(i) Primary Batteries As the name indicates, these batteries are meats for single usage.
Once these batteries are used they cannot be recharged as the devices are not easily
reversible and active material may not return to their original forms. Other name for these
batteries is disposable batteries. Some of the example for the disposable batteries are the
normal AA, AAA batteries which we use in wall clocks, television remote, etc.
(ii) Secondary Batteries :These are also known as rechargeable batteries. These batteries
can be used and charged simultaneously. A secondary battery or storage battery can be
recharged because its chemical reaction is reversible. Rechargeable batteries are (re)
charged by applying electric current, which reverses the chemical reactions that occur
during discharge/use. Some of the examples for rechargeable batteries are the batteries
used in mobile phones MP3 players, etc
Types of primary Cells/Batteries: There are several types of primary cells in use today,
such as
(i) Carbon- zinc dry cell

(ii) Alkaline cell
(iii) Zinc chloride cell
(iv) Mercury cell
(v) Silver oxide cell
(vi) Lithium cell
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(i) Carbon- zinc dry cell
(a) This is one the most popular primary cells (often used for type AAA, AA, D)
(b) The negative electrode is made of zinc
(c) The positive electrode is made of carbon.
(d) The output voltage of a single cell is about 1.5 V.
(e) Performance of the cell is better with intermittent operation.
(ii) Alkaline cell
(i) The alkaline cell is another popular type also used for type AA, C, D, etc.
(ii) It has the same 1.5V output as carbon- zinc cells, but they are longer -lasting.
(iii) It consists of a zinc anode and manganese dioxide cathode in an alkaline electrolyte
(potassium hydroxide)
(iv) It works with high efficiency even with continuous use, due to low internal resistance.
(iii) Zinc chloride cell
(i) This cell is also referred to as a “heavy-duty” type battery (ii)

It is modified zinc-carbon cell.
(iii) It has little chance of liquid leakage because the cell consumes water along with the
chemically active materials. The cell is usually dry at the end of its useful life.
(iv) Mercury cell
(i) This cell consists of a zinc anode, mercury compound cathode, and potassium or
sodium hydroxide electrolyte.
(ii) It is becoming obsolete due to the hazards associated with proper disposal of mercury.
(v) Silver oxide cell
(i) This cell consists of a zinc anode, silver oxide cathode, and potassium of sodium
hydroxide electrolyte. (ii) It is typically available as 1.5V, miniature button form.
(iii) Applications include hearing aids, cameras, and watches

(vi) Lithium cell
(i) This cell offers high output voltage, long shelf life, low weight, and small volume.
(ii) It comes in two forms of 3V output in widespread use:
(a) Lithium-sulfur dioxide(LiSO2 ).
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(b) Lithium- thionyl chloride.
(iii) LiSO2 type batteries contain methyl cyanide liquid solvent; if its container is
punctured (iv) Safe disposal of these cells is critical.
Types of Secondary Cells/Batteries: There are several types of secondary cells in use today, such
as
(i) Lead-acid cell

(ii) Nickel cadmium (NiCd) cell
(iii) Lithium-ion battery
(iv) Nickel-metal- hydride (NiMH) cell

(v) Nickel-iron (Edison) cell
(vi) Fuel cell
(vii)Solar cell
(i) Lead-acid cell:
(a) This cell is a widely applied type of secondary cell, used extensively in automobiles
inverters, backup power system, etc. Requiring high values of load current.
(b) Anode: Porous lead
(c) Cathode: Lead-dioxide
(d) Electrolyte: Sulfuric acid, 6 molar H2SO4
(e) The output is about 2.1 V per cell.
(f) Cells are typically used in series combinations of 3 (6V battery) or 6 (12V battery)
(ii) Nickel cadmium (NiCd) cell:
(a) This type of cell delivers high current.
(b) It can be recharged many times.
(c) Anode: Nickel hydroxide Ni(OH)2
(d) Cathode: Cadmium hydroxide, Cd(OH)2
(e) Electrolyte : Cadmium hydroxide, KOH
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(f) Maintain a steady voltage of 1.2V per cell until completely depleted
(g) It can be stored for long periods of times.
(h) Its specific gravity does not charge with the state of charge.
(I) Applications include portable power tools, alarm systems, portable radio and TV
equipment. (iii) Lithium-ion battery:
(i) Li-based cells are most compact ways of storing electrical energy.
(ii) Lower in energy density than lithium metal, lithium-ion is safe.
(iii) Anode: Graphite
(iv) Cathode: Lithium manganese dioxide

(v) Electrolyte : mixture of lithium salts
(vi) Energy density is twice of the standard nickel-cadmium.
(vii)No memory and no scheduled cycling is required to prolong battery life.
(iii) Nickel-metal- hydride (NiMH) cell:
(i) These cells are used in applications demanding long-running battery performance
(e.g., high-end portable electrical or electronic products like power tools).
(ii) They offer 40% more capacity over a comparably-sized NiCb cell.
(iii) They contain the same components as a NiCd cell, expect for the negative electrode.
(iv) They are more expensive than NiCd cells, self-discharge more rapidly, and cannot
be cycled as frequently as NiCd cells. (v) Nickel-iron (Edison) cell:
(i) Anode: Nickel hydroxide, Ni(OH)2
(ii) Cathode: iron
(iv) Electrolyte: potassium hydroxide

(v) The specific gravity of electrolyte remains unaffected during the charging and
discharging process.
(vi) They are now almost obsolete due to lead-acid batteries
(vii) These are used in emergency lamps in hospitals and at places where the rate of
discharge and charge are rapid.
(viii) Fuel cell:
(i) A fuel cell is an electrochemical device that converts chemicals (such as hydrogen and
oxygen) into water and produces electricity in the process.
(ii) As long as the reactants (H and O) are supplied to the fuel cell, it will continually
produce electricity and never go dead, unlike conventional batteries.
(iii) Fuel cells are used extensively in the space program as sources of DC power.
(iv) They are very efficient, capable of providing hundreds of kilowatts of power.
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(ix) Solar cell:
(i) Solar cells convert the sun’s light energy into electric energy.
(ii) They are made of semiconductor materials.
(iii) They are arranged in modules that are assembled into a large solar array to produce
the required power.
(iv) An applied voltage higher than the voltage of one cell can be obtained by connecting
cells in series.
(v) The total voltage available across the battery of cells is equal to the sum of the
individual values for each cell.
(vi) Parallel cells have the same voltage as one current capacity, To provide a higher
output voltage and more current capacity, cell can be connected in series-parallel
combinations
Battery Characteristics:
There are many characteristics that can help to identify a battery that can help to identify a
battery and we can distinguish the three main ones as; chemistry, battery capacity and
voltage.
However, if the battery is only a starter, it also delivers cold cranking amps (CCA), which
permits to offer high current at cold temperatures.
(i) Chemistry The main battery chemistries are lead, nickel and lithium. They all need a
specific designated charger, this is why charging these batteries on a different charger from
their own might cause an incorrect charge, despite it seeming to work at first. This happens
because of the different regulatory requirement of each chemistry.
(ii) Battery Capacity Battery capacity is a measure (typically in Amp-hr) of the charge
stored by the battery, and is determined by the mass of active material contained in the
battery. The battery capacity represent the maximum amount of energy that can be
extracted from the battery under certain specified conditions. However, the actual energy
storage capabilities of the battery can vary significantly from the “nominal” rated capacity,
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as the battery capacity depends strongly on the age and past history of the battery, the
charging or discharging regimes of the battery and the temperature.
(iii) The energy stored in a battery, called the battery capacity, is measured in either watt-
hours (Wh), kilowatt hours (kWh), or ampere-hours (Ahr).
The most common measure of battery capacity is Ah, defined as the number of hours for
which a battery can provide a current equal to the discharge rate at the nominal voltage of
the battery. The unit of Ah is commonly used when working with battery systems as the
battery voltage will vary throughout the charging or discharging cycle.
(iv) Voltage A battery feature a nominal voltage. Along with the amount of cells
connected in series, chemistry provides the open circuits voltage (OCV), which is about 5-
7% higher on a fully charged battery. It is important to check the correct nominal voltage
of a battery before connecting it.
(v) Cold Cranking Amps (CCA) Every starter battery is marked with cold cranking
amps, also abbreviated CCA. The number denotes the amount of amps that the battery is
able to provide at -180C.
5.9 Energy Consumption Calculation:
Energy and power are closely related. Electrical energy can be measured only when
electrical power is known. So first we understand the electrical power. Electrical power it
the amount of electrical current that results from a certain amount of voltage or we can say
that power is the rate which energy is delivered. It is measured in watts. Mathematically it
is written a
Power = Voltage × Current
The measurement of electrical energy is completely dependent on power which is

measured in watt, kilowatts, megawatts, gigawatts, and time which is measured in an hour.
Joule is the smallest unit of energy.
But for some bigger calculation, some better unit it required. So, the unit used for
electrical energy is watthour.
Electrical energy is the product of electrical power and time, and it measured in joules. It
is defined as “1 joule of energy is equal to 1 watt of power is consumed for 1 second”. I.e.,
Energy = Power × Time
1 Joule = 1 watt × 1 second Watts are the basic unit of power in which electrical power is
measured or we can say that rate at which electrical current is being used at a particular
moment.
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Watt-hour is the standard unit used for measurement of energy, describing the amount of
watts used over a time.
It shows how fast the power is consumed in the period of time.
Energy in watt hours = Power in watts × Time in hours
Kilowatt-hour is simply a bigger unit of energy when large appliance drawn power in
kilowatts. It can be described as one kilowatt hour is the amount of energy drawn by the
1000 watts appliance when used for an hour.
Where, One kilowatt = 1000 watts
Energy in kilowatt hours = Power in kilowatts × Time in hours
The electrical supply companies take electric energy charges from their consumer per
kilowatt hour unit basis. This kilowatt hour is board of trade (BOT) unit.
Illustration for Energy Consumption: A consumer uses a 10 kW geezer, a 6 kW electric

furnace and five 100 W bulbs for 15 hours. How many units (kWh) of electrical energy
have been used? Explanation:
Given that Load – 1 = 10 kW geezer
Load – 2 = 6 kW electric furnace
Load – 3 = 500 watt (five 100 watt bulbs)
Total load = 10kW + 6kW + 0.5kW = 16.5kW
Time taken = 155 hours
Energy consumed = Power in kW × Time in hours = 16.5 × 15 = 247.5 kWh
For above electrical energy consumption, the tariff can be calculated as follows : 1
unit = 1kWh So, the total energy consumption = 247.5 units
If the cost per unit is 2.5, then the total cost of energy consumption
=247.5 × 2.5 = 618.75/-
Calculation of Energy consumption:
Energy consumption is measured by multiplying the number of power units consumed

within the time period over which it has been consumed. Hence, the energy consumption
formula or the power consumption formula is given as below:
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E = P*(t/1000); where E = energy measured in Joules or in kilowatt-hours (kWh), P =
power units in watts, and t = time over which the power or energy was consumed.
Thus, whenever someone asks you how to calculate power consumption, you can calculate
and give the answer using the above equation.
Energy consumption can be widely classified based on several factors such as worldwide
energy consumption, its impact on the environment, etc. Based on the idea of demographic
usage, energy consumption can be divided into the following categories:
• Worldwide Energy Supply: The worldwide energy supply is a vast area that is
defined based on the factors such as the global production and preparation of the fuel,
generation of the electricity using that fuel, the transport of energy and energy
consumption.
• Worldwide Energy Consumption: It is the overall energy consumed of the total
available output of the energy produced which is huge in number. This is done by using
the power consumption formula and calculating the total power consumption at different
levels of demographics.
• Domestic Energy Consumption: Domestic energy consumption is defined as the
total amount of energy consumed by a given household or for household work. Usually,
the power consumption of a household activity calculated using the above-given power
consumption formula may be small but when multiplied by the number of households of
the population in a given demographic the number becomes significant.
• Electric Energy Consumption: This classification is defined based specifically on

the consumption of electrical energy consumed. It does not include the amount of
mechanical energy that is used to perform work. Here, the energy consumed formula or
power consumed formula can be applied by taking the values of power units based on the
meter readings installed at various places such as household or industrial locations.
Energy consumption has been central to the development of human civilizations. White’s
Law named after Leslie white and published in 1943 states that with most of the other
factors remaining constant, “culture evolves as the amount of energy harnessed per
capacity per year is increased or as the efficiency of the instrumental means of putting the
energy to work is released”.
There are widespread effects of energy consumption worldwide. The impact of the energy
industry on the environment has been huge and mostly negative. The ever-increasing
amounts of energy being produced and the increasing rate at which the energy is
consumed has resulted in the generation of harmful factors that have immensely
contributed to the rise of Earth’s temperature significantly within a few years. Because of
coal and petroleum products being used more and more until recently to produce and fulfil
the immense needs of energy, there has been a continuous release of greenhouse gases
such as carbon dioxide and different oxides of nitrogen that have contributed significantly
to the greenhouse effect. Not only the production but the consumption of energy ranging
from household activities to industrial activities have generated and released immense
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amounts of heat energy into the atmosphere. Therefore, unchecked production from non-
renewable sources and the unchecked consumption of energy has resulted in global
warming which needs to be taken seriously and taken care of.
5.10 Tariff:
All of our houses are well supplied with electric power and we are paying money to the
government for that. Now let us discuss the cost of supplying the power to each house
monthly/yearly. That can be expressed by a term called Tariff.
The rate at which electrical energy is supplied to a consumer is known as tariff.

Although tariff should include the total cost of producing and supplying electrical energy
plus the profit, yet it cannot be the same for all types of consumers. It is because the cost
of producing electrical energy depends to a considerable extent upon the magnitude of
electrical energy consumed by the user and his load conditions. Therefore, in all fairness,
due consideration has to be given to different types of consumers (e.g., industrial,
domestic and commercial) while fixing the tariff. This makes the problem of suitable rate
making highly complicated.
Objectives of tariff: Like other commodities, electrical energy is also sold at such a rate
so that it not only returns the cost but also earns a reasonable profit.Therefore, a tariff
should include the following items :
(iii) Recovery of cost of producing electrical energy at the power station.
(iv) Recovery of cost of the capital investment in transmission and distribution systems.
(v) Recovery of cost of operation and maintenance of a supply of electrical energy e.g.,
metering equipment, billing etc. (vi) A suitable profit on the capital investment.
Desirable characteristics of Tariff:
A tariff must have the following desirable characteristics of Tariff:
(i) Proper return: The tariff should be such that it ensures the proper return from each
consumer.In other words, the total receipts from the consumers must be equal to the cost
of producing and supplying electrical energy plus a reasonable profit.This will enable the
electric supply company to ensure continuous and reliable service to the consumers.
(ii) Fairness: The tariff must be fair so that different types of consumers are satisfied
with the rate of charge of electrical energy.Thus a big consumer should be charged at a
lower rate than a small consumer.It is because increased energy consumption spreads the
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fixed charges over a greater number of units, thus reducing the overall cost of producing
electrical energy.This is the important characteristic ofTariff.
Similarly, a consumer whose load conditions do not deviate much from the ideal i.e.., non-
variable should be charged at a lower rate than the one whose load conditions change
appreciably from the ideal.
(iii) Simplicity: The tariff should be simple so that an ordinary consumer can easily
understand it.A complicated tariff may cause an opposition from the public which is
generally distrustful of supply companies.
(iv) Reasonable profit: The profit element in the tariff should be reasonable. An electric
supply company is a public utility company and generally enjoys the benefits of
monopoly.Therefore, the investment is relatively safe due to non-competition in the
market.This calls for the profit to be restricted to 8% or so per annum.
(v) Attractive: The tariff should be attractive so that a large number of consumers are
encouraged to use electrical energy.Efforts should be made to fix the tariff in such a way
so that consumers can pay easily.
The principal factors involved in fixing of a tariff are enumerated below:
1. Proper return is secured from each consumer. While fixing the tariff for different classes
of consumers, it has to be taken into account whether the tariff will result in a revenue
meeting all the expenditure of the supply authority. In addition, the tariff should bring
forth sufficient money to enable future expansion to meet an anticipated load
requirement.
2. The consumers are encouraged to make more extended use of electricity.
3. The tariff should be simple and capable of easy explanation to the public. A complicated
tariff may cause an opposition from the public which is generally distrustful of the
supply authorities.
4. The consumers are charged according to what the energy costs. The tariff should be
such as to satisfy the consumers of all categories. A big consumer should be charged at a
lower rate than a small consumer. This is because increased energy consumption spreads
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the fixed charges over a greater number of units, thus reducing the overall cost of
producing electrical energy.
5. The consumers are encouraged to use power during off-peak hours and penalised for
high loads demanded at system peak by making a provision for higher demand charges.
6. The consumers are penalised for poor power factor.
The type of service rendered by the supply authority also determines the tariff that must be
charged to a consumer.
This is explained below by giving some examples. Electric supply to a domestic consumer,
having usually light and fan points, makes the life of an ordinary citizen convenient and
pleasant. But such a class of consumers cannot be charged at higher rates.
This is because in a welfare state like India, the state has the responsibility to provide some
basic necessities to its citizens.
Similarly, the farmer for supply of electrical energy to agricultural loads cannot be charged
at a higher rate because of the national concern for agricultural output. However, the
consumers using electricity for extra comforts such as for air-conditioning and for
commercial purposes can be charged at higher rates.
Types of Tariffs:
1. Flat Demand Tariff: This is one of the earliest forms of tariffs used for
charging the consumers for electrical energy consumption. In this case, the total demand and the
energy consumption were fixed.
If x is the number of lamps or load connected in kW and a is the rate per lamp or per kW
of connected load then: Energy charges = Rs ax
2. Simple Tariff:
This is the simplest type of tariff according to which the cost of energy is charged on the
basis of units consumed.
Although this method of deriving the rate is simple and also the drawback of encouraging
the consumers to keep their appliances connected to the supply mains even when not
Page 175

required is removed as they have to pay for all the energy consumed but suffers from the
following drawbacks:
(i) There is no discrimination among the different types of consumers (domestic,

industrial, bulk) having different load factor, diversity factor and power factor.
(ii) The cost per kWh delivered is higher.
3. Flat Rate Tariff:

This type of tariff differs from the former one in the sense that the different types of
consumers are charged at different rates i.e., the flat rate for light and fan loads is slightly
higher than that for power load. The rate for each category of consumers is arrived at by
taking into accounts its load factor and diversity factor.
The disadvantages of this tariff are: (i) Separate meters

are required for different types of supply.
(ii) Difficulty is experienced to derive the load factor and diversity factor for various
types of loads to be employed in deciding the tariff.
(iii) The consumer is charged for the total quantity of energy consumed at the same rate
irrespective of the magnitude of energy consumed while increased generation or
consumption spread the fixed charges over a greater number of units and so the overall
cost per unit decreases as the consumption increases.
4. Step Rate Tariff:

The step rate tariff is a group of flat rate tariffs of decreasing unit charges for higher
range of consumption, say for example:
Rs 4.0 per unit if the consumption does not exceed 50 kWh
Rs 3.50 per unit if the consumption exceeds 50 kWh but does not exceed 200 kWh
Rs 3.0 per unit if the consumption exceeds 200
kWh. 5. Block Rate Tariff:
In this type of tariff a given block of energy is charged at higher rate and succeeding
blocks of energy are charged at progressively reduced rates, say for example:
The first 25 units may be charged at the rate of Rs 4.0 paise/unit.
The next 40 units may be charged at the rate of Rs 3.50 per unit.The consumption
exceeding 65 units may be charged at the rate of Rs 3.0 per unit.
Page 176
6. Hopkinson Demand Rate or Two Part Tariff:

The total charge to be made to the consumer is split into two components namely fixed
charge and running charge. Since fixed charge is independent of energy consumed and
proportional to the maximum demand so the fixed charge is made at a certain amount per
kW of maximum demand, which can be assessed on the basis of the rateable value of the
premises or on the number of rooms excluding bath rooms, attics etc. or on the connected
load or on the total combined kW capacity of all the consuming devices owned by a
particular consumer. Running charge is made at a certain amount per kWh for the total
energy consumed.
7. Maximum Demand Tariff or Wright Demand Rate:

This tariff is similar to that of two part tariff except that in this case maximum demand is
actually measured by a maximum demand indicator instead of merely assessing it on the
basis of rateable value. In this tariff the drawback of the two part tariff is removed. This
tariff is almost applicable to all bulk supplies and large industrial consumers, who have a
control over their maximum demand.
Such a tariff induces the consumer to keep his maximum demand at a low value.
8. Power Factor Tariffs:

Since the efficiency of plant and equipment depends upon the power factor, therefore, in
order to increase the utility of plant and equipment to the maximum, the plant must be
operated at the most economical power factor.
9. Three Part Tariff or Doherty Rate:
In this tariff total charge is split into three elements namely fixed charge, semi-fixed
charge and variable charge.So the general expression for the recovery of the cost split into
three sections mentioned above can be written as:
Total charges = Rs a + b kW + c kWh

Where a is a constant charge made each billing period.
b = Unit charge in Rs per kW of metered maximum demand in kW during billing period.

In some cases, it is also charged in Rs per kVA so that the consumers are penalised for
poor power factor.
And c = Unit charge for energy in Rs per kWh of energy consumed.
This type of tariff is usually applicable to bulk supplies.
10. Off-Peak Tariff:
Page 177

The load on the power station usually has pronounced peak loads in the morning and early
evening and a very low load during the night (from 10 PM to 6 AM). During the night,
therefore, and other off-peak period which may occur, a large proportion of the generating
and distribution equipment will be lying idle. In case the consumers are encouraged to use
electricity during off peak hours by giving a special discount, the energy can be supplied
without incurring an additional capital cost and should, therefore, prove very profitable.
This type of tariff is very advantageous for certain processes such as water heating by
thermal storage, pumping, refrigeration etc
1. Efficiency
The efficiency of a cell can be considered in two ways:
1. The quantity or ampere-hour (Ah)efficiency
2. The energy or watt-hour (Wh)efficiency
The Ah efficiency does not take into account the varying voltages of charge and
discharge. The Wh efficiency does so and is always less than Ah efficiency
because average p.d. during discharging is less than that during charging.
Usually, during discharge the e.m.f. falls from about 2.1 V to 1.8 V whereas
during charge it rises from 1.8 volt to about 2.5 V.
The Ah efficiency of a lead-acid cell is normally between 90 to 95%, meaning

that about 100 Ah must be put back into the cell for every 90-95 Ah taken out of
it. Because of gassing which takes place during the charge, the Ah available for
delivery from the battery decreases. It also decreases
(i) due to self-discharge of the plates caused due to local reactions and (ii) due
to leakage of current because of faulty insulation between the cells of the battery.
The Wh efficiency varies between72-80%. If Ah efficiency is given, Wh
efficiency can be found from the following relation:
Page 178

From the above, it is clear that anything that increases the charge volts or reduces the
discharge volts will decrease Wh efficiency. Because high charge and discharge rates will
do this, hence it is advisable to avoid these.
5.11 Power factor
Power factor is defined as the cosine of angle between the voltage phasor and current
phasor in an AC circuit. It is denoted as power factor.
For an AC circuit, 0≤pf≤1
DC circuit power factor is always 1.
Consider an inductive circuit taking a lagging current I from supply voltage V, the angle of
lag being ɸ. It has
(a) I cosɸ in phase with V
(b) I sinɸ ,90 degrees out of phase with V

Power factor does not exceed more than unity. Power factor
Power Factor = cosɸ
DEPARFTMENT OF EEE
BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
Causes of Low power factor
1. Most of the a.c. motors are of induction type (1-ɸ and 3-ɸ induction motors) which
have low lagging power factor. These motors work at a power factor extremely small on
light load (0.2) and raises to (0.9) at full load.
2. Arc lamps, electric discharge lamps and industrial heating furnaces operate at low
lagging power factor.
3. The load on the power system is varying; being high during morning and evening and
low at other times. During low period, supply voltage is increased which increases the
magnetization current. This results in the decreased power factor. 4. Existence of harmonic
current reduces the power factor.
5. Imbalance in the power system due to improper wiring or electrical accident.
Methods of Power Factor Improvement
The following devices and equipment are used for power factor Improvement.
1. Static Capacitor
2. Synchronous Condenser
3. Phase Advancer
1. Static Capacitor
• For Power factor improvement purpose, Static capacitors are connected in parallel
with those devices which work on low power factor.
These static capacitors provide leading current which neutralize (totally or approximately)
the lagging inductive component of load current (i.e. leading component neutralize or
eliminate the lagging component of load current) thus power factor of the load circuit is
improved.
179
MALLAREDDY ENGINEERING COLLEGE FOR WOMEN Page
• These capacitors are installed in Vicinity of large inductive load e.g Induction motors
and transformers etc, and improve the load circuit power factor to improve the system
or devises efficiency.
• For three-phase loads, the capacitors can be connected in delta or star as shown in Fig.
6.4. Static capacitors are invariably used for Power Factor Improvement Methods in
factories.
• For three-phase loads, the capacitors can be connected in delta or star as shown in Fig.
6.4. Static capacitors are invariably used for Power Factor Improvement Methods in
factories.
Advantages
• They have low losses.

• They require little maintenance as there are no rotating parts.
• They can be easily installed as they are light and require no foundation.
• They can work under ordinary atmospheric conditions.
Disadvantages
• They have short service life ranging from 8 to 10 years.

• They are easily damaged if the voltage exceeds the rated value.
• Once the capacitors are damaged, their repair is uneconomical. 2. Synchronous
condenser:
• A synchronous motor takes a leading current when over-excited and, therefore,

behaves as a capacitor. An over-excited synchronous motor running on no load is
known as synchronous condenser.
When such a machine is connected in parallel with the supply, it takes a leading current
which partly neutralizes the lagging reactive component of the load. These are the power
factor improvement techniques.
• Fig 6.5 shows the Power Factor Improvement Methods by synchronous condenser
method. The 3Φ load takes current I L at low lagging power factor cos I L. The
synchronous condenser takes a current Im which leads the voltage by an angle Φm.
• The resultant current I is the phasor sum of I m and IL and lags behind the voltage by an
angle Φ. It is clear that Φ is less than Φ L, so that cos Φ is greater than cos Φ L. Thus the
power factor is increased from cos ΦL to cos Φ.
• Synchronous condensers are generally used at major bulk supply substations for
Power Factor Improvement Methods.
3. Phase advancers:
Phase advancers are used to power factor correction of induction motor. The low power
factor of an induction motor is due to the fact that its stator winding draws exciting current
which lags behind the supply voltage by 90°.
If the exciting ampere turns can be provided from some other a.c. source, then the stator
winding will be relieved of exciting current and the power factor of the motor can be
improved. This job is accomplished by the phase advancer which is simply an a.c. exciter.
The phase advancer is mounted on the same shaft as the main motor and is connected in
the rotor circuit of the motor. It provides exciting ampere turns to the rotor circuit at slip
frequency.
By providing more ampere turns than required, the induction motor can be made to operate
on leading power factor like an over-excited synchronous motor.
Phase advancers have two principal advantages. Firstly, as the exciting ampere turns are
supplied at slip frequency, therefore, lagging kVAR drawn by the motor are considerably
reduced. Secondly, phase advancer can be conveniently used where the use of synchronous
motors is inadmissible. However, the major disadvantage of phase advancers is that they
are not economical for motors below 200 H.P. Advantages:
• Lagging kVAR (Reactive component of Power or reactive power) drawn by the motor
is sufficiently reduced because the exciting ampere turns are supplied at slip
frequency (fs).
• The phase advancer can be easily used where the use of synchronous motors is
Unacceptable Disadvantage:
• Using Phase advancer is not economical for motors below 200 H.P. (about 150kW)
Power Triangle:
Real Power P = I2R Watts, (W)
Reactive Power Q = I2X Volt-amperes Reactive, (VAr)
Apparent Power S = I2Z Volt-amperes, (VA)
5.12 Battery backup
A battery backup, or uninterruptible power supply (UPS), is primarily used to provide a

backup power source to important desktop computer hardware components.
• UPS[Uninterrupted power supply]

•Invertors
•Diesel generating sets
Electricity generator or bank of batteries that can provide adequate power to operate
critically important equipment or keep them working until commercial power is restored §
This buffer against loss of power prevents inconvenient or dangerous stoppage of critical
process. § Once the cycle is finished, the equipment can be safely powered down with
minimal danger or damag
Uses
•Commonly in computer system
•Manufacturing equipment
• Hospital
• Power station
•Telephony
•Aircraft emergency batteries.
UPS(Uninterrupted power supply): UPS is also known as battery/flywheel backup.
• An electrical apparatus that provides emergency power to a load when the input power
source, typically mains power, fails.
• A UPS differs from an auxiliary or emergency power supply or standby generator in

that it will provide near instantaneous protection from input power interruptions, by
supplying energy stored in batteries, super-capacitors, or flywheels.
• The on-battery runtime of most ups is relatively short (only a few minutes) but
sufficient to start a standby power source or properly shut down the protected
equipment
Leading brands of a UPS i. APC ii. Numeric iii. Luminous iv. Su-kam v. Genus vi. Microtek vii.
Delta power solutions
Uses
In computers, data centres, telecommunication equipment or other electrical equipment

where an unexpected power disruption could cause injuries, fatalities, serious business
disruption or data loss.
Power Range
A single computer without a video monitor of `around 200VA rating to large units
powering entire data centres or buildings.
ADVANTAGES
1. Maintenance Of Power
2. Continuity Of Operation
3. Surge Protection
DISADVANTAGE
S 1.High Start Up
Cost
2. Maintenance Cost
3. Energy Use
1. Passive standby (also called off-line)
In a standby ("off-line") system the load is powered directly by the input power and the
backup power circuitry is only invoked when the utility power fails. Most UPS below 1
kVA are of the line-interactive or standby variety which are usually less expensive.
In the case of Off-Line UPS, the inverter is off when the mains power is on and the output
voltage is derived directly from the mains. The inverter turns on only when the mains
supply fails. Its switching time is less than 5 milli sec.
• These UPS are generally used with PCs or computers or other appliances where a
small duration (5 ms or less) interruption in power supply can be tolerated.
• Usually, sealed batteries or lead-acid batteries are used
The running time of these supplies is also low (about 10 to 30 minutes).
2. Line interactive
• It is the most common UPS used for small business. The designing of line interactive
UPS is alike to a standby UPS, in addition the design Line Interactive generally includes
an automatic voltage regulator(AVR) or a tap-changing transformer.
• This enhances the regulation of voltage by regulating transformer taps as the i/p voltage
differs. Voltage regulation is a significant feature when the conditions of a low voltage
exist, otherwise the UPS would transfer to battery & then finally down the load.
• The usage of more common battery can cause early battery failure. The features of this
UPS are small size, low cost, high efficiency can make the UPS in the range of 0.5- 5kVA
power
3. Online-UPS
An on-line UPS uses a "double conversion" method of accepting AC input, rectifying to

DC for through the rechargeable battery (or battery strings), then inverting back to 120
V/230 V AC for powering the protected equipment.
In case of On-line UPS, the battery operated inverter works continuously whether the mains
supply is present or not.
• When the mains supply fails, the UPS supplies power only until the batteries get
discharged. However, once the mains power resumes, the batteries will get charged again.
• The switching times of these supplies is considered to be zero. Usually sealed

maintenance free batteries (lead-acid) are used
• The running time of the inverter is low (approximately 10 to 30 minutes).
INVERTERS:
An inverter is an electrical circuit capable of turning DC power into AC power, while at the
same time regulating the voltage, current, and frequency of the signal. Inverters are used at
residential, commercial and industrial buildings Uses :
To operate all kinds of devices electric lights, kitchen appliances, microwaves, power
tools, TVs, radios, computers etc Types of Inverters:
1. Modified sine wave inverter
2.True sine wave inverter
3.Solar inverter:
a. Stand-alone inverters,
b. Battery backup inverter
c. Grid tie inverters
Modified Sine Wave Inverters : This type of home inverter obtains power from a battery of
12 volts and must be recharged using a generator or a solar panel. Appliances like
microwave ovens, light bulbs, etc. can be run using these types of inverter.
True Sine Wave Inverters :This is one of the better types of inverters as they provide better
power as compared to the modified sine wave inverters for homes. These types of home
inverter are also run using a battery of a larger capacity. They are best inverters employed
for the power sensitive appliances like refrigerators, televisions, air conditioners, washing
machines
Solar Inverters : Solar inverters are among the type of inverters for home that are energy
efficient as they do not require a separate source for generating power. The solar energy is
collected during the daytime and used at time of need after being converted into electrical
energy.
Maintenance :
• Always required well ventilated area for inverter installation., Checking the water
level of battery in every two months.
• Always keep the surface and sides of battery clean and dust free. •Keep the battery
terminals corrosion free and rust free.Vents around battery should be dust free and open.
Blocked vents lead to hydrogen gas accumulation, which may lead to bursting of battery.
• From safety point of view, installation of the inverter should be at safe places in home
which is out of the reach of children or a less used area. But at the same time that area
should be airy and properly ventilated.
DIESEL GENERATING SETS
A Diesel Generator (DG) is a combination of diesel engine with electrical generator to generate
electricity.
It extracts chemical energy from diesel and converts its in electrical energy
ADVANTAGES OF DG SETS
Low fuel consumption. High efficiency. Easy access to serviceable parts. Compact, sleek,
and manual operating system. Maintenance is easy.
DISADVANTAGES OF DG SETS
•It produces higher smoke. •It takes more time for installation. •Heavy and large body parts.
•It is expensive.
QUESTION BANK ON SHORT ANSWER QUESTION UNIT:1 D.C.CIRCUITS
1. State Ohm’s law? limitations of ohm’s law?

2. State Kirchhoff’s voltage law and Kirchhoff’s current law?
3. Explain ideal voltage and current source with V-I characteristics?
4. Explain the classification of circuit elements?
5. Discuss the applications of both series and parallel combination?
6. Discuss resistor, capacitor, and inductor with relevant expression? 7. Define terms(i)
branch(ii)loop(iii)node(iv)mesh
8. Define source transformation.
9. What is voltage division rule?
10. What is current division rule?
11. Differentiate Mesh and loop? Or Node and Junction?
12. Define mesh and nodal analysis?
13. Define star and delta connections?
14. Explain the equations for resistors in equivalent delta. If the resistors Ra, Rb and Rc are
connected electrically in star?
15. State Superposition Theorem?
16. Write the limitations of superposition theorem?
17. State Thevenin’s Theorem?
18. State Norton’s Theorem?
19. How Thevenin’s and Norton’s theorems are related?
20. Write the current equation for first order series RC and RL circuits?
UNIT:2 A.C.CIRCUITS
1. Define Instantaneous value? Peak value?

2. Define cycle and waveform?
3. Define Frequency and Angular frequency?
4. Define Phase? Phasor diagram?
5. What is Phase difference?
6. How can we convert polar form to Rectangular form or rectangular to polar form?
7. Define RMS Value?
8. State advantages of alternating quantities?
9. Define Average value?
10. Define Form factor?
11. Define peak factor?
12. Explain significance of J factor?
13. Define Real, Reactive, Apparent power in AC circuits?
14. What is Inductive and Capacitive Reactance?
15. Define Power factor?
16. What is Resonant frequency?
17. Define Bandwidth?
18. Define Quality factor?
19. Advantages of three phase circuits?
20. Define Line current and Line voltage?
21. Define Phase current and Phase voltage?
22. What is Balanced and Unbalanced loads?
UNIT:3 TRANSFORMERS
1. Define Transformer?
2. What is the working principle of Transformer?
3. Explain the purpose of laminating the core in a transformer?
4. Explain the emf equation of a transformer and define each term. ?
5. Explain does transformer draw any current when secondary is open? Why?
6. Explain why the transformer measured in KVA?
7. Differentiate core and shell type transformer?
8. Write the characteristics of Ideal transformer?
9. Differentiate Ideal and practical transformer?
10. Draw the equivalent circuit diagram with the terminology?
11. Write the equivalent circuit condition when all fed to primary?
12. What is the condition for zero voltage regulation and Maximum voltage regulation?
13. What are the losses in transformer?
14. What is the Efficiency and All day Efficiency of a transformer?
15. What is the condition for maximum efficiency?
16. Write the properties of Auto transformer?
17. Write the formula for saving of cu in Auto transformer?
18. Applications of Auto transformer?
19. Need of three phase transformer?
20. Write the different connections of three phase transformer?
21.
UNIT:4 ELECTRICAL MACHINES
1. Write the classification of Electrical machines?

2. State Fleming’s Right-Hand Rule?
3. State Fleming’s Left-Hand Rule?
4. Write down the emf equation of a dc machine?
5. Write down the torque equation of a D.C motor?
6. Define Back emf?
7. State the function of commutator and brushes?
8. Write the characteristics of DC motor?
9. Applications of DC series, shunt and compound motors?
10. Write down the speed control methods of DC motor?
11. What is R.M.F.?
12. State two types of induction motors?
13. What is the principal operation of 3-phase induction motor?
14. Define slip in induction motor?
15. Write speed control methods of three phase induction motor?
16. Write the classification of single-phase AC motors?
17. What is Double field Recovery theory?
18. Why single-phase induction motor is not self-starting?
19. Write the types of single-phase induction motor?
20. Define Alternator?
21. Write the different types of rotors in Alternator?
UNIT:5 ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS Component of LT switchgear
1. What is SFU?
2. What is MCB,MCCB,ELCB?
3. Define Fuse?
4. Define Circuit breaker?
5. What are the types of circuit breakers?
6. Write the types of Wires and Cables?
7. Write the types of Batteries?
8. Write the important characteristics of Batteries?
9. Define Earthing?
10. What is the need of Earthing?
11. Classify the types of Earthing?
12. What is the formula for energy consumption?
13. Define Tariff?\
14. Write the objectives of Tariff?
15. Classify the types of Tariff?
16. Define power factor?
17. What are the effect of low power factor?
18. What are the methods to improve the power factor?
19. What is battery backup?
20. Types of battery backup methods?
QUESTION BANK ON LONG ANSWER QUESTION UNIT:1 D.C.CIRCUITS
1. State and explain Kirchhoff’s laws.
2. Determine the current through 5 Ω resistor as shown in figure by using Thevenin’s theorem
3. Find the voltage across ‘A’ and ‘B’ in the below circuit (shown in Figure.)
4. List types of sources and explain briefly.

5. Explain Source transformation technique in detail.
6. Describe time domain analysis of first order RL& RC circuits.
7. Prove that the total response of the circuit in 12ohm element is equal to individual
responses of the circuit in same element.
8. A 100Ω resistance is directly switched on across a 10 V battery. What is the current

through resistor? How much is the power loss? Also find the energy consumed in 5
Sec.
9. Find the current ‘i’ in the circuit shown in the figure below.
10. State and Explain Thevenin’s theorem, Norton’s theorem.
11. ReplacethenetworktotheleftofterminalsabbyitsThevenin’sequivalentcircuit. Hence find

current
12. Using Norton’s equivalent circuit for the circuit shown in figure 1 across x-y terminals,
calculate the current flowing through the 5 Ωresistor.
13. Apply super position theorem.Determine the current through 10 ohm resistor.
UNIT:2 A.C.CIRCUITS
1. Derive RMS value and Average value of sinusoidal wave form.

2. Define (i) Form factor (ii) Peak factor (iii) Power factor.
3. Derive the current, voltage. Impendence, power factor of a RL, RC& RLC series
circuit?
4. Calculate the total current, voltage across the resistor and capacitor in a RC series
circuit when r=100kilo ohms c=0.01micro farads and supply voltage is 50v, 50 Hz.
5. Derive bandwidth and quality factor for RLC series circuit?
6. Derive the relationship between voltages and currents in a balanced star and Delta
connected load?
7. Derive an expression for the current response of series RL- circuit with sinusoidal
excitation?
8. Derive an expression for the current response of series RC- circuit with sinusoidal
excitation?
9. Derive an expression for the current response of series RLC- circuit with sinusoidal
excitation?
10. Derive the relation between voltage and currents in balanced star and delta network.
11. A series RLC circuit having a Resistance of 1Kohm, an inductance of 100mH and capacitor of
10pF.If 100v is applied as input across the combination Determine (i) The resonant Frequency
(ii) Max. current (iii) Q- factor.
12. A resistance of 120 ohm and a capacitance reactance of 250 ohm are connected in series across
a Ac voltage source. If a current of 0.9A is flowing in the circuit determine (i) power factor (ii)
supply voltage.
13. An alternating current i=1.414sin(2π50t) A is passed through a series circuit consisting of a
resistance of 100ohm and an inductance of 0.31831 H find the expression for the instantaneous
values of the voltage across (i) the resistance (ii) the inductance and (iii) the combination.
14. A voltage is equal to 200sin100πt is applied to the load having R=200ohm in series with L-
=638mH. Estimate (i)Expression for i=I M sin(wt+ⱷ) (ii) Power consumed by the load (iii)
reactive power of the load (iv) voltage across R and L.
UNIT:3 TRANSFORMERS
1. Explain Working operation of 1-Ф transformer on load condition with neat phasor
diagrams
2. Illustrate the constructional details of transformer.
3. Explain Working operation of a single-phase transformer on No- load and ON load
condition with phasor diagrams.
4. List the different winding connections in a three-phase transformer and explain with neat
diagrams.
5. Explain about various losses of Single-phase transformer? How to minimize them?
6. Derive the EMF equations of a transformer?
7. Construct the equivalent circuit of a single-phase transformer on refer to primary side?
8. The Emf per turn of a single phase 10KVA transformer having 2000/220v ,50Hz is
10v. Calculate No. of primary and secondary turns(ii) The net cross sectional area of
core for max. flux density 1.5 tesla
9. A 40KVA, 1Φ transformer has 400 turns in the primary and 100 turns on the
secondary. The primary is connected to 2000V, 50Hz supply. Determine
a). The secondary voltage on open circuit.
b). The current flowing through the two-winding on full load.
c). The maximum value of flux
10. The no load current of a transformer is 15A at a power factor of 0.2,when
connected to a 460V,50Hz supply. If the primary winding has 550 turns
calculate
i) magnetizing component of no load current ii) the iron lossiii) maximum value of
flux in the core
11. A 1 KVA,1000/200V, 1 Ph transformer has an iron loss of 20W and full load
copper loss of 50W.Calculate the efficiency of the transformer at full load and
0.8 power factor lagging. Also calculate max efficiency of the transformer at
the same power factor
12. The primary and secondary windings of 40KVA ,6600/250v single phase
transformer has resistance of 10 ohm and 0.02 ohm respectively. The total
leakage reactance of 35ohm as referred to primary. Find the full load regulation
at 0.8 power factor.
13. Distinguish b/w auto t/f and 2 winding t/f.
UNIT:4 ELECTRICAL MACHINES
1. Illustrate the Construction of a dc machine and explain its parts.

2. Sketch the characteristics of Dc motor.
3. List and explain the speed control methods of DC motor.
4. List and Explain the Type of DC motors.
5. Illustrate the Construction of a 3 PHASE induction motor
6. Explain the operating principle of Three phase Induction motor.
7. Give The Significance of Torque-slip characteristics of 3-phase induction motor
8. The stator of a 3-phase, 4-pole induction motor is connected to a 50 Hz supply. The rotor runs
at 1455 rev/min at full load. Determine (i) the synchronous speed and (ii) the slip at full load.
9. Remember speed control methods of three phase induction motor?
10. Illustrate the Constructional details of an Alternator?
11. A 4 pole DC motor takes a 50A armature currentthe armature has lap connected 480
conductors the flux per pole is 20MWh. Calculate the gross torque developed by the
armature of the motor.
12. A 4 pole lap connected wound Dc motor has 540 conductors. Its speed found to be
1100 rpm the flux per pole is 20mwb. Determine (i) Induced emf (ii) determine its
speed for same emf when it is wave connected.
13. A 373KW 3 phase 440V, 50HZ induction motor has a speed of 950 rpm on full load.
The motor has 6 poles. Determine slip of IM .the no. Of complete alternations made
by the rotor.
UNIT:5 ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS
Construct and Explain the working of MCB,MCCB AND ELCB?
1. Explain about FUSE AND SFU?

2. Understand wires and cables in electrical installation?
3. List and Explain Objectives and characteristics of Tariff.
4. Define Earthing. Describe the types of earthing.
5. List the types of Tariffs and explain each.
6. Explain about Battery backup.
7. Analyze the causes of low power factor AND Explain about the power factor improve
methods
8.Explain about the transient response of RL series circuit circuit with DC excitation
ASSINGMENTS UNIT-1
1.(a) State ohm’s law. Give the limitations of ohm’slaw.

(b)A 100V lamp has a hot resistance of 250 Ω . Find the current taken by the lamp
and its power rating in watts. Calculate also the energy it will consume in 24 hrs.
2. State and Explain KCL and KVL with sign conversions & write the types of the
elements of the circuits?
3. Explain about different sources in network and write about source transformation
technique?
4. Explain Thevenin’s and Norton’s theorems with an example?
5. Explain the Transient response of first order RC and RL circuit?
UNIT-2
1.Define Phase, Phase difference and explain
(i) Rectangular form (2) Polar form and conversion of these two forms.
2.Derive the below values.
(i) RMS value (ii) Average value (iii)Form factor (iv) Peak factor
3.Write about AC through pure Resistor and Pure Inductor and explain power triangle?
4.Explain the behavior of Series RLC circuit?

5.Define the below terms with (i).Resonance (ii) Bandwidth
(iii)Quality factor (iv) Selectivity.
UNIT-3
1. Define transformer, its working principle and classification of transformers?
2. Explain the emf equation of a transformer and define each term ?

3. Explain the equivalent circuit when it referred to primary side and referred to
secondary side?
4. Define auto transformer and explain its types?
5. Write 4 types of connection of three phase transformers?
UNIT-4
1. Draw torque-speed characteristics of separately excited dc motor.

2.Derive the toque-slip characteristics of three phase induction motor.
3.Distinguish between slip ring and squirrel cage rotor.

4.Derive the torque equation of three phase induction motor.
5..Classify the Types of rotors in alternator.
UNIT-5
1. Construct and Explain the working of MCB,MCCB AND ELCB?

2. Understand wires and cables in electrical installation?
5. Analyze the causes of low power factor AND Explain about the power factor improve
methods
TUTORIALS UNIT-1
1. Find the current flowing through 1ohm resistor.
2. Determine the current through 5 Ω resistor as shown in figure by using Thevenin’s theorem.
3. Using Norton’s equivalent circuit for the circuit shown in figure 1 across x-y terminals,
calculate the current flowing through the 5Ω resistor.
4. Calculate current through 10 ohm resistance loop analysis
5. Find the current flowing through 3 ohm using super position theorem?
6. Find the current Ix in the circuit using nodal analysis
7. Find the load resistance using Thevenin’s theorem.
8. Explain about the transient response of RL series circuit circuit with DC excitation ?
UNIT-2
1. An alternating current of frequency 60 HZ has a max.value of 120A (i) write down

the equation for instantaneous current(ii)Find the value of current after 1/360
sec(iii)Time taken to reach 96 A.
2. Find the Average value, peak value ,Form factor and Peak factor.
3. A wound coil that has an inductance of 180mH and a resistance of 35Ω is connected
to a 100V 50Hz supply. Calculate: a) the impedance of the coil, b) the current, c) the
power factor, and d) the apparent power consumed. Also draw the resulting power
triangle for the above coil.
4. An alternating current, i=1.414 sin(2π*50*t) A, is passed through a series circuit

consisting of a resistance of 100 ohm and an inductance of 0.31831Henry. find the
expressions for the instantaneous values of the voltage across (i) the resistance, (ii)
the inductance (iii) the combination
5. A capacitor having a capacitance of 10 micro farad is connected in series with a

resistanceof 120 ohm across 100 V. 50 Hz. Calculate the power, current and the phase
difference between current and voltage?
6. A series circuit consisting of 25 ohm resistor, 64 mH inductor and 80 micro farad
capacitor, is connected to a 110 V, 50 Hz, single phase supply. Calculate the current,
voltage across individual element and the overall p.f. of the circuit. Draw a phasor
diagram showing I,VR,VL,VC and V.
7. A series resonance network consisting of a resistor of 30Ω, a capacitor of 2uF and an

inductor of 20mH is connected across a sinusoidal supply voltage which has a
constant output of 9 volts at all frequencies. Calculate, the resonant frequency, the
current at resonance, the voltage across the inductor and capacitor at resonance, the
quality factor and the bandwidth of the circuit. Also sketch the corresponding current
waveform for all frequencies.
8. The inductive coil each having resistance of 16 ohm and reactance of 12 ohm are
connected in star across a 400 V, three phase 50 Hz supply. Calculate(i)Line voltage
(ii) Phase voltage (iii) Line current (iv) Phase current (v) power factor (vi) Power
absorbed (vii) Draw phasor diagram
UNIT-3
1.A 25 kVA, single phase transformer has 250 turns on the primary and 40 turns on
the secondary winding. The primary is connected to 1500 V, 50 Hz mains calculate (i)
secondary emf (ii) primary and secondary current on full load (iii) maximum flux in
the core.
2.A transformer takes a current of 0.8A when its primary is connected to a 240V, 50Hz
supply with the secondary being open circuit. If the power absorbed is 72 W, determine (a)
the iron loss current, (b) the power factor on no-load, and (c) the magnetizing current
3. A 50kVA transformer has 200 turns and 40 turns on the primary and secondary
windings respectively. Resistance on primary and secondary are 0.15 Ω and 0.005 Ω
respectively. The value of leakage reactance on primary and secondary windings are 0.55
and 0.0175 Ω respectively. If the supply voltage on the primary side is 1100V, Calculate:
1. Equivalent impedance transferred to Primary Windings
2. Secondary terminal Voltage at Full load having a lagging power factor of 0.8.
3. Voltage regulation
4. A 20 KVA single phase transformer has 200 turns on the primary side, 40 turns on the
secondary side. The primary is connected to 220 V,50 Hz. The iron losses in a transformer
as 20 watts and cu losses are 30 watts. The power factor of the transformer is 0.6 .
Calculate the efficiency of the transformer
i) at full load condition

ii) at half load condition
5. A 20 kVA, 2000/200 V, single-phase transformer has the following parameters: HV

Winding: R1 = 3Ω Xl1 = 5.3Ω LV Winding: R2 = 0.05Ω Xl2 = 0.05Ω (a) Find the voltage
regulation at 0.8 pf lagging, unity pf and 0.707 pf leading.
6.A 10 KVA, 230/110 V transformer is to be used as an auto transformer. What will be the
voltage ratio and output of an auto transformer?
7.A single-phase auto-transformer has a voltage ratio 320V:250V and supplies a load of 20 kVA at 250V.
Assuming an ideal transformer, determine the current in each section of the winding.
three-phase transformer has 500 primary turns and 50 secondary turns. If the supply voltage is
2.4 kV, find the secondary line voltage at no-load when the windings are connected in (a) star-
delta and (b) delta-star.
UNIT-4
1. A373KW 3 phase 440V, 50HZ induction motor has a speed of 950 rpm on full
load.The motor has 6 poles. Determine slip of IM, find the no. Of complete alternations
made by the rotor.
2.A four pole 3 phase induction motor is supplying from 50 HZ supply. Determine its
synchronous speed on full load its speed is 1410 rpm, calculate sip?
3.A 4 pole DC motor takes a 50A armature current, the armature has lap connected 480
conductors the flux per pole is 20MWh. Calculate the gross torque developed by the
armature of the motor.
4.A 4 pole lap connected wound Dc motor has 540 conductors. Its speed found to be
1100 rpm the flux per pole is 20mwb. Determine (i) Induced emf (ii) determine its
speed for same emf when it is wave connected.
5.A 1000v,50 HZ 3 phase induction motor has star connected stator. The ratio of rotor
to stator current is 3.6A and stand still impedance is 0.001 , determine (1) rotor
current at start (ii) Rotor power (iii) rotor current at slip of 3% (iv) external resistance
per phase in the rotor to limit the starting current at 200A.
6.A 6pole, 3phase induction motor develops a power of 22.38kW, including mechanical losses,
which total 1.492kW at a speed of 950rpm on 550V, 50Hz mains. The power factor is 0.88.
Calculate for this load (i). Slip, (ii). The rotor copper loss, (iii). The total input iif the stator
losses are 2000W, (iv). The efficiency, (v). The line current, (vi). The number of complete cycles
of the rotor electromotive force per minute.
7.A 37.3kW, 4pole, 50Hz induction motor has friction and windage losses of 3320 watts.
The stator losses equal the rotor losses. If the motor is deleiverig full load power output
at a speed of 1440rpm, calculate, (i). Synchronous speed, (ii). Slip (iii). Mechanical
power developed by the motor, (iv). Rotor copper loss, (v). Power transferred from
stator to rotor, (vi) Stator power input, (vii). Efficiency.
8.An 18kW, 4pole, 50Hz, 3phase induction motor has friction and windage loss
500W. The full load slip is 4%. Compute for full load, (i). Rotor copper loss. (ii).
Rotor input. (iii). The shaft torque and (iv). The gross torque.
UNIT-5
1. Construction and operation of MCB?

2. What is fuse? Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of a fuse??
5. What is battery? Classify different types of batteries?
6. A consumer uses a 10 kw geezer, a 6kw electric furnace and five 100w bulbs for 15 hours.
How many units (kwh) of electrical energy have been used?
7. Explain about the power factor improve methods
8. Explain the factors which effect for low power factor

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Electrical & Electronics Engineering B.

Electrical & Electronics Engineering

BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING (2002ES01)

I B.Tech I SEM (ECE, EEE)

MALLA REDDY ENGINEERING COLLEGE FOR WOMEN

❖ To introduce the concepts of electrical circuits and its components

2002ES01: BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

B.Tech. I Year I Sem

UNIT-II: A.C. Circuits

UNIT-IV: Electrical Machines

3. L.S. Bobrow, Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering”, Oxford University Press, 2011

4. Electrical and Electronics Technology, E. Hughes, 10th Edition, Pearson, 2010

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MallaReddy Engineering College for Women(Autonomous institution,UGC Govt. of india) Page 2

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Step 1 − Verifying the network element as linear or non-linear.

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Step 1 − Verifying the network element as linear or non-linear.

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Where, R is the resistance of a resistor.

Substitute, Equation 1 in Equation 3.

Substitute, Equation 2 in Equation 3.

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Substitute Ψ = LI in the above equation.

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MallaReddy Engineering College for Women(Autonomous institution,UGC Govt. of india) Page 8

MallaReddy Engineering College for Women(Autonomous institution,UGC Govt. of india) Page 9

• Independent Voltage Sources

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• Dependent Voltage Sources

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• Voltage Dependent Voltage Source (VDVS)

• Voltage Dependent Current Source (VDCS)

• Practical voltage source into a practical current source

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Practical current source into a practical voltage source

• Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

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Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

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• Current Division Principle

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• Substitute V1 = IS R1 and V2 = IS R2 in the above equation

• Substitute the value of IS in V1 = IS R1.

MallaReddy Engineering College for Women(Autonomous institution,UGC Govt. of india) Page 18

Network Reduction Techniques:

• Series Equivalent Circuit

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Parallel Equivalent Circuit

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1) Find the Req for the circuit shown in below figure.

MallaReddy Engineering College for Women(Autonomous institution,UGC Govt. of india) Page 22

From fig(b), 4 ohms and 12 ohms are in parallel, equivalent is 3 ohms

1.7 Star–to-Delta and Delta-to-Star Transformations for Resistive Networks:

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Star Network Resistances in terms of Delta Network Resistances

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Delta Network Resistances in terms of Star Network Resistances

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