Journal of Constructional Steel Research 184 (2021) 106810

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Constructional Steel Research

Modeling the cyclic behavior of composite plate shear walls/concrete

filled (C-PSW/ CF)
Soheil Shafaei a,⁎, Amit H. Varma a, Morgan Broberg a, Ron Klemencic b
a
Lyles School of Civil Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, United States of America
b
Magnusson Klemencic Associates, Seattle, Washington 98101, United States of America

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This paper summarizes experimental results and discusses the development and benchmarking of detailed 3D
Received 13 March 2021 finite element method (FEM) models for large-scale planar composite plate shear wall/concrete filled (C-PSW/
Received in revised form 11 June 2021 CF) specimens subjected to constant axial force and cyclic lateral loading. The results from the benchmarked
Accepted 13 June 2021
3D FEM models are used to develop phenomenological effective stress-strain relationships for the steel plates
Available online 25 June 2021
and concrete infill of the tested C-PSW/CF specimens. The proposed effective stress-strain relationships implicitly
Keywords:
account for various aspects governing behavior such as: (i) steel yielding and hardening in tension, (ii) steel
Composite plate shear walls/concrete-filled yielding and local buckling in compression; (iii) concrete cracking in tension, (iv) concrete inelasticity in com-
SpeedCore system pression, and (v) composite interaction resulting in biaxial stresses in the tension steel and confinement of the
Experimental research concrete in compression. These proposed effective stress-strain relationships are used in simpler 2D FEM models
Seismic design and fiber-based FEM models along with calibrated cyclic hysteresis rules and damage models to simulate the cy-
Finite element method clic behavior of C-PSW/CF specimens and compare with experimental results. These simpler 2D FEM models and
Cyclic behavior of C-PSW/CF fiber-based FEM models are recommended for simulating the seismic response of planar C-PSW/CF walls. The de-
tailed 3D FEM models are recommended for conducting additional parametric studies investigating the structural
behavior and design of planar C-PSW/CF walls.
© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Planar composite plate shear walls/concrete filled (C-PSW/CF) con-
sist of steel web and flange plates making up a hollow, long rectangular
box section that is filled with plain unreinforced concrete in-situ. Fig. 1
shows a typical planar C-PSW/CF and its components. As shown, the
steel web plates are connected to each other using tie bars or steel
shapes. Additional shear studs may be used on the inside surfaces of
the steel plates, as needed, to anchor them to the concrete infill in the
composite phase. The steel modules of C-PSW/CF − including steel
plates, tie bars, and shear studs−are prefabricated in the shop and
transported to the site for the installation. The stability of the empty
steel modules is governed by the tie bar size and spacing [39]. The
erected steel modules serve as falsework and formwork during the con-
struction and concrete casting, which is one of big advantages of this
system ([35,36,39]).
In the design of low- to mid-rise building (up to 15 stories or so),
uncoupled planar C-PSW/CF can be used efficiently to resist wind and
⁎ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: sshafaei@purdue.edu, soheil.shafaei.ch@gmail.com (S. Shafaei),
ahvarma@purdue.edu (A.H. Varma), mbroberg@purdue.edu (M. Broberg),
rklemencic@mka.com (R. Klemencic).
seismic lateral loading [2,34]. However, coupled composite plate shear
walls/concrete filled (CC-PSW/CF) are preferred particularly for mid-
to high-rise buildings where the lateral forces and overturning mo-
ments are higher, and the coupled walls can be accommodated (archi-
tecturally) into the elevator core walls. The coupling beams for these
coupled walls are also composite concrete filled steel tube (CFT) mem-
bers [13].
The seismic design of uncoupled C-PSW/CF can be performed in ac-
cordance with ASCE 7–16 and the upcoming AISC (American Institute of
Steel Construction) [4,5] seismic provisions [2]. The seismic design of
coupled C-PSW/CF can be conducted in accordance with the FEMA
P-2082-1 [20] provisions or the upcoming ASCE 7-22 [11], or AISC
(American Institute of Steel Construction) [4] seismic provisions [13].
The lateral loading behavior of the uncoupled C-PSW/CF system is
governed by the in-plane flexural behavior of planar walls subjected
to axial force (from gravity loading). The lateral loading behavior of
coupled C-PSW/CF system is governed by coupling action and the in-
plane flexural behavior of planar walls subjected to axial forces (from
coupling effects in addition to gravity loading). In both cases, the behav-
ior of planar C-PSW/CF walls subjected to axial force and cyclic lateral
loading is of significant interest.
The seismic design provisions (FEMA P-2082, ASCE 7–21, and AISC
341-22) limit the system to C-PSW/CF walls with height-to-length

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcsr.2021.106810
0143-974X/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
S. Shafaei, A.H. Varma, M. Broberg et al.
Fig. 1. Typical composite plate shear wall/concrete filled (C-PSW/CF).
ratio greater than or equal to 3, and in-plane flexure dominant behavior
[3,11,20]. The in-plane flexural behavior of C-PSW/CF walls is governed
by the fundamental behavior of the steel and concrete components and
the composite interaction between them resulting in complex stress
states and limit states including steel yielding, local buckling, and frac-
ture, and concrete confinement and crushing [34]. Therefore, these as-
pects of behavior and the applicable limit states should be considered
in the design and analysis of C-PSW/CF for high-rise buildings.
The fire design of composite-plate shear walls (C-PSW/CF) can be
performed based on the upcoming AISC (American Institute of Steel
Construction) [6] specifications. Typical C-PSW/CF with thickness
greater than or equal to 24 in. (610 mm), story height/thickness ratio
less than 10, and gravity load ratio less than 10% of concrete compres-
sive axial capacity have fire resistance rating greater than 3 h without
any fire protection [8]. C-PSW/CF with story height/thickness ratio
greater than 20 are recommended to have fire protection [9].
2. Background
The behavior and design of composite plate shear walls, composed
of steel web plates and infill concrete, has been experimentally and nu-
merically investigated by researchers in the past decades. However, in
most of those studies, flat steel flange plates (shown in Fig. 1) were
not used as boundary elements for the composite plate shear walls.
For example, Wright [41] experimentally investigated the behavior of
20 composite plate shears wall specimens, that were comprised of cor-
rugated steel web plates and infill concrete core. These 20 composite
shear walls were subjected to axial compression force or a combination
of axial loading and bending moments. The early local buckling of plates
and resulting steel separation caused reduction in the axial and bending
capacities of the composite walls, since tie bars and shear studs were not
used to transfer forces between the components. Numerical and exper-
imental research were conducted by Hossain and Wright [21] to inves-
tigate the shear behavior and design of these composite wall panels,
when used as core walls in framed construction.
Emori [16] experimentally and numerically investigated the com-
pressive and shear behavior of concrete filled steel box walls. The
study showed the compressive and shear strengths of concrete filled
steel box walls can be calculated by superposing the strength of the
steel and concrete elements. The in-plane behavior of concrete filled
double-steel-plate composite wall specimens with concrete filled tabu-
lar columns as boundary elements was experimentally studied by Nie
et al. [29]. These studies showed that composite shear walls constructed
using high-strength concrete provide adequate energy dissipation abil-
ity and deformation capacity.
2
Journal of Constructional Steel Research 184 (2021) 106810
Varma et al. [38] developed and validated finite element models
and mechanics-based models to calculate the behavior and strength
of steel-concrete composite (SC) shear walls subjected to different
combinations of in-plane and out-of-plane loads [32,33]. The in-
plane flexural behavior of concrete-filled sandwich steel walls with
semi-circular or circular boundary elements was experimentally in-
vestigated by Alzeni and Bruneau [7]. The experimental results indi-
cated that these composite walls could develop their plastic moment
capacity, calculated assuming a plastic stress distribution over the
composite cross section.
Kurt et al. [24], and Epackachi et al. [18,19] also studied the in-
plane flexural behavior and design of rectangular steel-concrete com-
posite (SC) shear walls without any boundary elements. These re-
searchers concluded that SC walls without boundary elements can
develop their yield moment capacity instead of their plastic moment
capacity. Several numerical and experimental studies have also been
conducted to evaluate the application of double-skin composite
walls in high-rise buildings, for example, Eom et al. [15], and Ji et al.
[22,23]. In spite of these various experimental and numerical studies
on steel-concrete composite shear walls, there is a general lack of
knowledge regarding the cyclic lateral loading behavior of slender
composite-plate shear walls (C-PSW/CF) with only flange or closure
plates serving as boundary elements.
This paper first summarizes the results of experimental investiga-
tions conducted on planar C-PSW/CF specimens subjected to constant
axial compression and cyclic lateral loading. The experimental results
are then used to develop and verify detailed 3D finite element method
(FEM) models of the tested planar C-PSW/CF specimens. These 3D
FEM models explicitly account for the fundamental behavior of the
steel and concrete components and the composite interaction between
them including the applicable limit states of steel yielding, local
buckling, concrete confinement and crushing. The results from the
benchmarked 3D FEM models are used to develop phenomenological
effective stress-strain relationships for the steel plates and infill con-
crete of planar C-PSW/CF. These stress-strain relationships are then
used in simpler 2D FEM models and fiber-based FEM models along
with calibrated cyclic hysteresis rules and damage models to simulate
the behavior of C-PSW/CF specimens and compare with experimental
results.
3. Summary of experimental results
This section summarizes the primary results from experimental in-
vestigations conducted on planar C-PSW/CF specimens. Five planar
C-PSW/CF specimens were tested under constant axial load and cycli-
cally varying lateral loading up to failure. The parameters included in
the experimental investigations were the axial load level (P/Agfc V), tie
bar spacing (Stie/tsc), and plate slenderness ratio (S/tp). The experimen-
tal results included the cyclic lateral force-deflection (H-Δ) responses,
section moment-curvature (M-ϕ) responses, and moment-plastic
hinge rotation (M-θ) responses along with the occurrence of various
events such as steel plate yielding, local buckling, fracture initiation,
propagation and failure on the load-deflection responses. The experi-
mental investigations and results are presented in detail in Shafaei
et al. [34], and the following sub-sections only summarize the results
and discussions relevant to the developments and verification of nu-
merical models for simulating the fundamental and overall behavior
of the planar C-PSW/CF specimens.
The specimens were designed to be approximately 1:3 scale repre-
sentative models of planar C-PSW/CF designed for 3–12 story building
structures [2,13]. Table 1 summarizes the relevant details of the speci-
mens, which includes names of specimens, compressive strength of
the infill concrete (fc V), axial compression load (P), precent of axial com-
pression load (P/Ag fc Vin %), wall thickness (tsc), plate thickness (tp), wall
reinforcement ratio (ρ = 2tp/tsc), tie bar spacing (Stie), diameters of tie
bars (dtie), slenderness ratio (S/tp), tie bar reinforcement ratio (ρt =
S. Shafaei, A.H. Varma, M. Broberg et al. Journal of Constructional Steel Research 184 (2021) 106810

Table 1
Test matrix of planar C-PSW/CF.

Specimen General Web Flange

fc Vpsi P kips (KN) P/Ag L In tsc in. tp in. ρ sstud in. dstud in. sstud/tp stie in. dtie in. stie/tp ρt tp.f in. wf in.
(MPa) fc V% (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)

CW-42-55-10-T 6508 −210 10 36 9 3/16 4.2% – – – 4.5 0.375 24.0 0.55% 3/16 11
(44.9) (−934) (914) (228) (5) (114) (10) (5) (279)
CW-42-55-20-T 7789 −505 20 36 9 3/16 4.2% – – – 4.5 0.375 24.0 0.55% 3/16 11
(53.7) (−2246) (914) (228) (5) (114) (10) (5) (279)
CW-42-55-30-T 7386 −710 30 36 9 3/16 4.2% – – – 4.5 0.375 24.0 0.55% 3/16 11
(50.9) (−3158) (914) (228) (5) (114) (10) (5) (279)
CW-42-14-20-T 8741 −560 20 36 9 3/16 4.2% – – – 9 0.375 48.0 0.14% 3/16 11
(60.3) (−2491) (914) (228) (5) (228) (10) (5) (279)
CW-42-14-20-TS 8408 −540 20 36 9 3/16 4.2% 4.5 0.375 24 9 0.375 48.0 0.14% 3/16 11
(58.0) (−2402) (914) (228) (5) (114) (10) (228) (10) (5) (279)

Fig. 2. Cross-section of C-PSW/CF specimens.
Atie/S2), flange plate thickness (tp.f), and width of flange plate (wf). Cross
sections of planar C-PSW/CF specimens are depicted in Fig. 2.
Specimens CW-42-55-10-T, CW-42-55-20-T, and CW-42-55-30-T
were identical (except for concrete strength), but the level of applied
axial compression was different for each specimen. All specimens had
wall thickness (tsc) equal to 9 in. (228 mm), length (L) equal to 36 in.
(914 mm), and total height equal to 120 in. (3048 mm). As shown in
Table 1, the steel web plate thickness was 3/16 in. (5 mm), resulting in a
reinforcement ratio (ρ = 2tp/tsc) of 4.2% for all the specimens. The steel
flange plate width was 11 in. (279 mm) that provided 1 in. (25 mm)
wider from each edge of web plate for adequate CJP welding. Tie bar
and headed shear stud diameters were 3/8 in. (10 mm). Steel tie bars
were connected to web plates using fillet welds from outside. These fillet
welds were detailed to develop the tensile yield strength of the tie bar.
Two different tie spacings (Stie), equal to the wall thickness (tsc) and the
half of wall thickness (tsc/2), were selected that result in tie reinforcement
ratio (ρtie = π d2tie/S2tie4) of 0.14% and 0.55%, respectively. Based on the re-
search by Zhang et al. [42,43] and the corresponding AISC provision (AISC
341-22), the steel plate slenderness ratio (S/tp) has to be less than or equal
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
to 1.0 E=F y for the plate to be non-slender, i.e., yielding to occur before
local buckling. Consequently, for four of the five specimens, the plate slen-
derness ratio was equal to 24. Only for Specimen CW-41-14-20-T, the
plate slenderness ratio is equal to 48.
The experimental test setup for the planar C-PSW/CF specimen is
shown in Fig. 3(a). The specimens were subjected to constant axial
compression force and cyclically increasing lateral loading using 100-
kip (445 KN) actuators at 9 ft. (2743 mm) above the base plate. The
planar C-PSW/CF specimen was welded to the base plate using trans-
fer bars, which was embedded in a reinforced concrete foundation
block. The concrete foundation block was also post-tensioned to the
strong floor using 12 DYWIDAG post-tensioning bars, as shown in
Fig. 3(a).

Fig. 3. (a) Experimental test setup, and (b) 3D FEM for C-PSW/CF specimens.

3
S. Shafaei, A.H. Varma, M. Broberg et al. Journal of Constructional Steel Research 184 (2021) 106810

Steel plates were A572 Gr. 50 with yield (Fy) and ultimate (Fu)
strengths of 59.1 and 68.5 ksi (407.5 and 472.3 MPa), respectively.
The yield (Fy) and ultimate (Fu) strength of tie bars were 49.1 and
69.5 ksi (338.5 and 479.2 MPa). Flange shear studs had a yield
strength of 82.9 ksi and an ultimate strength of 86.5 ksi (571.6 and
596.4 MPa). Web shear studs used in CW-42-14-20-TS also had the
yield strength of 88.2 ksi (608.1 MPa) and the ultimate strength of
89.5 ksi (617.1 MPa). Self-consolidating concrete (SCC) was used for
the infill concrete. Table 1 shows the compressive strength of the infill
concrete core on the day of test and the applied constant axial com-
pression force during the test.
A constant axial compressive force and cyclic lateral loading were
applied to the planar C-PSW/CF specimens. Three different axial com-
pression forces (10%, 20%, and 30% Agfc V) were considered in the exper- Fig. 4. Local buckling mode of steel flange plate used for the initial geometric imperfection.

iment, as shown in Table 1. The amount of axial compression load for

each specimen, calculated based on the compression strength of infill
concrete, as presented in Table 1. In the first step, the axial compression
force was applied and kept constant and, in the next step, cyclic lateral
loading was applied according ATC24 [10].
4. 3D FEM model details
Detailed 3D FEM models of the tested C-PSW/CF specimens were de-
veloped using a commercial software program [1]. This program was se-
lected because of: (i) its extensive use in research, (ii) transparency in
terms of formulation of finite elements, material constitutive models,
and contact interaction models, and (iii) ability to model complexities
of behavior including steel plate yielding, local buckling and fracture,
concrete compression inelasticity and tension cracking behavior, and
composite interaction between the steel plates and concrete infill. This
commercial program has been used extensively to model the behavior
of composite members and walls, for example, Zhang et al. [42],
Varma et al. [38], and Lai et al. [26,27].
Four-node shell elements with reduced integration (S4R) were se-
lected for the steel plates (web and flange plates) and eight-node solid
elements with reduced integration (C3D8R) were used for the infill con-
crete. Headed shear studs and tie bars of C-PSW/CF specimens were
modeled by two-node beam elements (B31). The swivel loading frame
used for axial compression force was also modeled using two-node
beam elements (B31). Fig. 3(b) shows the 3D FEM model of C-PSW/CF
specimen.
All shear studs and tie bars were connected to the steel faceplate
using connector elements (CONN3D2). These connector elements con-
sidered both axial and interfacial shear behavior provided by the tie
bars and studs. Based on the earlier research of Zhang et al. [42,43],
the axial behavior of the shear connectors was considered linear elas-
tic and the shear behavior of shear studs and tie bar connections was
defined using the empirical model proposed by Ollgaard et al. [30].
Finally, the tie bars and shear studs were embedded in the infill con-
crete using the ‘embed’ option in ABAQUS. The transverse interaction
between steel plates and concrete infill was modeled using ‘surface-
to-surface’ contact interaction option in ABAQUS, which uses hard-
contact with pressure-overclosure behavior implemented using the
penalty constraint method.
Initial imperfections in the steel plates were considered in the FEM
models to initiate local buckling. Eigenvalue buckling analysis was con-
ducted on the empty steel modules (without concrete infill), and the re-
sults were used judiciously to define initial geometric imperfections.
Fig. 4 shows the buckling mode shape used for the initial imperfections.
The imperfection magnitude was set equal to 1/10 of the steel plate
thickness based on prior experience [27].
The steel material behavior of the plates was modeled using an iso-
tropic multiaxial plasticity model with von Mises yield surface, associ-
ated flow rule, and kinematic hardening. The uniaxial stress-strain
curve used to define the multiaxial plasticity model was based on the
experimentally measured stress-strain curve of tension coupons from
the steel plates, shown in Fig. 5. The steel material model for the shear
studs and tie bars was specified using a bilinear elastic-plastic stress-
strain curve with linear hardening, where the yield and ultimate
stresses were defined using measured steel material properties.
The concrete material behavior was defined using the concrete dam-
aged plasticity (CDP) based constitutive model available in ABAQUS [1].
The parameters used to define the CDP model in compression include:
the uniaxial stress-strain curve in compression, dilation angle (ψ),
flow potential eccentricity (e), ratio of biaxial compressive strength to
uniaxial compressive strength (fb0/fc0), and ratio of the second stress in-
variant on the tensile meridian to that on the compressive meridian
(kc). The recommendations of [26,27] and Tao et al. [37] for rectangular
filled composite members were adopted for defining all these parame-
ters of the CDP model. The dilation angle (ψ) and the flow potential ec-
centricity (e) were assumed to be 40 and 0.1, respectively. Two different
uniaxial stress-strain curves for the concrete were considered:
(i) Popovic's unconfined concrete stress-strain curve, and (ii) Tao et al.
[37] calibrated confined stress-strain curve. As shown in Fig. 6(a),
these stress-strain models differ in the post-peak region, where the
Tao model has more ductility. The parameters needed to define the
CDP model in tension include the uniaxial tension stress vs. crack open-
ing displacement behavior, which was defined according to CEB-FIP
[14] model shown in Fig. 6(b).
The 3D FEM models of the specimens were subjected to constant
axial compression force and lateral loading in two steps. In the first
step, axial loads were applied to the end of each tension rod, as depicted
in Fig. 7(a), and maintained constant throughout the analysis. In the sec-
ond step, monotonically increasing lateral displacement was applied to
a reference point, as illustrated in Fig. 7(b). The reference point was lo-
cated at 9 ft. (2743 mm) above the base plate, which is the same as the
loading point in the test specimens. The specimens were restrained at
the base using fixed boundary condition as shown.
Fig. 5. Stress-strain curves used for steel plates.

4
S. Shafaei, A.H. Varma, M. Broberg et al.
Fig. 6. Concrete Stress-strain curves: (a) Compression (b) Tension.
5. 3D FEM model results
5.1. Monotonic analysis
Fig. 8(a)–(e) shows graphical comparisons of the lateral load-
deflection (H-Δ) responses from the tests with those calculated by
monotonic 3D FEM analyses. For each specimen, the figure includes
the average envelop of the cyclic lateral load-deflection response in
the push and pull directions, and the lateral load-deflection responses
calculated by monotonic analyses of 3D FEM models using either uncon-
fined [31] or confined [37] concrete uniaxial stress-strain behavior. The
occurrence of physical events such as flange yielding, local buckling, and
the ultimate capacity are indicated on the experimental H-Δ response.
After reaching the ultimate load capacity (Hexp), the lateral load resis-
tance of the specimen decreases due to ductile fracture of the steel in
the test.
The graphical comparisons in Fig. 8(a)–(e) show that the results
from both the 3D FEM analyses (with confined or unconfined concrete
material models) compare well with elastic and pre-peak lateral load-
deflection behavior of the specimens. Numerical comparisons of the
lateral stiffness at approximately 40% and 60% of Hexp are included in
Table 2. In this Table, Kexp and KFEM are the secant lateral stiffness es-
timates from the experimental and 3D FEM responses. The FEM
models accurately estimate the lateral stiffnesses of the tested
specimens.
The graphical comparisons in Fig. 8(a)–(e) also show that 3D FEM
models with confined concrete uniaxial stress-strain behavior esti-
mate the ultimate capacity (Hexp) of the specimens with reasonable
Fig. 7. Loading and boundary conditions (a) Axial compression loading (b) Lateral monotonic loading.
5
Journal of Constructional Steel Research 184 (2021) 106810
accuracy, whereas the models with unconfined concrete uniaxial
stress-strain behavior estimate the ultimate capacity (Hexp) of the
specimens quite conservatively. Numerical comparisons of the lateral
load capacity (Hmax) from the 3D FEM analyses with the correspond-
ing experimental values (Hexp) are included in Table 3. As shown,
the average value of Hmax/Hexp for 3D FEM models with confined con-
crete behavior is 0.98 and the corresponding ratio for models with un-
confined concrete behavior is 0.90.
Fig. 9 compares the local inelastic buckling of the steel flange plates
of CW-42-55-10-T specimen with the corresponding local buckling and
plastic strain distribution obtained from the 3D FEM analysis. This com-
parison illustrates the ability of the 3D FEM model to account for the
complexities of behavior including steel yielding and local inelastic
buckling. The results in Fig. 8 are for monotonic lateral loading analysis.
They do not include cyclic/hysteresis behavior and the cumulative plas-
tic strains, which accrue over multiple cycles, to initiate fracture failure
in the models. Consequently, the results from monotonic 3D FEM anal-
yses provide a reasonable estimate of the lateral stiffness, pre-peak be-
havior, and load carrying capacity, but not of the post-peak behavior,
which is significantly influenced by steel fracture.
5.2. Cyclic analysis
The models were enhanced to conduct cyclic analyses as follows. The
ductile damage model in Abaqus was used to simulate fracture failure of
the steel under cyclic loading. The ductile damage model was also de-
fined based on the recommendations of Lai and Varma [26] with the fol-
lowing parameters: (i) damage initiation (due to necking) at 0.20
S. Shafaei, A.H. Varma, M. Broberg et al. Journal of Constructional Steel Research 184 (2021) 106810

Fig. 8. Comparison of 3D FEM model with experimental results (a) CW-42-55-10-T (b) CW-42-55-20-T (c) CW-42-55-30-T (d) CW-42-14-20-T (e) CW-42-14-20-TS.

Table 2
Comparison of experimental lateral stiffness with 3D finite element model results.

Specimen P kips (KN) fc´ psi (MPa) Stiffness at 0.40Hexp. Stiffness at 0.60 Hexp.

Kexp. Kip/in. (KN/mm) Kexp./KFEM Kexp. Kip/in. (KN/mm) Kexp./KFEM

CW-42-55-10-T −210 (−934) 6508 (44.9) 338.7 (59.3) 1.03 270.9 (47.4) 1.08
CW-42-55-20-T −505 (−2246) 7789 (53.7) 558.7 (97.8) 0.85 412.7 (72.2) 0.94
CW-42-55-30-T −710 (−3158) 7386 (50.9) 483.7 (84.7) 1.06 416.1 (72.9) 1.02
CW-42-14-20-T −560 (−2491) 8741 (60.3) 500.4 (87.6) 1.00 384.8 (67.4) 1.01
CW-42-14-20-TS −540 (−2402) 8408 (58.0) 503.1 (88.1) 0.99 410.7 (71.9) 1.00

6
S. Shafaei, A.H. Varma, M. Broberg et al.
Table 3
Comparison of experimental lateral load capacity with 3D finite element model results.
Specimen P kips (KN) fc Vpsi (MPa)
CW-42-55-10-T −210 (−934) 6508 (44.9)
CW-42-55-20-T −505 (−2246) 7789 (53.7)
CW-42-55-30-T −710 (−3158) 7386 (50.9)
CW-42-14-20-T −560 (−2491) 8741 (60.3)
CW-42-14-20-TS −540 (−2402) 8408 (58.0)
plastic strain, (ii) linear damage evolution, and (iii) complete fracture
(element deletion) at approximately 0.25 plastic strain. The complete
fracture (element deletion) of steel plates was defined to occur at 95%
damage. The cyclic behavior of the concrete (CDP) model depends on
the compression (dc) and tension (dt) damage parameters and the com-
pression and tension recovery (during reloading) parameters (wc and
wt). The compression and tension damage parameters were defined as
functions of the inelastic strain and crack opening displacement, respec-
tively, based on the recommendations of [26,27]. The recovery parame-
ters in compression and tension were assumed to be equal to 0.7 and 0.1
based on preliminary comparisons with experimental results.
Fig. 10(a)–(d) compare the results obtained from cyclic lateral load-
ing analysis of 3D FEM model of Specimen CW-42-55-10-T with those
obtained experimentally. The comparisons shown in Fig. 10 are repre-
sentative of those obtained for other specimens. Fig. 10(a) and
(b) show comparisons of the cyclic lateral load-deflection responses ob-
tained experimentally and analytically (using confined concrete behav-
ior), where Fig. 10(a) focuses on the complete cyclic responses
including hysteresis and Fig. 10(b) focuses on the comparisons of the
envelops. This graphical comparison illustrates the ability of the 3D
FEM model to simulate the post-peak degradation of lateral resistance
due to cumulative plastic strains leading to fracture failure of the steel
plates. A photograph of the steel plate fracture during the test is
shown in Fig. 10(c). Fig. 10(d) shows the corresponding fracture in
the 3D FEM model.
The comparisons in Fig. 10(a)–(d) indicate that the 3D FEM models
can estimate the lateral stiffness, strength, and post-peak degradation
behavior conservatively, but not the pinching of the hysteresis loops.
The inability of the 3D FEM model to simulate the pinching of the hys-
teresis loops is attributed to the cyclic behavior of the concrete damage
plasticity model, which is fundamentally incapable of modeling con-
crete crack opening and closing behavior. After unloading from tension
(cracking) the concrete model goes directly into compression (with
Fig. 9. Local inelastic buckling of steel flange plate of CW-42-55-10-T specimen: (a) Experimental observation (b) Plastic strain distribution in the 3D FEM Model.
Journal of Constructional Steel Research 184 (2021) 106810
Experimental average 3D FEM (confined concrete) 3D FEM (unconfined concrete)
Hexp kips (KN) Hmax Hmax
Hexp Hexp
181.1 (805.6) 1.02 0.96
219.0 (974.2) 0.95 0.87
212.0 (943.0) 1.01 0.92
214.6 (954.6) 0.89 0.78
211.1 (939.0) 1.01 0.95
some softening of the elastic modulus) without any crack closing behav-
ior, and vice versa. This artificial and incorrect hysteresis behavior
model makes the 3D FEM models ineffective for modeling cyclic behav-
ior reasonably. However, as shown in Figs. 8(a)–(e) and 10, the 3D FEM
models can be used effectively to model the monotonic behavior and
envelop of cyclic behavior of the tested specimens.
6. Effective stress-strain relationships
Given the complexity associated with developing and analyzing 3D
FEM models, the need for extensive computational resources and
time, and the limited success with modeling cyclic behavior particularly
when concrete crack opening and closing behavior is an important con-
tributor to hysteretic behavior, other modeling options such as fiber-
based FEM models are of significant interest for the modeling the cyclic
behavior of C-PSW/CF specimens. Fiber-based FEM models have been
used extensively to model the behavior of composite members includ-
ing filled composite members [25,40].
The accuracy of fiber-based models is governed by the fiber
discretization of the composite cross-section and the effective stress-
strain relationships used for the steel and concrete fibers. These effec-
tive stress-strain relationships must be phenomenological and account
implicitly for the complexities of behavior such as yielding, local buck-
ling, concrete cracking, and confinement. Therefore, these relationships
were derived from the results of the monotonic 3D FEM analyses, which
explicitly accounted for the mentioned aspects of behavior. Addition-
ally, these phenomenological stress-strain relationships should be
simple, conservative, and easy to implement in fiber-based FEM formu-
lations. This section presents the development of effective stress-strain
relationships for steel and concrete elements of the cross-section in
compression and tension. The approach presented here is similar to
the one used by the co-authors [40,44] and Lai and Varma [26] to
7
S. Shafaei, A.H. Varma, M. Broberg et al.
Fig. 10. Comparison of cyclic 3D FEM analysis with the experimental results of CW-42-55-10-T (a) Cyclic load-deflection curves (b) Backbone of load-deflection curves (c) Experimental
observation (d) 3D FEM model.
develop effective stress-strain relationships for steel and concrete ele-
ments of rectangular filled composite members in the past.
6.1. Steel plates
The method used to develop the phenomenological effective stress-
strain curves for both the compression and tension steel flange plates of
the tested planar C-PSW/CF specimens is shown in Fig. 11. The effective
principal stresses (σ11 and σ22) were extracted for a row of elements,
selected just above the plastic hinge of the specimens. The principal
stress, σ22, is the longitudinal stress along the height of the flange
Fig. 11. Development of the effective stress-strain curves for the steel flange plates of C-
PSW/CF.
8
Journal of Constructional Steel Research 184 (2021) 106810
plate; and the principal stress, σ11, is the transverse stress along the
width, as shown in Fig. 11. The elements at the center of plastic hinge
were not selected because the local stress varies significantly due to in-
elastic local buckling, and the calculation of average stresses becomes
inaccurate. The effective stress in the longitudinal direction was calcu-
lated as the sum of the forces carried by the elements, ∑(σ22 × Ael), di-
vided by the sum of their cross-sectional areas, ∑Ael,. The effective
strain in the longitudinal direction was calculated as the average of ver-
tical nodal displacements (Δh) of the selected elements divided by the
plastic hinge length (hp).
The resulting effective stress-strain curves for the tension flange of
the five tested C-PSW/CF specimens are shown in Fig. 12. For Specimens
CW-42-55-10-T, CW-42-55-20-T, and CW-42-55-30-T, with tie rein-
forcement ratio of 0.55% and plate slenderness ratio of 24, the longitudi-
nal principal stresses (σ22) show inelastic behavior with strain
hardening, but they reach higher yield strength than the input yield
stress (Fy) of 59.1 ksi (407.5 MPa). The corresponding transverse princi-
pal stresses (σ11) in the tension flanges are non-zero, tensile, and
notably high. Thus, the tension flange plates of planar C-PSW/CF are
subjected to biaxial tension principal stress state (σ11, σ22).
This biaxial stress state develops because the tension flange plate
undergoes significant longitudinal tensile strain, but the corresponding
(compressive) transverse strain due to Poisson's effect is restrained by
the (rigid) concrete infill core. This restraint to transverse strain results
in the notably high transverse principal tensile stress (σ11) and the biax-
ial stress state. Due to this biaxial stress state (σ11, σ22), the yielding of
the tension flange plate is governed by the von Mises yield criteria
shown in Eq. (1). Yielding occurs when the von Mises stress (σVM) cal-
culated using principal stresses becomes equal to the specified yield
S. Shafaei, A.H. Varma, M. Broberg et al.
stress (Fy). Fig. 12 includes the von Mises stress (σVM) calculated using
the principal stresses (σ11, σ22) in the tension flange plate from the
FEM analysis. As shown, the calculated σVM coincides with the stress-
strain behavior specified for the material shown in Fig. 5. Thus, the lon-
gitudinal stress (σ22) corresponding to the onset of yielding in the ten-
sion flange plate is greater than the material yield stress (Fy), which is
important for the steel effective stress-strain behavior in tension for C-
PSW/CF.
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
σ VM ¼ σ 211 −σ 11 σ 22 þ σ 222
The resulting stress-strain curves for the compression flange of the
five tested C-PSW/CF specimens are shown in Fig. 13. For Specimens
CW-42-55-10-T, CW-42-55-20-T, and CW-42-55-30-T, with tie rein-
forcement ratio of 0.55% and plate slenderness ratio of 24, the longitudi-
nal principal stresses (σ22) have approximately elastic-plastic behavior
with yielding occurring close to the material yield stress (Fy) and little to
no strain hardening. Inelastic local buckling of the compression flange
plate effectively eliminates any benefit from strain hardening on the
Fig. 12. Principle stresses (σ11 and σ22) and the von Mises stress in the tension steel flange plate (a) CW-42-55-10-T (b) CW-42-55-20-T (c) CW-42-55-30-T (d) CW-42-14-20-T
(e) CW-42-14-20-TS.
Journal of Constructional Steel Research 184 (2021) 106810
longitudinal stress capacity. The corresponding transverse principal
stresses (σ22) in the compression flanges are small.
For Specimens CW-42-14-20-T and CW-42-14-20-TS with tie rein-
forcement ratio of 0.14% and plate slenderness ratios of 48 and 24, re-
spectively, the longitudinal principal stress (σ22) has approximately
elastic-plastic behavior with yielding occurring close to the material
yield stress (Fy). The longitudinal stress reduced slightly after yielding
due to local buckling. The corresponding transverse principal stress
(σ11) increased slightly to approximately 10 ksi (68.9 MPa) with in-
creasing longitudinal strains (up to 0.01) due to the transverse restraint
ð1Þ
to local buckling. Overall, the compression flange plate has approxi-
mately elastic-plastic behavior with little to no strain hardening.
Fig. 15 show the idealized effective stress-strain relationship pro-
posed for the steel flange plates of planar C-PSW/CF based on the results
of 3D FEM analyses. As shown, the effective stress-strain relationship is
asymmetric in tension and compression with: (a) yielding in tension oc-
curring at 1.1Fy, to account for the biaxial stress state, followed by linear
strain hardening up to the ultimate stress, (b) yielding in compression
occurring at the material yield stress (Fy) followed by perfectly plastic
behavior (no strain hardening) to account for the effects of inelastic
9
S. Shafaei, A.H. Varma, M. Broberg et al.
local buckling, and (c) fracture occurring at the material ultimate strain
followed by linear degradation of strength. It is important to note that
the effective stress-strain relationship is limited to steel plates of
C-PSW/CF specimens with tie reinforcement ratio and plate slenderness
ratios in the range of the tested specimens. The effective stress-strain re-
lationship is fairly simple and easy to implement in any fiber-based
analysis program.
6.2. Concrete infill
Fig. 15 illustrates the locations of sections in the plastic hinge region
selected to develop effective stress-strain curves for concrete in com-
pression. Four different sections located at approximately 5, 7.5, 9.5,
and 12.5 in. (127, 190, 241, and 317 mm), respectively, from the base
of the specimen were considered to evaluate the effects of confinement
and local inelastic buckling of steel plates on the compression behavior
of concrete. The discussion here focuses on the results for Sections 1 and
Fig. 13. Principle stresses (σ11 and σ22) and the von Mises stress in the compression steel flange plate (a) CW-42-55-10-T (b) CW-42-55-20-T (c) CW-42-55-30-T (d) CW-42-14-20-T
(e) CW-42-14-20-TS.
10
Journal of Constructional Steel Research 184 (2021) 106810
2 because the effects of inelastic local buckling and confinement were
prevalent at these locations, and the results for all four sections were
similar.
At each Section, the axial force (F22) resisted by the concrete com-
pression block was estimated by summing up the axial forces (f22)
resisted by each element, which was in turn estimated as the element
centroidal axial stress (s22) multiplied by the corresponding area (Ael).
The location of the axial force resultant (Y22) relative to the concrete
compression edge was estimated by summing up the moment contribu-
tion (f22 ∙ y22) of each element divided by the sum of the axial force (F22).
The axial displacement (U2) of the node closest to the axial force resul-
tant was used to estimate the average axial strain (eavg) as U2/Lo, where
Lo is the original length for each section. The average stress (savg) was es-
timated as the axial force (F22) divided by the area of the elements in the
compression block. Thus, the average stress-strain (savg-eavg) curve rep-
resents the axial force-displacement behavior of the concrete compres-
sion block at its effective resultant location.
S. Shafaei, A.H. Varma, M. Broberg et al.
Fig. 14. Proposed phenomenological effective stress-strain relationship for the steel flange
of C-PSW/CF.
The average stress-strain curves for the concrete compression blocks
at Sections 1 and 2 are shown in Fig. 16 for all the tested specimens. For
comparison, the figure also includes the confined (Tao) concrete stress-
strain curve (from Fig. 6(a)) that was input to the FEM model. For all
specimens, except CW-42-14-20-T (Fig. 16(d)), the ascending branches
of the stress-strain curves follow the input stress-strain curve (model by
[37]) up to peak stress (fc V). Concrete confinement has little to no influ-
ence on the peak compressive stress, which was expected because of
the similarity of behavior between planar C-PSW/CF and rectangular
filled composite members. The stress-strain curves have more ductile
post-peak behavior than the input curve and a post-peak stress plateau
(residual stress capacity) because of the additional confinement pro-
vided by the steel plates to the crushed concrete. The increase in post-
peak ductility is not significant, but the residual stress capacity is
notable.
For Specimen CW-42-14-20-T (Fig. 16(d)) with the largest plate
slenderness of 48 and lowest tie reinforcement ratio (0.14%), the aver-
age stress-strain is limited to approximately 0.8fc Vand the post-peak be-
havior is slightly less ductile than the input curve. The local buckling of
the steel plates was quite severe, which marginalized the confinement
of the concrete core. Overall, for specimens with plate slenderness ratios
of 24 and tie reinforcement ratio of 0.14 or 0.55%, the concrete effective
stress-strain curve followed the input curve (model by [37]) and had a
residual stress capacity of 0.5–0.6fc V. Fig. 17 shows the proposed ideal-
ized effective stress-strain relationship for concrete core in compres-
sion. It is relatively simple and easy to implement in any fiber-based
analysis program. The uniaxial tension behavior of concrete can also
be defined according to CEB-FIP [14].
Fig. 15. Schematic of concrete compression block average stress-strain calculation along with section locations.
11
Journal of Constructional Steel Research 184 (2021) 106810
7. Implementation in 2D FEM models
The phenomenological effective stress-strain relationships for steel
(Fig. 15) and concrete (Fig. 17) were implemented in simpler 2D FEM
models to simulate the behavior of C-PSW/CF wall specimens without
explicitly modeling the effects of inelastic local buckling and concrete
confinement.
7.1. 2D finite element model
A schematic of the simpler 2D FEM model of C-PSW/CF specimen is
shown in Fig. 18. The planar composite wall including the steel web
plates and infill concrete was modeled using layered composite shell el-
ements (S4R, 4 node elements with reduced integration). Each shell el-
ement consisted of three layers: steel, concrete, and steel. The steel
layers had three integration points through the thickness and the con-
crete layer had seven integration points through the thickness. Two-
node truss elements (T3D2) were used for the steel flange plates
(boundary elements). The truss elements were tied to the shell ele-
ments, and their specified area was equal to the cross-sectional area of
the flange plates.
This simpler 2D FEM model cannot account for local inelastic buck-
ling of the steel plates or the transverse interaction between steel and
concrete resulting in concrete confinement and biaxial stresses in the
tension flange plate. Therefore, the phenomenological effective stress-
strain relationships (Figs. 15, 17) were used to define the behavior of
the steel and concrete materials in the FEM model. The uniaxial tension
stress vs. crack opening displacement behavior of concrete was also de-
fined according to CEB-FIP [14] model, which was identical to the 3D
FEM models. Additionally, the force-deformation behavior of the flange
plates was defined by converting the applicable effective stress-strain
relationship into a force-deformation relationship. The cyclic (hyster-
etic) behavior of the steel material model and the corresponding ductile
damage models were identical to those used for the 3D FEM models. The
parameters for the concrete damage plasticity model, the cyclic hyster-
esis behavior, and the damage models were identical to those used for
the 3D FEM models.
The 2D FEM model shown in Fig. 18 was restrained at the base and
subjected to lateral loading at the top. The models were analyzed for
monotonic and cyclic lateral loading separately. The discussion here fo-
cuses on the results for CW-42-55-10-T specimen because the results
and comparisons were representative. Fig. 19(a) shows the monotonic
lateral load-deflection response calculated using the 2D FEM model
S. Shafaei, A.H. Varma, M. Broberg et al. Journal of Constructional Steel Research 184 (2021) 106810

Fig. 16. Average stress-strain curves for concrete compression block of Specimens: (a) CW-42-55-10-T (b) CW-42-55-20-T (c) CW-42-55-30-T (d) CW-42-14-20-T (e) CW-42-14-20-TS.

for CW-42-55-10-T specimen and compares it with similar responses 2D FEM model, 3D FEM model, and the experimental result. The com-
from the 3D FEM model and the average envelop of the experimental parisons in Figs. 19(c), (d) indicate that the cyclic lateral load-
result. The 2D and 3D FEM models monotonic lateral load-deflection re- deflection response from the 2D FEM model compare very well with
sponses compare favorably with each other and with the experimental
result up to peak load. The 2D FEM model is conservative with respect to
the 3D FEM model due to the simplifications and idealizations in the ef-
fective stress-strain curves. Fig. 19(b) shows the von Mises stress con-
tour plots in the steel plates of the 3D and 2D FEM models. The steel
yield stress of 59.1 ksi (407.5 MPa) is specified as the upper limit for
the contour plots to highlight the yielded regions in grey. As shown, ex-
tensive yielding occurs in the steel plates on both sides of the neutral
axis, and the yielded regions of the 3D and 2D FEM models compare rea-
sonably with each other. As mentioned earlier, the monotonic analyses
do not account for the post-peak degradation of behavior (observed ex-
perimentally) because they do not include cumulative plastic strains,
which accrue over multiple cycles and initiate fracture failure.
Fig. 19(c) shows cyclic lateral load-deflection response calculated
using the 2D FEM model and compares it with similar responses from
the 3D FEM model and experiment results. Fig. 19(d) compares the en- Fig. 17. Proposed phenomenological effective stress-strain relationship for the
velops of the cyclic lateral load-deflection responses obtained from the compression concrete of C-PSW/CF.

12
S. Shafaei, A.H. Varma, M. Broberg et al. Journal of Constructional Steel Research 184 (2021) 106810

Fig. 18. 2D FEM model of C-PSW/CF.

the response from the 3D FEM model, which is notable. Both the 2D and
3D FEM models can estimate the lateral stiffness, strength, and post-
peak degradation behavior conservatively, but not the pinching of the
hysteresis loops. As discussed earlier, this can be attributed to the funda-
mental limitation of the cyclic behavior of the concrete damage plastic-
ity model, which cannot adequately account for concrete crack opening
and closing behavior.
As compared to detailed 3D FEM models, the simplified 2D FEM
models are computationally efficient by orders of magnitude in terms
of computational resources and time, and can be used effectively to con-
duct nonlinear dynamic time-history analyses for the performance-
based design of structures with planar C-PSW/CF. This 2D modeling ap-
proach was used by the co-authors in Bruneau et al. [13] to conduct con-
firmatory FEMA P695 analyses and evaluate the seismic response of

Fig. 19. Comparison of FEM results with experiments: (a) monotonic analyses vs. experimental envelop, (b) von Mises stress distribution in steel plates of 3D and 2D FEM, (c) cyclic
analyses vs. experimental results, and (d) envelop of cyclic analyses vs. experimental envelop.

13
S. Shafaei, A.H. Varma, M. Broberg et al.
Fig. 20. Schematic of fiber-based FEM for tested C-PSW/CF specimens.
coupled walls systems [13] and uncoupled wall systems [2]. These con-
firmatory FEMA P695 analyses involved hundreds of nonlinear time-
history analyses of archetype structures subjected to various ground
motions at different scaling factors and could be completed using the
2D FEM models developed in this paper.
7.2. Fiber-based FEM modeling in OpenSEES
2D FEM models are computationally efficient relative to detailed 3D
FEM models, but they are still too computationally expensive for
conducting comprehensive FEMA P695 studies that involve thousands
of incremental dynamic time-history analyses of archetype structures
subjected to forty-four scaled ground motions. Additionally, 2D FEM
models still require access to commercial, resource-intensive FEM soft-
ware that can be difficult to access, use, and evaluate for research pur-
poses. Consequently, there is considerable interest in the use of
OpenSEES software [28] for conducting nonlinear inelastic time-history
analysis of structural systems subjected to ground motion records.
The fiber-based FEM model available in OpenSEES is ideal for model-
ing the behavior of composite members because: (a) it discretizes the
cross-section in to steel and concrete fibers; (b) the steel and concrete fi-
bers can have independent stress-strain relationships, hysteresis rules,
and damage models; (c) the cross-section axial force-centroidal strain-
bending moment-curvature (P-ε-M-ϕ) relationship forms the fundamen-
tal building block of the element; and (d) both displacement-based and
force-based element formulations are available to the user. The accuracy
of the fiber-based element depends on the element formulation, mesh,
fiber discretization, and most importantly the fiber stress-strain relation-
ships. The effective stress-strain relationships were developed particu-
larly for use with the fiber-based FEM in OpenSEES.
The specific details of the implementation of these effective stress-
strain relationships in OpenSEES, and the calibrated hysteresis rules
and fracture models are presented in detail in [2,13]. A brief summary
along with the relevant input parameter values is provided here. The
ReinforcingSteel model in OpenSEES was used to represent the behavior
of the [45] Gomes- Appleton local buckling model and the Coffin-
Manson low cycle fatigue model for fracture. The parameters of the
ReinforcingSteel model were calibrated in such a way that it approxi-
mated the tensionand compression stress-strain model for steel
shown in Fig. 14 and the cyclic behavior of the tested specimens. The
resulting values of the ReinforcingSteel model parameters for local buck-
ling: slenderness ratio λsr, amplification factor β, buckling reduction fac-
tor r, and buckling constant γ were equal to 10, 1, 0.65, and 0.5,
respectively. The resulting values of the ReinforcingSteel model
14
Journal of Constructional Steel Research 184 (2021) 106810
parameters for low-cycle fatigue fracture were: Cf, α, and Cd equal to
0.6, 0.5, 0.35, respectively.
The Concrete02 model in OpenSEES was used to represent the be-
havior of the concrete because it accounts for the effects of cyclic hyster-
esis and degradation of stiffness in unloading and reloading curves. The
parameters of the Concrete02 model were calibrated in such a way that
it approximated the compression stress-strain model for concrete
shown in Fig. 17 and the cyclic behavior of the tested specimen. The
resulting values of the Concrete02 model parameters were as follows.
Compressive strength equal to measured value fc V, strain at peak
strength equal to 0.0023–0.0026, residual strength equal to 0.6fc V, and
strain at residual strength equal to 0.0071.
Fig. 20 shows a schematic of the fiber-based FEM model for the
C-PSW/CF specimens developed in OpenSEES. The wall models
accounted for the cross-section geometry, axial load, and cyclic loading
history for each specimen. The plastic hinge region was modeled using
three fiber elements over the expected plastic hinge length of 18 in.
(457 mm), which is in accordance with the zone of plasticity observed
in the experiment [34] and 3D FEM analysis. These elements were
assigned steel and concrete fibers according to the cross-section geom-
etry previously defined in Fig. 2. The steel and concrete fiber stress-
strain relationships and corresponding input parameters were as
discussed above.
The cyclic lateral load-deflection responses calculated using fiber-
based FEM model are shown in Fig. 21 for all five planar C-PSW/CF spec-
imens. The experimentally measured cyclic lateral load-deflection re-
sponses are also included in the figures for comparison. Across all
specimens the strength, initial stiffness, pinching, and cyclic degrada-
tion of strength and stiffness are calculated with reasonable accuracy
by this simple fiber-based FEM model. This model simulates the behav-
ior of CW-42-55-10-T, CW-42-55-30-T, and CW-14-20-TS as shown in
Fig. 21(a), (c), and (e), with reasonable accuracy. The comparison for
CW-42-55-20-T (Fig. 21(b)) shows good correlation in initial stiffness,
pinching, and reloading stiffness but conservatively predicts the lateral
load capacity of the wall. Nevertheless, the fiber models enable efficient
implementation of the effective stress-strain curves, and these models
well predict the experimental results including the initial stiffness, ulti-
mate capacity, and degradation behavior.
8. Conclusions
In this paper, experimental results of large-scale planar C-PSW/CF
specimens were summarized, and detailed 3D FEM models of tested
specimens were developed and benchmarked. The planar C-PSW/CF
specimens were subjected to constant axial compression force and cy-
clic lateral loading. The results from the analytical investigations and
comparisons of experimental and analytical results lead to the following
conclusions.
Detailed 3D FEM models using appropriate finite elements, steel and
concrete constitutive models, initial local imperfections, and composite
interaction can simulate the global and local behavior of planar C-PSW/
CF. Monotonic analysis of the 3D FEM models simulates the lateral load-
deflection response including stiffness and strength up to peak load, and
behavioral aspects such as steel yielding, inelastic local buckling, biaxial
stress-state of tension flange plates, concrete inelasticity and confine-
ment in the planar C-PSW/CF. Cyclic analysis of 3D FEM models simu-
lates the overall lateral load-deflection responses including post-peak
degradation due to ductile damage and fracture of steel plates, but it un-
able to simulate the pinching of the hysteresis loops due to the limita-
tions of the concrete damage plasticity model. These 3D FEM models
are recommended for conducting further parametric studies on the be-
havior of planar C-PSW/CF.
Phenomenological effective stress-strain relationships were devel-
oped for the concrete compression block and steel plates of the tested
C-PSW/CF specimens. These effective stress-strain were developed to
implicitly account for fundamental behavior aspects, while retaining
S. Shafaei, A.H. Varma, M. Broberg et al.
Fig. 21. Comparison of fiber-based FEM models with experimental results (a) CW-42-55-10-T (b) CW-42-55-20-T (c) CW-42-55-30-T (d) CW-42-14-20-T (e) CW-42-14-20-TS.
conservatism and ease of implementation in simpler models. The effec-
tive stress-strain curves implicitly account for the effects of the steel
yielding, local buckling, biaxial stress-state, transverse composite ac-
tion, concrete tension cracking, compression inelasticity and confine-
ment in planar C-PSW/CF. The proposed effective stress-strain
relationships are limited to planar C-PSW/CF with tie reinforcement
ratio and plate slenderness ratios in the range of the tested specimens
of this study.
2D FEM models of planar C-PSW/CF (with layered composite shell
and truss elements) were developed using the effective stress-strain re-
lationships and verified with experimental results and results from 3D
FEM analyses. The 2D FEM models can simulate the lateral stiffness,
strength, and post-peak degradation behavior, but not the pinching of
15
Journal of Constructional Steel Research 184 (2021) 106810
the hysteresis loops because of the aforementioned limitations of con-
crete damage plasticity model. As 2D FEM models are computationally
efficient, they are recommended for performing nonlinear dynamic
time-history analyses and performance-based design of structures
with planar C-PSW/CF.
Fiber-based FEM models of planar C-PSW/CF were developed using
the fiber element in OpenSEES along with the proposed effective
stress-strain relationships. The comparisons of cyclic lateral load-
deflection responses with experimental results indicate that the fiber-
based FEM models are capable of reasonably estimating the lateral stiff-
ness, strength, pinching of hysteresis loops, and cyclic degradation of
strength and stiffness of planar C-PSW/CF. These fiber-based FEM
models are computationally much more efficient than even the 2D
S. Shafaei, A.H. Varma, M. Broberg et al.
FEM models. Therefore, they are recommended for conducting compre-
hensive incremental dynamic time-history analyses of structures with
planar C-PSW/CF.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influ-
ence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgments
The project was supported by Charles Pankow Foundation (CPF Re-
search Grant #06-16 and #05-17) and American Institute of Steel Con-
struction (AISC). However, any opinions, findings, conclusions, and
recommendations presented in this paper are those of the authors and
do not necessarily reflect the view of the sponsors. Specimen fabrication
was donated by the Supreme Group. The authors are grateful to mem-
bers of the FEMA P695 Peer-Review Panel including Gregory G.
Deierlein from Stanford University and Rafael Sabelli from Walter P.
Moore. The authors acknowledge the contributions and support of Prof.
Michel Bruneau from the University at Buffalo.
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