MBG23202T RESEARCH METHODS IN BUSINESS

re is a prefix meaning again, anew or over again

search is a verb meaning to examine closely and carefully, to test and try, or to prove.
Research means “Search for Knowledge”.

Research is a structured enquiry that utilizes acceptable scientific methodology to solve

problems and create new knowledge that is generally applicable. Scientific methods consist of
systematic observation, classification and interpretation of data.

research is a process of systematic and in-depth study or search of any particular topic, subject
or area of investigation backed by collection, computation, presentation and interpretation of
relevant data.

Research in Business Management:

Research is a systematic and organized process of gathering, analyzing, interpreting, and

evaluating information to increase understanding and knowledge of a particular subject or
phenomenon. In the context of business management, research plays a pivotal role in
decision-making, problem-solving, and strategic planning.

Business research is a process of acquiring detailed information of all the areas of business and
using such information in maximizing the sales and pr
ofit of the business

Business research is a systematic inquiry that provides information to guide managerial

decisions. In other words, it is a process of planning, acquiring, analyzing, and disseminating
relevant data, information, and insights to decision makers in ways that mobilize the
organization to take appropriate actions that, in turn, maximize performance

The Need for Business Research

● Decision-Making: Business research is crucial for informed decision-making. It provides

executives and managers with relevant, accurate, and up-to-date information to make
strategic choices, allocate resources effectively, and navigate complex business
environments.
● Market Understanding: Business research helps in understanding market dynamics,
customer preferences, and industry trends. This knowledge is essential for businesses to
identify opportunities, assess market demand, and stay ahead of competitors.
● Risk Management: In a rapidly changing business landscape, research aids in identifying
potential risks and uncertainties. By conducting thorough research, businesses can
develop risk mitigation strategies, ensuring a more robust and resilient operation.
● Innovation and Product Development: Research is the foundation for innovation.
Businesses need to explore new ideas, technologies, and consumer preferences to stay
competitive. Research guides product development processes, leading to the creation of
innovative and market-responsive offerings.
● Competitive Analysis: To maintain a competitive edge, businesses must constantly
evaluate their competitors. Business research allows organizations to assess competitor
strategies, strengths, and weaknesses, enabling them to formulate effective competitive
strategies.
● Customer Satisfaction and Loyalty: Understanding customer needs and expectations is
vital for business success. Research helps in gauging customer satisfaction levels,
identifying pain points, and improving products or services to enhance customer loyalty.
● Resource Optimization: Efficient use of resources is essential for sustainability. Business
research helps in optimizing resource allocation, whether it's financial, human, or
technological resources, leading to improved efficiency and cost-effectiveness.
● Regulatory Compliance: Businesses operate in environments with various regulations
and legal frameworks. Research ensures that businesses stay compliant with laws,
regulations, and industry standards, minimizing legal risks and potential penalties.
● Strategic Planning: Business research is fundamental to strategic planning. It provides
insights into market trends, consumer behavior, and industry dynamics, helping
businesses formulate and adjust their long-term strategies to achieve sustainable
growth.
● Adaptation to Change: In today's dynamic business environment, change is constant.
Research equips businesses with the knowledge needed to adapt to changes in
technology, market conditions, and consumer preferences, ensuring agility and
resilience.
1) Production Research
The production function in an organization is dynamic and needs continuous improvement in
process, product design, cost and many more. Production research is instrumental in resolving
the complexities resulting from these changes and improvements. Researchers conduct
production research in the following areas:

i) Methods for Standardizing and Controlling Production,

ii) Finding new and better production methods, and
iii) Finding strategies and methods for troubleshooting.

2) Industrial Research
Industrial research is a pragmatic concept that prioritizes the well-being of a company.
Therefore, it is a planned effort to gain better information and improve the new and existing
products, services, and processes. The scope of industrial research extends to several crucial
areas, and they are as follows:

i) Developing services and new products to gain market share,

ii) Finding ways to improve the quality of services and products,
iii) Innovating new methods for utilizing the available resources,
iv) Decisions regarding minimising the cost,
v) Ways to reduce hazards at the workplace,
vi) Standardisation of processes, and
vii) Developing strategies for improving the relations with customers and the public.

3) Organisational Research
Organizational research includes a multitude of disciplines. In an organisation, researchers
come from different backgrounds and hence bring various concepts, tools, and methods for
analysis. Many experts widely accept that students aspiring to become future managers benefit
significantly from a solid understanding of research methods. Organisational analysis facilitates
managers to explore various theories and findings that are relevant to the organisation.
Additionally, it helps the managers to increase their problem-solving efficiency. Knowing the
research fundamentals allows the managers to investigate a problem scientifically, which in turn
enhances the efficiency of managers

4) Marketing Research
There is widespread use of research in marketing. As a result, the company formulates all its
marketing strategies and initiatives based on consumer tastes and preferences, which various
research efforts aim to thoroughly comprehend. Companies conduct marketing research to
study consumer behaviour, assess consumer attitude, measure advertising effectiveness,
evaluate distribution channel efficiency, analyze sales, and support new product development,
among other objectives.

i) Forecasting the demand for products,

ii) Analysing the buying behaviour of consumers,
iii) Measuring the effectiveness of advertisement.
iv) Decisions regarding media selection for proper advertisement.
v) Market testing for new products,
vi) Decisions regarding the positioning strategies for a product,
vii) Estimating the product potential.

5) Human Resource Development and organisational behaviour

The areas of human resources and organisational behaviour are some of the core domains of
research. Within these domains, researchers actively investigate several significant issues,
which we’ll outline below.

i) Individual behaviour and interpersonal relationships,

ii) Attitudes of employees,
iii) Leadership characteristics and styles,
iv) Mechanisms used for performance appraisal, and
v) Assessment centre and evaluation

6) Accounting and Finance

In the world of accounting and finance, there are several important areas that researchers focus
on. These areas help us understand how money and financial decisions work. Researchers who
specialize in these areas play an important role in making sure organisations’ financial systems
work well and help people make smart financial choices. Their work is important for improving
rules and regulations and guiding people in making wise investment decisions.

In the field of accounting and finance, researchers investigate various main areas, which are as
follows.
i) Designing new practices and methods for inventory costing.
ii) Examining budgetary control systems.
iii) Analyzing the practice of transfer pricing and its effects on profitability.
iv) Investigating the treatment of depreciation and its effect on earnings.
v) Exploring decisions regarding capital structure and capital budgeting.
vi) Assessing the effect of merger and acquisition on profitability.
vii) Studying individuals’ attitudes towards investment decisions

Significance of Research
The significance of the research lies in its ability to contribute to the advancement of knowledge
and understanding in various fields. Here are some of the key significance of research:

● Contributes to the development of new knowledge: Research provides new information,

ideas, and theories that can expand our understanding of a particular subject or
phenomenon.
● Supports decision-making and policy development: Research provides evidence-based
solutions to complex problems and helps decision-makers develop effective policies and
practices.
● Improves practices and processes: Research can identify new opportunities for
innovation and help improve practices and processes in various fields, such as
healthcare, education, and business.
● Helps solve real-world problems: Research provides insights into the causes and factors
that contribute to social, economic, and environmental problems and helps identify
effective solutions.
● Promotes economic growth and development: Research can lead to the development of
new technologies and products that can create jobs and stimulate economic growth.
● Enhances the quality of life: Research can help improve the quality of life for individuals
and communities by providing evidence-based solutions to healthcare, education, and
social issues.

PURPOSE OF RESEARCH
1. Progress and Good Life
The purpose of all research is progress and good life. Progress results if the space of ignorance
is occupied by knowledge and wisdom. The latter are the results of good research. Knowledge
and wisdom drive the mankind to live an orderly good life.
2. Development of Scientific Attitude
One of the purposes of research is to develop scientific attitude. Scientific attitude is one that
asks ‘Why’ and ‘How’ and answers are found. This ‘Know-why’ and ‘Know-how’ attitude nurtures
talents and such intellectual talents are the great assets of society.
3. Creativity and Innovativeness
One of the purposes of research is encouragement to creativity and innovation. New products,
new processes and new uses are the means through which the world goes dynamic. A dynamic
world is not possible without newness introduced every now and then in every walk of life. And
this is possible only through creativity and innovation. Research kindles the creativity and
innovative instincts of people and thus experiments on the possibility of new things instead of
waiting for the accidental and slow experience path to creativity and innovation.
4. Testing Hypothesis and Establishing Theories
A very important purpose of research is testing of hypothesis and establishing theories. As was
already pointed out knowledge is power. That knowledge comes from testing hypotheses and
establishing new theories. Proven hypotheses become theories.
5. Prediction and Control
Applied research has a great say in prediction and control in almost all walks of human
endeavor Prediction is jumping into the future and the theories constitute the launch pad.
Control looks for deviation between actual happening and predicted happening. In the process,
the theories get reevaluated and redefined.
6. Purposive Development
Development = Growth + Change, Growth is uni-scaled while change is multi-scaled. In the
natural process development does take place through trial and error through casual
observations, through actual exposure and the like. But this is evolutionary and time consuming.
Revolutionary.
7. Problem Solving
The purpose of any research is problem solving. What is a problem? Problem is deprivation or
depreciation of something. Knowledge deprivation, efficiency deprivation, productivity
depreciation, etc., exist. How can these be solved? Research into the forces that cause
deprivation and measures to contain them from causing deprivation is needed. Thus, problem
solving is a great purpose of research.
8. Schematic Evaluation
Research is also carried out to systematically evaluate a process or practice of an organisation
to know its strengths and weaknesses so that areas for improvement process can be identified.
9. Impact Analysis
Research is undertaken to assess the impact of certain measures or change introduced on
relevant variables. Impact studies are useful for biological, social, business, economic and other
areas of decision making.
10. Methodological Improvement
Another purpose of research is improving research methodology itself. Developments in the
field of measurement and scaling are immense. Whether these can be appropriately used in the
case of particular research areas? To answer the question research needs to be done.
Validation, revalidation and devalidation of methodological aspects thus constitute good piece of
research. And this is one of the purposes of research. In fact, any research has a responsibility
towards contribution to methodological enrichment. development takes fourth through
discontinuous change. Research is the seed of such dichotomous
 ● Research method focuses on the techniques and tools used to gather data, while research
methodology deals with the overall strategy and framework of research.
● Research method involves specific procedures and steps to obtain information, whereas
research methodology guides the researcher in selecting appropriate research methods.
● Research method determines the type of data to be collected and analyzed, while research
methodology provides a systematic approach to conducting research.
● Examples of research methods include surveys, experiments, interviews, and observations,
while research methodology encompasses qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods.
● Research method describes the process of data collection and analysis, whereas research
methodology relates to the theoretical and philosophical underpinnings of research.
● Research method is more concrete and tangible, focusing on the practical aspects of
research, while research methodology is more abstract and conceptual, focusing on the
theoretical aspects.
● Research method is a subset of research methodology, which encompasses the entire
research process.
● Research method is specific to a particular research project or study, while research
methodology is applicable across different research projects and studies.
● Research method determines the reliability and validity of research findings, whereas
research methodology determines the overall validity and soundness of research.
● Research method is concerned with the tools and techniques employed, while research
methodology focuses on the framework and approach utilized in the research process.
Steps in Research Process

Research process consists of a series of steps or actions required for

effectively conducting research.

Formulating the research problem;

Extensive literature survey;
Developing hypothesis;
Preparing the research design;
Determining sample design;
Collecting data;
Analysis of data;
Preparation of the report or presentation of the results.

Formulating the research problem:

● There should be an individual or a group who have some difficulty or problem.
● There should be some objective(s) to be pursued. A person or an organization who
wants nothing cannot have a problem.
● There should be some doubt in the mind of the researcher about the choice of
alternative means.
Extensive literature survey;
● A thorough examination of the relevant studies is essential to the research process.
 ● The researcher can build consistency between his work and others through a literature
review
● review exposes the researcher to a more significant body of knowledge and helps him
follow the research process efficiently.
Developing hypothesis;
● A hypothesis is an assumption about relations between variables. It is a tentative
explanation of the research problem or a guess about the research outcome
● This is the initial point of any investigation that translates the research questions
into predictions
sources of hypothesis:
● The resemblance between the phenomenon.
● Observations from past studies, present-day experiences and from the
competitors.
● Scientific theories.
● General patterns that influence the thinking process of people.

Preparing the research design;

● Research Design:
● research design is the conceptual structure within which research is conducted;
● The nature of the study
● The purpose of the study
● The location where the study would be conducted
● The nature of data required
● From where the required data can be collected
● What time period the study would cover
● The type of sample design that would be used
● The techniques of data collection that would be used
● The methods of data analysis that would be adopted and
● The manner in which the report would be prepared

Determining sample design;

● Research projects usually look at a specific group of people, facilities, or how technology
is used in the business.
● In research, the term population refers to this study group. The research topic and
purpose help determine the study group.
● target a specific age group, males or females, a geographic location, or an ethnic group.
● A final step in a study’s design is to specify its sample or population so that the results
may be generalize

Collecting data;
● Data collection is important in obtaining the knowledge or information required to answer
the research issue. Every research collected data, either from the literature or the people
being studied.
 ● Data must be collected from the two categories of researchers.
● These sources may provide primary data.
-Experiment
-Questionnaire
-Observation
-Interview
● Secondary data categories are:
-Literature survey
-Official, unofficial reports
-An approach based on library resources

Data Analysis
During research design, the researcher plans data analysis. After collecting data, the researcher
analyzes it. The data is examined based on the approach in this step. The research findings are
reviewed and reported.

Data analysis involves a number of closely related stages, such as setting up categories,
applying these categories to raw data through coding and tabulation, and then drawing
statistical conclusions. The researcher can examine the acquired data using a variety of
statistical methods.

Preparation of the report or presentation of the results.

● The Layout: On the first page, the title, date, acknowledgments, and preface should be
on the report. A table of contents should be followed by a list of tables, graphs, and
charts if any.
● Introduction: It should state the research’s purpose and methods. This section should
include the study’s scope and limits.
● Summary of Findings: A non-technical summary of findings and recommendations will
follow the introduction. The findings should be summarized if they’re lengthy.
● Principal Report: The main body of the report should make sense and be broken up into
sections that are easy to understand.
● Conclusion: The researcher should restate his findings at the end of the main text. It’s
the final result.

Descriptive v/s Analytical: Descriptive research includes surveys and factfinding

enquiries of different kinds. The major purpose of descriptive research is description of
the state of affairs as it exists at any given time. The term Ex post facto research is used
in social sciences and business research for descriptive research studies

Descriptive research refers to research that provides an accurate portrayal of

characteristics of a particular individual, situation, or group. Descriptive research, also
known as statistical research. These studies are a means of discovering new meaning,
describing what exists, determining the frequency with which something occurs, and
categorizing information.
Advantages: • The people individual studied are unaware so they act naturally or as they
usually do in everyday situation; • It is less expensive and time consuming than quantitative
experiments; • Collects a large amount of notes for detailed studying; • As it is used to
describe and not make any conclusions it is to start the research with it;
Disadvantages • Descriptive research requires more skills. • Does not identify cause
behind a phenomenon • Response rate is low in this research. • Results of this research can
change over the period of time.

Applied v/s Fundamental: Research can either be applied (or action) research or
fundamental (to basic or pure) research. Applied research aims at finding a solution for an
immediate problem facing a society or an industrial/business organization, whereas
fundamental research is mainly concerned with generalizations and with the formulation of
a theory.

Applied research refers to scientific study and research that seeks to solve practical
problems. Applied research is used to find solutions to everyday problems, cure illness, and
develop innovative technologies, rather than to acquire knowledge for knowledge's sake.
For example, applied researchers may investigate ways to:
• Improve agricultural crop production
• Treat or cure a specific disease
• Improve the energy efficiency of homes, offices, or modes of transportation

Basic (aka fundamental or pure ) research is driven by a scientist's curiosity or interest in

a scientific question. The main motivation is to expand man's knowledge, not to create or
invent something. There is no obvious commercial value to the discoveries that result from
basic research. For example, basic science investigations probe for answers to questions
such as:
• How did the universe begin? • What are protons, neutrons, and electrons composed of? •
How do slime molds reproduce? • What is the specific genetic code of the fruit fly?
Quantitative v/s Qualitative: Quantitative research is based on the measurement of
quantity or amount. It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of
quantity. E.g. Studying the number of enquiries received for room bookings through
different modes like internet, emails, calls, letters, or different sources like travel and
tours operators, companies and government organizations etc.
Conceptual vs. Empirical: Conceptual research is associated to some theoretical idea(s) or
presupposition and is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts
or to get a better understanding of an existing concept in practice. On the other hand,
Empirical research draws together the data based on experience or observation alone,
often without due regard for system and theory. It is data-based research, coming up with
conclusions which are capable of being verified by observation or experiment. It is also
known as experimental research as it is essential to get facts firsthand, at their source,
and actively to go about doing certain things to stimulate the production of desired
information

Experimental research is an objective, systematic, controlled investigation for the

purpose of predicting and controlling phenomena and examining probability and causality
among selected variables.
Advantages • Best establishes cause-and-effect relationships
Disadvantages • Artificiality • Feasibility • Unethical

HYPOTHESIS
HYPOTHESIS: A hypothesis is an educated guess, based on the probability of an outcome.
Scientists formulate hypotheses after they understand all the current research on their
subject. Hypotheses specify the relationship between at least two variables, and are
testable. For a hypothesis to function properly, other researchers must be able to
reproduce the results that prove or disprove it

A hypothesis is either a suggested explanation for an observable phenomenon, or a

reasoned prediction of a possible causal correlation among multiple phenomena. In science,
a theory is a tested, well-substantiated, unifying explanation for a set of verified, proven
factors. If enough evidence accumulates to support a hypothesis, it moves to the next
step — known as a theory — in the scientific method and becomes accepted as a valid
explanation of a phenomenon. Tanner further explained that a scientific theory is the
framework for observations and facts.
Characteristics & Qualities of a Good Hypothesis
● Power of Prediction. One of the valuable attribute of a good hypothesis is to
predict for future.
● Closest to observable things.
 ● A hypothesis must have close contact with observable things.
● Simplicity.
● Clarity.
● Testability.
● Relevant to Problem.
The general functions of hypotheses:
● Development of Research Techniques
● Separating Relevant From Irrelevant Observation
● Selecting Required Facts Direction of Research
● Acts as a Guide Prevents Blind Research Accuracy & Precision
● Link between Theory & Investigation
● Link between Assumption & Observation Provide answer for a Question
● Save Time, Money & Energy

step for creating an effective, testable, and good research hypothesis:

1. Identify a research problem or question: Start by identifying a specific

research problem.
2. Review the literature: Conduct an in-depth review of the existing literature
related to the research problem to grasp the current knowledge and gaps in
the field.
3. Formulate a clear and testable hypothesis: Based on the research question,
use existing knowledge to form a clear and testable hypothesis. The
hypothesis should state a predicted relationship between two or more
variables that can be measured and manipulated. Improve the original draft
till it is clear and meaningful.
4. State the null hypothesis: The null hypothesis is a statement that there is
no relationship between the variables you are studying.
5. Define the population and sample: Clearly define the population you are
studying and the sample you will be using for your research.
6. Select appropriate methods for testing the hypothesis: Select appropriate
research methods, such as experiments, surveys, or observational studies,
which will allow you to test your research hypothesis.
Types of research hypothesis
Different types of research hypothesis are used in scientific research:

1. Null hypothesis:
A null hypothesis states that there is no change in the dependent variable due to
changes to the independent variable. This means that the results are due to chance
and are not significant. A null hypothesis is denoted as H0 and is stated as the
opposite of what the alternative hypothesis states.

Example: “The newly identified virus is not zoonotic.”

2. Alternative hypothesis:
This states that there is a significant difference or relationship between the
variables being studied. It is denoted as H1 or Ha and is usually accepted or
rejected in favor of the null hypothesis.
Example: “The newly identified virus is zoonotic.”

3. Directional hypothesis:
This specifies the direction of the relationship or difference between variables;
therefore, it tends to use terms like increase, decrease, positive, negative, more,
or less.

Example: “The inclusion of intervention X decreases infant mortality compared to

the original treatment.”

4. Non-directional hypothesis:
While it does not predict the exact direction or nature of the relationship between
the two variables, a non-directional hypothesis states the existence of a
relationship or difference between variables but not the direction, nature, or
magnitude of the relationship. A non-directional hypothesis may be used when
there is no underlying theory or when findings contradict previous research.

Example, “Cats and dogs differ in the amount of affection they express.”

5. Simple hypothesis:
A simple hypothesis only predicts the relationship between one independent and
another independent variable.

Example: “Applying sunscreen every day slows skin aging.”

6. Complex hypothesis:
A complex hypothesis states the relationship or difference between two or more
independent and dependent variables.

Example: “Applying sunscreen every day slows skin aging, reduces sun burn, and
reduces the chances of skin cancer.” (Here, the three dependent variables are
slowing skin aging, reducing sun burn, and reducing the chances of skin cancer.)
7. Associative hypothesis:
An associative hypothesis states that a change in one variable results in the change
of the other variable. The associative hypothesis defines interdependency between
variables.

Example: “There is a positive association between physical activity levels and

overall health.”

8. Causal hypothesis:
A causal hypothesis proposes a cause-and-effect interaction between variables.

Example: “Long-term alcohol use causes liver damage.”

Note that some of the types of research hypothesis mentioned above might
overlap. The types of hypothesis chosen will depend on the research question and
the objective of the study.

Q. What is the difference between a research question and research hypothesis?

A research question defines the problem and helps outline the study objective(s).
It is an open-ended statement that is exploratory or probing in nature. Therefore,
it does not make predictions or assumptions. It helps a researcher identify what
information to collect. A research hypothesis, however, is a specific, testable
prediction about the relationship between variables. Accordingly, it guides the
study design and data analysis approach.
 MEASUREMENT SCALES
In Statistics, the variables or numbers are defined and categorised using different scales
of measurements. Each level of measurement scale has specific properties that determine
the various use of statistical analysis. In this article, we will learn four types of scales
such as nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio scale.

What is the Scale?

A scale is a device or an object used to measure or quantify any event or another object.

Levels of Measurements
There are four different scales of measurement. The data can be defined as being one of
the four scales. The four types of scales are:

● Nominal Scale
● Ordinal Scale
● Interval Scale
● Ratio Scale
Nominal Scale
A nominal scale is the 1st level of measurement scale in which the numbers serve as “tags”
or “labels” to classify or identify the objects. A nominal scale usually deals with the
non-numeric variables or the numbers that do not have any value.

Characteristics of Nominal Scale

● A nominal scale variable is classified into two or more categories. In this

measurement mechanism, the answer should fall into either of the classes.
● It is qualitative. The numbers are used here to identify the objects.
● The numbers don’t define the object characteristics. The only permissible aspect
of numbers in the nominal scale is “counting.”
Example:
What is your gender?

M- Male

F- Female
Here, the variables are used as tags, and the answer to this question should be either M or
F.
Ordinal Scale
The ordinal scale is the 2nd level of measurement that reports the ordering and ranking of
data without establishing the degree of variation between them. Ordinal represents the
“order.” Ordinal data is known as qualitative data or categorical data. It can be grouped,
named and also ranked.

Characteristics of the Ordinal Scale

● The ordinal scale shows the relative ranking of the variables

● It identifies and describes the magnitude of a variable
● Along with the information provided by the nominal scale, ordinal scales give the
rankings of those variables
● The interval properties are not known
● The surveyors can quickly analyse the degree of agreement concerning the
identified order of variables
Example:
Ranking of school students – 1st, 2nd, 3rd, etc.
Ratings in restaurants
Evaluating the frequency of occurrences
Very often
Often
Not often
Not at all
Assessing the degree of agreement
Totally agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Totally disagree

Interval Scale
The interval scale is the 3rd level of measurement scale. It is defined as a quantitative
measurement scale in which the difference between the two variables is meaningful. In
other words, the variables are measured in an exact manner, not as in a relative way in
which the presence of zero is arbitrary.

Characteristics of Interval Scale:

● The interval scale is quantitative as it can quantify the difference between the
values
● It allows calculating the mean and median of the variables
● To understand the difference between the variables, you can subtract the values
between the variables
● The interval scale is the preferred scale in Statistics as it helps to assign any
numerical values to arbitrary assessment such as feelings, calendar types, etc.
Example:

Likert Scale
Net Promoter Score (NPS)
Bipolar Matrix Table

Ratio Scale
The ratio scale is the 4th level of measurement scale, which is quantitative. It is a type of
variable measurement scale. It allows researchers to compare the differences or intervals.
The ratio scale has a unique feature. It possesses the character of the origin or zero
points.

Characteristics of Ratio Scale:

● Ratio scale has a feature of absolute zero

● It doesn’t have negative numbers, because of its zero-point feature
● It affords unique opportunities for statistical analysis. The variables can be orderly
added, subtracted, multiplied, divided. Mean, median, and mode can be calculated
using the ratio scale.
● Ratio scale has unique and useful properties. One such feature is that it allows unit
conversions like kilogram – calories, gram – calories, etc.
Example:

An example of a ratio scale is:

What is your weight in Kgs?
Less than 55 kgs
55 – 75 kgs
76 – 85 kgs
86 – 95 kgs
More than 95 kgs

Hypothesis Testing
Hypothesis testing is a tool for making statistical inferences about the population data. It
is an analysis tool that tests assumptions and determines how likely something is within a
given standard of accuracy. Hypothesis testing provides a way to verify whether the
results of an experiment are valid.

Hypothesis testing uses sample data from the population to draw useful conclusions
regarding the population probability distribution. It tests an assumption made about the
data using different types of hypothesis testing methodologies. The hypothesis testing
results in either rejecting or not rejecting the null hypothesis.

Hypothesis testing can be defined as a statistical tool that is used to identify if the
results of an experiment are meaningful or not. It involves setting up a null hypothesis and
an alternative hypothesis. These two hypotheses will always be mutually exclusive

TYPES OF ERRORS
Type 1 error definition
● Type 1 error, in statistical hypothesis testing, is the error caused by rejecting a null
hypothesis when it is true.
● Type 1 error is caused when the hypothesis that should have been accepted is rejected.
● Type I error is denoted by α (alpha), known as an error, also called the level of
significance of the test.
● This type of error is a false positive error where the null hypothesis is rejected based on
some error during the testing.
● The null hypothesis is set to state that there is no relationship between two variables and
the cause-effect relationship between two variables, if present, is caused by chance.
● Type 1 error occurs when the null hypothesis is rejected even when there is no
relationship between the variables.
● As a result of this error, the researcher might believe that the hypothesis works even
when it doesn’t.

Type 1 error causes

● Type 1 error is caused when something other than the variable affects the other variable,
which results in an outcome that supports the rejection of the null hypothesis.
● Under such conditions, the outcome appears to have happened due to some causes
than chance when it is caused by chance.
● Before a hypothesis is tested, a probability is set as a level of significance which means
that the hypothesis is being tested while taking a chance where the null hypothesis is
rejected even when it is true.
● Thus, type 1 error might be due to the chance/ level of significance set before the test
without considering the test duration and sample size.
Type II error definition
● Type II error is the error that occurs when the null hypothesis is accepted when it is not
true.
● In simple words, Type II error means accepting the hypothesis when it should not have
been accepted.
● The type II error results in a false negative result.
● In other words, type II is the error of failing to accept an alternative hypothesis when the
researcher doesn’t have adequate power.
● The Type II error is denoted by β (beta) and is also termed the beta error.
● The null hypothesis states that there is no relationship between two variables, and the
cause-effect relationship between two variables, if present, is caused by chance.
● Type II error occurs when the null hypothesis is acceptable considering that the
relationship between the variables is because of chance or luck, and even when there is
a relationship between the variables.
● As a result of this error, the researcher might believe that the hypothesis doesn’t work
even when it should.

Type II error causes

The primary cause of type II error, like a Type II error, is the low power of the statistical test.
This occurs when the statistical is not powerful and thus results in a Type II error.
Other factors, like the sample size, might also affect the test results.
When small sample size is selected, the relationship between the two variables being tested
might not be significant even when it does exist.
The researcher might assume the relationship is due to chance and thus reject the alternative
hypothesis even when it is true.
There it is important to select an appropriate size of the sample before beginning the test.
 UNIT III
DATA COLLECTION

Data collection is a process of gathering information from all the relevant sources to find
a solution to the research problem. It helps to evaluate the outcome of the problem. The
data collection methods allow a person to conclude an answer to the relevant question.
Most of the organizations use data collection methods to make assumptions about future
probabilities and trends. Once the data is collected, it is necessary to undergo the data
organization process

Data collection is the process of gathering data for use in business decision-making,
strategic planning, research and other purposes. It's a crucial part of data analytics
applications and research projects: Effective data collection provides the information
that's needed to answer questions, analyze business performance or other outcomes, and
predict future trends, actions and scenarios.
 Importance of Data Collection
● The trustworthiness of The Research – A critical purpose behind data collection
via quantitative or qualitative techniques is to guarantee that the research
question’s honesty is kept up without a doubt.
● Diminish the probability of blunders or errors – The right utilization of suitable
data collection strategies decreases the probability of blunders during different
research processes.
● Effective and accurate decision making – To limit the danger of blunders or errors
in decision making, it is significant that precise data is gathered, so the specialists
do not settle on clueless choices.
● Save Cost and Time – Data collection plays a significant role in saving time and
money that can otherwise be squandered without more profound comprehension of
the point or topic.
● Empowers a new idea or change – To demonstrate the requirement for an
adjustment or new change, it is critical to collect data and information as proof to
help these cases.

Uses of Data Collection

1. Better audience engagement: Better evaluation of data brings a better mark of

success. Be it the academic area or business. Academically, it helps create astonishing
results with the research, and in business, there could be a scope of better consumer
understanding.
2. Capturing how and which way to improve: Data and its examination will give you an idea
of how well the organization or the company is running. Also, how far to go with the
improvements, and how much to stretch the odds.
3. Obtaining Future insights: Data will also give out a reference. It will let you state the
future holdings so you can instruct them to perform the best.

● Improving precision in targeting customers

● Finding new customers
● Understanding customer behavior
● Increasing customer retention
● Improving decision-making
● Reducing errors
● Enhancing marketing efforts
● Predicting market trends
● Growing business revenue
● Improving business processes

Challenges faced by researchers in collection of data

● Access to Data: Obtaining access to relevant and sufficient data can be difficult,
especially when dealing with proprietary or sensitive information.
● Data Quality: Ensuring the accuracy, completeness, and consistency of data is
crucial, but researchers often encounter issues such as errors, missing values, and
inconsistencies.
● Data Bias: Biases in the data collection process or the dataset itself can skew
research results, leading to inaccurate conclusions.
● Sample Selection: Selecting an appropriate sample that is representative of the
population of interest can be challenging, especially in large or diverse populations.
● Data Collection Methods: Choosing the right data collection methods, such as
surveys, interviews, observations, or experiments, and implementing them
effectively can be complex and resource-intensive.
● Response Rate: Low response rates in surveys or interviews can introduce bias and
affect the generalizability of the findings.
● Ethical Considerations: Researchers must adhere to ethical principles and
guidelines when collecting data, including obtaining informed consent, protecting
participants' privacy, and minimizing harm.
● Time and Resource Constraints: Limited time, budget, and resources can constrain
researchers' ability to collect data comprehensively or to use more sophisticated
data collection methods.
● Data Security: Ensuring the security and confidentiality of data, especially when
dealing with sensitive information, is critical to prevent unauthorized access or
breaches.
● Data Sharing and Collaboration: Encouraging data sharing and collaboration among
researchers can be challenging due to concerns about intellectual property,
competition, or confidentiality.
● Data is a set of values of subjects with respect to qualitative or quantitative
variables.
● Data is raw, unorganized facts that need to be processed. Data can be
something simple and seemingly random and useless until it is organized.
● When data is processed, organized, structured or presented in a given
context so as to make it useful, it is called information.
● Information, necessary for research activities are achieved in different
forms
 TYPES OF DATA

Qualitative vs Quantitative Data

1. Quantitative data

Quantitative data seems to be the easiest to explain. It answers key questions such as
“how many, “how much” and “how often”.

Quantitative data can be expressed as a number or can be quantified. Simply put, it can be
measured by numerical variables.

Quantitative data are easily amenable to statistical manipulation and can be represented
by a wide variety of statistical types of graphs and charts such as line, bar graph, scatter
plot, and etc.

Examples of quantitative data:

Scores on tests and exams e.g. 85, 67, 90 and etc.
The weight of a person or a subject.
Your shoe size.
The temperature in a room.
There are 2 general types of quantitative data: discrete data and continuous data. We will
explain them later in this article.

2. Qualitative data

Qualitative data can’t be expressed as a number and can’t be measured. Qualitative data
consist of words, pictures, and symbols, not numbers.
Qualitative data is also called categorical data because the information can be sorted by
category, not by number.
Qualitative data can answer questions such as “how this has happened” or and “why this has
happened”.

Examples of qualitative data:

Colors e.g. the color of the sea

Your favorite holiday destination such as Hawaii, New Zealand and etc.
Names as John, Patricia,…..
Ethnicity such as American Indian, Asian, etc.
 Nominal vs Ordinal Data
Nominal data

Nominal data is used just for labeling variables, without any type of quantitative value. The
name ‘nominal’ comes from the Latin word “nomen” which means ‘name’.
The nominal data just name a thing without applying it to order. Actually, the nominal data
could just be called “labels.”

Examples of Nominal Data:

Gender (Women, Men)

Hair color (Blonde, Brown, Brunette, Red, etc.)
Marital status (Married, Single, Widowed)
Ethnicity (Hispanic, Asian)
As you see from the examples there is no intrinsic ordering to the variables.

4. Ordinal data

Ordinal data shows where a number is in order. This is the crucial difference from nominal
types of data.
Ordinal data is data which is placed into some kind of order by their position on a scale.
Ordinal data may indicate superiority.
However, you cannot do arithmetic with ordinal numbers because they only show sequence.
Ordinal variables are considered as “in between” qualitative and quantitative variables.
In other words, the ordinal data is qualitative data for which the values are ordered.
In comparison with nominal data, the second one is qualitative data for which the values
cannot be placed in an ordered.
We can also assign numbers to ordinal data to show their relative position. But we cannot
do math with those numbers. For example: “first, second, third…etc.”

Examples of Ordinal Data:

The first, second and third person in a competition.

Letter grades: A, B, C, and etc.
When a company asks a customer to rate the sales experience on a scale of 1-10.
Economic status: low, medium and high.
Much more on the topic plus a quiz, you can learn in our post: nominal vs ordinal data.

Discrete vs Continuous Data

As we mentioned above discrete and continuous data are the two key types of quantitative
data.
In statistics, marketing research, and data science, many decisions depend on whether the
basic data is discrete or continuous.

5. Discrete data

Discrete data is a count that involves only integers. The discrete values cannot be
subdivided into parts.
For example, the number of children in a class is discrete data. You can count whole
individuals. You can’t count 1.5 kids.
To put in other words, discrete data can take only certain values. The data variables
cannot be divided into smaller parts.
It has a limited number of possible values e.g. days of the month.
Examples of discrete data:

The number of students in a class.

The number of workers in a company.
The number of home runs in a baseball game.
The number of test questions you answered correctly
6. Continuous data

Continuous data is information that could be meaningfully divided into finer levels. It can
be measured on a scale or continuum and can have almost any numeric value.
For example, you can measure your height at very precise scales — meters, centimeters,
millimeters and etc.
A good great rule for defining if a data is continuous or discrete is that if the point of
measurement can be reduced in half and still make sense, the data is continuous.

Examples of continuous data:

The amount of time required to complete a project.

The height of children.
The square footage of a two-bedroom house.
The speed of cars.
 Primary data
Primary Data Definition
Primary data is the data that is collected for the first time through personal experiences
or evidence, particularly for research. It is also described as raw data or first-hand
information
The data is mostly collected through observations, physical testing, mailed questionnaires,
surveys, personal interviews, telephonic interviews, case studies, and focus groups, etc.

Primary Data
Primary data is information obtained directly from a data source without the need to
consult additional sources. It’s usually gathered for a specific study topic, but it may also
be published openly and utilized in other studies.

For instance, information gathered by businesses during market research, product

development, and competition analysis.

Government-authorized organizations, investigators, research-based private institutions,

and others are among those that gather primary data.

Pros
The researcher has complete control over the information gathered during primary
research. He has complete control over the design, method, and data analysis techniques
to be employed, and the data is free of personal bias, allowing the legitimacy of the data
to be believed.

● The researcher owns the data collected via primary research.

● Primary data is generally up to date since it gathers data in real-time and does not
acquire data from outdated sources. He or she may choose to make it freely
available, patent it, or even sell it. Cons
● Primary data is more expensive than secondary data and takes more time to obtain.
● Due to its complexity and time commitment, primary data may not be practical in
some circumstances.
Advantages of primary data:

Resolve specific research issues

Performing your own research allows you to address and resolve issues specific to your own
business situation. The collected information is the exact information that the researcher
wants to know and he reports it in a way that benefits the specific situation in an
organization. Marketers and researchers are asked to find data regarding specific
markets instead of finding data for the mass market. This is the main difference from
secondary data.
Better accuracy
Primary data is much more accurate because it is directly collected from a given
population.
A higher level of control
The marketer can control easily the research design and method. In addition, you have a
higher level of control over how the information is gathered.
Up-to-date information
The primary market research is a great source of latest and up-to-date information as you
collect it directly from the field in real-time. Usually, secondary data is not so up-to-date
and recent.
You are the owner of the information
Information collected by the researcher is their own and is typically not shared with
others. Thus, the information can remain hidden from other current and potential
competitors.

Disadvantages:

More expensive
It could be very expensive to obtain primary data collection methods because the
marketer or the research team has to start from the beginning. It means they have to
follow the whole study procedure, organizing materials, process and etc.
Time-consuming
It is a matter of a lot of time to conduct the research from the beginning to the end.
Often it is much longer in comparison with the time needed to collect secondary data.
Can have a lot of limits
Primary data is limited to the specific time, place or number of participants and etc. To
compare, secondary data can come from a variety of sources to give more details.
Not always possible
For example, many researches can be just too large to be performed by your company.
Most popular examples of primary data sources are:

Interview (personal interview, telephone, e-mail)

Self-administered surveys and questionnaires
Field observation
Experiments
Life histories
Action research
Case studies
Diary entries, letters, and other correspondence
Eyewitness accounts
Ethnographic research
Personal narratives, memoirs

Secondary Data
Secondary data are data that has previously been collected by someone else but has been
made available for use for others. They were probably previously main data, but when they
are reused by a third party, they become secondary.

When writing a research thesis, for example, researchers must reference previous works
on the topic and incorporate their results into the literature review. Other secondary
material, including definitions and theorems, are added to the thesis so that it may be
correctly referred to and mentioned.

Secondary data sources include trade periodicals, journals, government statistics and
other secondary data sources.

Pros
● Secondary data is more easily available than primary data, and it is also less
expensive.
● Secondary data collection takes a fraction of the time that primary data collection
takes, and it aids in the generation of new insights from existing primary data.
Advantages of Secondary Data:

Ease of Access
The secondary data sources are very easy to access. The internet world changed how
secondary research exists. Nowadays, you have so much information available just by
clicking with the mouse in front of the computer.
Low Cost or Free
The majority of secondary sources are absolutely free for use or at very low costs. It
saves not only your money but your efforts. In comparison with primary research where
you have to design and conduct a whole primary study process from the beginning,
secondary research allows you to gather data without having to put any money on the table.
Time-saving
As the above advantage suggests, you can perform secondary research in no time.
Sometimes it is a matter of a few Google searches to find a credible source of
information.
Generating new insights and understandings from previous analysis
Reanalyzing old data can bring unexpected new understandings and points of view or even
new relevant conclusions.
Larger sample size
Big datasets often use a larger sample than those that can be gathered by primary data
collection. Larger samples mean that the final inference becomes much more
straightforward.
Longitudinal analysis
Secondary data allows you to perform a longitudinal analysis which means the studies are
performed spanning over a large period of time. This can help you to determine different
trends. In addition, you can find secondary data from many years back up to a couple of
hours ago. It allows you to compare data over time.
Anyone can collect the data
Secondary data research can be performed by people that aren’t familiar with the
different types of quantitative and qualitative research methods. Practically, anyone can
collect secondary data.

Disadvantages:

Not specific to your needs

Here is the main difference with the primary method. Secondary data is not specific to
the researcher’s need due to the fact that it was collected in the past for another reason.
That is why the secondary data might be unreliable and unuseful and in many business and
marketing cases. Secondary data sources can give you a huge amount of information, but
quantity does not mean appropriateness.
Lack of control over data quality
You have no control over the data quality at all. In comparison, with primary methods that
are largely controlled by the data-driven marketer, secondary data might lack quality. It
means the quality of secondary data should be examined in detail since the source of the
information may be questionable. As you relying on secondary data for your
decision-making process, you must evaluate the reliability of the information by finding out
how the information was collected and analyzed.
Biasness
As the secondary data is collected by someone else than you, typically the data is biased in
favor of the person who gathered it. This might not cover your requirements as a
researcher or marketer.
Not timely
Secondary data is collected in the past which means it might be out-of-date. This issue can
be crucial in many different situations.
Not proprietary Information
Generally, secondary data is not collected specifically for your company. Instead, it is
available to many companies and people either for free or for a little fee. So this is not
exactly an “information advantage” for you and your competitors also have access to the
data.

Cons
● Secondary data may not be accurate or trustworthy.
● It’s possible that researchers may have to deal with irrelevant data before
obtaining the data they need.
● Some of the data is inflated owing to the data source’s personal bias.
● Secondary data sources might be out of current at times.
Most common examples of secondary data sources are:

● Previous research
● Mass media products
● Government reports
● Official statistics
● Letters
● Diaries
● Web information
● Google Analytics or other sources that show statistics and data for digital
customer experience.
● Historical data
● Encyclopedias
● Monographs
● Journal articles
● Biography
● Research analysis
● Dissertations
● Works of criticism and interpretation
● Financial sources such as profit and loss statements balance sheets, inventory
records, sales records and etc
 PILOT STUDY

A pilot study, also known as a feasibility study, is a small-scale preliminary study conducted
before the main research to check the feasibility or improve the research design.

Pilot studies can be very important before conducting a full-scale research project, helping
design the research methods and protocol.

The objectives of a pilot study are to:

Gather preliminary information
Assess the feasibility of an approach
Understand the meaning and causes of certain phenomena
Determine factors that may impede progress
Adjust various factors in preparation for a larger study

Advantages
By identifying and addressing issues in the pilot study, researchers can reduce errors and
risks in the main study. This increases the reliability and validity of the main study’s
results.

● Assessing the practicality and feasibility of the main study

● Testing the efficacy of research instruments
● Identifying and addressing any weaknesses or logistical problems
● Collecting preliminary data
● Estimating the time and costs required for the project
● Determining what resources are needed for the study
● Identifying the necessity to modify procedures that do not elicit useful data
● Adding credibility and dependability to the study
● Pretesting the interview format
● Enabling researchers to develop consistent practices and familiarize themselves
with the procedures in the protocol
● Addressing safety issues and management problems
Limitations
● Require extra costs, time, and resources.
● Do not guarantee the success of the main study.
● Contamination (ie: if data from the pilot study or pilot participants are included in
the main study results).
● Funding bodies may be reluctant to fund a further study if the pilot study results
are published.
● Do not have the power to assess treatment effects due to small sample size.

questionnaire

● A questionnaire is defined as a document containing questions and other types of

items designed to solicit information appropriate for analysis.
● The questionnaire may be regarded as a form of an interview on paper.
● Procedure for the construction of a questionnaire follows a pattern similar to that
of the interview schedule.
● However, because the questionnaire is impersonal it is all the more important to
take care of its construction.
● Since there is no interviewer to explain ambiguities or to check misunderstandings,
the questionnaire must be especially clear in its working.
● The variety of possible answers to each question must be anticipated more fully
than for an interview.

Types of Questionnaire
There are roughly two types of questionnaires, structured and unstructured. A mixture of
these both is the quasi-structured questionnaire that is used mostly in social science
research.

Structured questionnaires include pre-coded questions with well-defined skipping patterns

to follow the sequence of questions. Most of the quantitative data collection operations
use structured questionnaires. Fewer discrepancies, easy to administer consistency in
answers and easy for the data management are advantages of such structured
questionnaires.
Unstructured questionnaires include open-ended and vague opinion-type questions. Maybe
questions are not in the format of interrogative sentences and the moderator or the
enumerator has to elaborate the sense of the question. Focus group discussions use such a
questionnaire.
Not all questions are easily pre-coded with almost possible alternatives to answers. Given
answer alternatives of some questions in the standard questionnaires are left as ‘others’
(please specify). A common and pragmatic practice is that most of the questions are
structured, however, it is comfortable to have some unstructured questions whose answers
are not feasible to enumerate completely. Such a type of questionnaire is called a
quasi-structured questionnaire.

Question Types in a Questionnaire

Restricted questions, also called closed-ended, are the ones that ask the respondent to
make choices — yes or no, check items on a list, or select from multiple choice answers.
Restricted questions are easy to tabulate and compile.

Unrestricted questions are open-ended and allow respondents to share feelings and
opinions that are important to them about the matter at hand.
Unrestricted questions are not easy to tabulate and compile, but they allow respondents to
reveal the depth of their emotions.

If the objective is to compile data from all respondents, then sticking with restricted
questions that are easily quantified is better.
If degrees of emotions or depth of sentiment are to be studied, then develop a scale to
quantify those feelings.

Characteristics of Good Questions in a Questionnaire

● Clear objective
● Simple language
● Clear concepts
● Without bias
● Adequate answer options
● Shorter questions
● The single question at a time
 ● Affirmative sentences
● Mathematics not imposed
● Short/clear reference periods
● Avoid question reference

UNIT 4

Test of Significance
Test of significance is a statistical tool that helps researchers determine if the
difference in the results of two groups is statistically significant or just due to chance.
The test involves comparing the observed data with the expected data, assuming the null
hypothesis is true. If the observed data significantly differs from the expected data, the
null hypothesis is rejected, and it is concluded that the results are significant.
It is a statistical method used to determine if the results of a study are significant
or not.

Procedure of Test of Significance

The test of significance involves the following steps:

● Define the null and alternative hypotheses.

● Determine the level of significance (alpha) and the appropriate statistical test.
● Collect and analyze the data.
● Calculate the test statistic and p-value.
● Compare the p-value with the level of significance and draw a conclusion.

The p-value is the probability of observing a test statistic as extreme or more extreme
than the one observed, assuming the null hypothesis is true. If the p-value is less than
the level of significance, the null hypothesis is rejected, and it is concluded that the
results are significant.

Types of Test of Significance:

There are various types of test of significance, including t-test, chi-square test, ANOVA,
and regression analysis. The choice of the test depends on the type of data and the
research question.
 Parametric test Vs Nonparametric test

1) Population
Population refers to all individuals or subjects of interest that you want to study.
Typically, in statistics, you can never fully collect information on population because-
2) Parameter
To answer any question, you will need arithmetic to quantify the population. Such critical
quantification methods can be – mean, standard deviation, median, minimum, maximum,
inter-quartile range, etc. These significant values that describe the population are known
as ‘parameters’.
3) Sample
As mentioned earlier, it becomes difficult to have complete data of the population in
question due to various issues. However, to answer many questions, you need to understand
the population
4) Distribution
Distribution (commonly called data distribution) is a function that states all the possible
values of a dataset along the frequency (count) of all values (or intervals as the values can
be binned in groups).
The distribution is often represented using graphs like a histogram and a line chart.
Different distributions have peculiar shapes and specific properties that help calculate
probabilities.
 CHI- SQUARE TEST
A chi-squared test (symbolically represented as χ2) is basically a data analysis on the basis
of observations of a random set of variables. Usually, it is a comparison of two statistical
data sets.
- The chi-square test is used to estimate how likely the observations that are made
would be, by considering the assumption of the null hypothesis as true.
- Chi-squared tests are usually created from a sum of squared falsities or errors
over the sample variance.

-It is used for raw counts.

-The sample size must be large, maybe more than 50.
-It compares an experimental result with a theoretical outcome.
-It is a non-parametric test.

Uses of Chi Square Test

The major uses of Chi Square Test are listed below.

● It can be used to see if our data follows a well-known theoretical probability

distribution like the Normal or Poisson distribution.
● This test allows us to assess the trained regression model’s goodness of fit on the
training, its validation, and the test data sets.
● It is most commonly used by researchers who are studying survey response data
because it applies to categorical variables.
● It can be used for the Confidence interval estimation for a population standard
deviation of a normal distribution from a sample standard deviation.
● It is helpful in sample variance study when the underlying distribution is normal.

Characteristics of chi-square test:

Purpose: The chi-square test is a statistical test used to determine whether there is a
significant association between two categorical variables.

Variables: It is applicable when both variables being studied are categorical in nature.
These variables are often nominal or ordinal, but not interval or ratio.

Independence Assumption: The chi-square test assumes that the observations are
independent of each other. This means that the occurrence of one event does not affect
the occurrence of another.

Expected Frequency: The test calculates expected frequencies for each cell in a
contingency table under the assumption of independence. These expected frequencies are
then compared to the observed frequencies.

Test Statistic: The chi-square test statistic is calculated by comparing the observed
frequencies to the expected frequencies. It measures the difference between the
observed and expected frequencies and evaluates whether this difference is statistically
significant.
Degrees of Freedom: The degrees of freedom for a chi-square test is calculated based on
the number of categories in each variable. It is used to determine the critical value from
the chi-square distribution.

Null Hypothesis: The null hypothesis in a chi-square test states that there is no significant
association between the two variables. The alternative hypothesis suggests that there is a
significant association.

Significance Level: Similar to other hypothesis tests, the chi-square test uses a
significance level (often denoted as α) to determine whether to reject the null hypothesis.
Common significance levels include 0.05 or 0.01.

Interpretation: If the calculated chi-square statistic is greater than the critical value
from the chi-square distribution for a given significance level, the null hypothesis is
rejected, indicating a significant association between the variables.

Post-hoc Tests: In some cases, if the chi-square test indicates a significant association,
further analysis may be conducted using post-hoc tests to identify which categories of the
variables are associated.

Limitations: Chi-square test has certain limitations including assumptions about sample
size, as it may not be appropriate for small sample sizes, and it's sensitive to cell
frequencies, particularly when cells have expected frequencies below 5.

Applications: The chi-square test is commonly used in various fields including market
research, sociology, biology, and healthcare to analyze categorical data and determine
relationships between variables.

T-Test
The t-test is a statistical method used to determine if there is a significant difference
between the means of two groups. It is widely used in research, particularly in fields such
as psychology, medicine, and business, where comparing means of different groups is
common.
 ● The t-test is used to determine if there is a significant difference between the
means of two groups.
● The t-test is used for hypothesis testing to determine whether a process has an
effect on both samples or if the groups are different from each other.
● Basically, the t-test allows the comparison of the mean of two sets of data and the
determination if the two sets are derived from the same population

Advantages of performing the T-test

● The Student t-test is a handy statistical tool with several advantages for different
research situations. Some of the main advantages are:
● Works with Different Sample Sizes: Unlike other tests, the t-test is flexible and
can be used with both small and large samples.
● Doesn’t Require a Perfectly Normal Distribution: The t-test is robust, meaning it
can handle situations where the data doesn’t perfectly follow a normal distribution,
especially when the sample size is large.
● Easy to Calculate: This test is relatively simple and straightforward to calculate.
This simplicity makes it practical and applicable in various research scenarios.
● Versatile Application: The test finds use in diverse fields like medical research,
education studies, market research, and engineering, showcasing its wide-ranging
applicability.
● Detects Statistical Significance: One of its main purposes is to determine whether
the observed difference between the sample mean and the known or assumed
population mean is statistically significant or not.

characteristics of the t-test:

Parametric Test: The t-test is a parametric statistical test, meaning it makes certain
assumptions about the population parameters (e.g., normality, homogeneity of variance). It
assumes that the data being analyzed are drawn from a normally distributed population.

Two Groups Comparison: The t-test is specifically designed to compare the means of two
groups. It determines whether there is a statistically significant difference between the
means of the two groups.
Numerical Data: The t-test is used when dealing with numerical (quantitative) data. It
compares the means of continuous variables between groups.

Sample Size: While the t-test can be used with any sample size, it tends to provide more
reliable results with larger sample sizes, especially concerning the assumption of normality.

Assumptions: The t-test relies on several assumptions, including the assumption of

normality (of the data distribution), independence of observations, and homogeneity of
variances between groups. Violations of these assumptions can affect the validity of the
test results.

Degrees of Freedom: The degrees of freedom in a t-test depend on the sample sizes of
the two groups being compared. It affects the shape of the t-distribution and determines
the critical values for hypothesis testing.

Types of T-tests: There are several types of t-tests, including the independent samples
t-test, paired samples t-test, and one-sample t-test, each used in different scenarios
based on the study design and the nature of the data.

Hypothesis Testing: The t-test is used for hypothesis testing, where a null hypothesis
(typically stating no difference between group means) is tested against an alternative
hypothesis (stating a significant difference between group means).

Statistical Power: The t-test's ability to detect a true difference between groups (if one
exists) is influenced by factors such as sample size, effect size, and alpha level. Adequate
statistical power is necessary to minimize the risk of Type II errors (failing to detect a
true effect).

Interpretation: The results of a t-test are typically interpreted by comparing the

calculated t-value to a critical value from the t-distribution or by calculating a p-value. A
significant result suggests that there is a statistically significant difference between the
means of the two groups.
F-test

The F-test, also known as Fisher's F-test, is a statistical test used to compare the
variances of two or more groups. It's commonly associated with analysis of variance
(ANOVA), a technique used to determine if there are statistically significant differences
between the means of three or more groups.

Assumptions of F-test:

Normality: Like many parametric tests, the F-test assumes that the data are normally
distributed within each group. This assumption is important for accurate inference,
especially when dealing with smaller sample sizes.

Homogeneity of Variances: The F-test assumes that the variances of the populations being
compared are equal. This is known as the assumption of homoscedasticity. Violation of this
assumption can lead to inaccurate results. There are robust versions of the F-test that
can be used when homogeneity of variances is violated, such as Welch's ANOVA.

Independence: The observations within each group must be independent of each other.
This means that the data points in one group are not influenced by the data points in
another group.

Application of F-test:

Analysis of Variance (ANOVA): The primary application of the F-test is in ANOVA, which
is used to test for differences in means among three or more groups. ANOVA determines
whether there are any statistically significant differences between the means of the
groups by comparing the variability between groups to the variability within groups.

Comparing Variances: In addition to ANOVA, the F-test can be used to compare the
variances of two or more populations directly. This can be useful in quality control, where
it may be necessary to ensure that the variability in different production processes or
products is within acceptable limits.

Regression Analysis: In regression analysis, the F-test is used to assess the overall
significance of the regression model. It evaluates whether the model as a whole explains a
significant proportion of the variance in the dependent variable.
Experimental Design: The F-test is widely used in experimental design to analyze the
results of designed experiments with multiple factors and levels. It helps to determine
whether the factors and interactions have significant effects on the response variable.

Hypothesis Testing: Similar to other statistical tests, the F-test is used for hypothesis
testing. It involves formulating null and alternative hypotheses and determining whether
the observed data provide enough evidence to reject the null hypothesis in favor of the
alternative hypothesis.

Z-test:

The Z-test is a statistical method used to determine whether there is a significant

difference between a sample mean and a known population mean. It is particularly useful
when the sample size is large (typically n > 30) and/or the population standard deviation is
known. The Z-test is based on the standard normal distribution and is commonly employed
in hypothesis testing and confidence interval estimation.

Assumptions of Z-test:

Normality of Population: The Z-test assumes that the population from which the sample is
drawn follows a normal distribution. This assumption is necessary because the Z-test relies
on the properties of the normal distribution for accurate inference. If the population is
not normally distributed, the validity of the results may be compromised.

Random Sampling: The sample must be selected randomly from the population of interest.
Random sampling ensures that the sample is representative of the population and that the
results can be generalized back to the population.

Independence: Each observation in the sample must be independent of the others.

Independence ensures that the observations are not influenced by each other and that
each observation provides unique information about the population.

Known Population Standard Deviation: The Z-test requires knowledge of the population
standard deviation (σ). This assumption is often feasible in situations where the population
standard deviation is known or can be reasonably estimated.
Sample Size: While the Z-test can technically be applied to any sample size, it is most
reliable when the sample size is large (typically n > 30). With smaller sample sizes, other
tests such as the t-test may be more appropriate.

Data Type: The Z-test is used when dealing with numerical (quantitative) data. It compares
the sample mean to a known population mean to determine if there is a significant
difference between them.

The Z-test is commonly used in quality control, market research, and various scientific
studies when comparing sample means to population means.

It is often used in situations where the sample size is large, making the Central Limit
Theorem applicable, and the population standard deviation is known or can be reasonably
estimated.

If the population standard deviation is unknown and the sample size is small, the t-test is
typically used instead of the Z-test.

—----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
UNIT 5

Data Interpretation
Definition:
Data interpretation refers to the process of making sense of data by analysing and
drawing conclusions from it. It involves examining data in order to identify patterns,
relationships, and trends that can help explain the underlying phenomena being studied.
Data interpretation can be used to make informed decisions and solve problems across a
wide range of fields, including business, science, and social sciences.
Data Interpretation Methods/ techniques
There are various methods for data interpretation that can be used to analyse and make
sense of data. Here are some of the most common methods:
Statistical Analysis
This method involves using statistical techniques to analyse the data. Statistical analysis
can involve descriptive statistics (such as measures of central tendency and dispersion),
inferential statistics (such as hypothesis testing and confidence interval estimation), and
predictive modelling (such as regression analysis and time-series analysis).
Data Visualization
This method involves using visual representations of the data to identify patterns and
trends. Data visualization can involve creating charts, graphs, and other visualizations, such
as heat maps or scatterplots.
Text Analysis
This method involves analysing text data, such as survey responses or social media posts,
to identify patterns and themes. Text analysis can involve techniques such as sentiment
analysis, topic modelling, and natural language processing.
Machine Learning
This method involves using algorithms to identify patterns in the data and make
predictions or classifications. Machine learning can involve techniques such as decision
trees, neural networks, and random forests.
Qualitative Analysis
This method involves analysing non-numeric data, such as interviews or focus group
discussions, to identify themes and patterns. Qualitative analysis can involve techniques
such as content analysis, grounded theory, and narrative analysis.
Geospatial Analysis
This method involves analysing spatial data, such as maps or GPS coordinates, to identify
patterns and relationships. Geospatial analysis can involve techniques such as spatial
autocorrelation, hot spot analysis, and clustering.
Types of Data Interpretation
There are various types of data interpretation techniques used for analysing and making
sense of data. Here are some of the most common types:
Descriptive Interpretation
This type of interpretation involves summarizing and describing the key features of the
data. This can involve calculating measures of central tendency (such as mean, median, and
mode), measures of dispersion (such as range, variance, and standard deviation), and
creating visualizations such as histograms, box plots, and scatterplots.
Inferential Interpretation
This type of interpretation involves making inferences about a larger population based on a
sample of the data. This can involve hypothesis testing, where you test a hypothesis about
a population parameter using sample data, or confidence interval estimation, where you
estimate a range of values for a population parameter based on sample data.
Predictive Interpretation
This type of interpretation involves using data to make predictions about future outcomes.
This can involve building predictive models using statistical techniques such as regression
analysis, time-series analysis, or machine learning algorithms.
Exploratory Interpretation
This type of interpretation involves exploring the data to identify patterns and
relationships that were not previously known. This can involve data mining techniques such
as clustering analysis, principal component analysis, or association rule mining.
Causal Interpretation
This type of interpretation involves identifying causal relationships between variables in
the data. This can involve experimental designs, such as randomized controlled trials, or
observational studies, such as regression analysis or propensity score matching.
Research Report
Definition:
Research Report is a written document that presents the results of a research project or
study, including the research question, methodology, results, and conclusions, in a clear and
objective manner.
The purpose of a research report is to communicate the findings of the research to the
intended audience, which could be other researchers, stakeholders, or the general public.
Importance of Report Writing
Report Writing is a skill that can benefit you in various ways and contexts. Here is the list
of reasons reflecting the Importance of Report Writing:

Importance of Report Writing

• Evaluation
• Development of skills
• Investigation
• Quick Location
• Decision making tool
• Neutral presentation of facts
• A managerial tool
• Proper control
• Professional advancement
• Encountering advance and complex situation
Evaluation
The importance of Report Writing can be reflected during the evaluation process. This is
because Report Writing can help you evaluate your own or others’ performance, progress,
or outcomes. For example, if you are a student, you can write a Report to assess your
learning outcomes, achievements, or challenges in a course or a project. As a teacher, you
can write a Report to evaluate your students’ learning outcomes, strengths, or weaknesses
in a course or an assignment.
If you are a researcher, you can write a Report to evaluate your research methods,
results, or implications in a study or an experiment. Report Writing can help you identify
the gaps, strengths, or areas for improvement in your own or others’ work.

Development of skills
Report Writing can help you develop your skills in various domains and disciplines. For
example, if you are a student, you can write a Report to improve your writing, research,
analysis, or presentation skills. If you are a teacher, you can write a Report to enhance
your teaching, assessment, feedback, or curriculum design skills.
If you are a researcher, you can write a Report to advance your knowledge, methodology,
innovation, or contribution skills. Report Writing can help you acquire new knowledge, apply
existing knowledge, or create new knowledge in your field of interest.
Investigation
The Importance of Report Writing also lies in investigating a problem or a topic in-depth
and in detail. For example, if you are a student, you can write a Report to explore a
question or an issue that interests you or relates to your course or project.
At the same time, if you are a teacher, you can write a Report to investigate a pedagogical
or educational problem or phenomenon that affects your teaching or learning environment.
On the other hand, if you are a researcher, you can write a Report to investigate a
scientific or social problem or phenomenon that has significance or relevance for your
discipline or society. Report Writing can help you collect, analyse, and present data in an
organised and systematic way.
Quick location
Report Writing can help you locate information quickly and easily. For example, students
can write a Report to summarise the main points and findings of your course or project for
future reference or revision. If you are a teacher, you can write a Report to document the
key aspects and outcomes of your course or assignment for future use or evaluation.
At the same time, researchers can write a Report to record the essential details and
implications of a study or experiment for future dissemination or publication. Report
Writing can help you create an index, an abstract, or an executive summary that can help
you access information at a glance.
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Decision making tool
Report Writing acts as a decision-making tool that can assist you in making decisions based
on facts and evidence. For example, if you are a student, you can write a Report to support
your arguments or opinions with data and sources in an essay or a debate. If you are a
teacher, you can write a Report to justify your decisions or recommendations with data
and sources in an assessment or feedback.
If you are a researcher, you can write a Report to validate your claims or hypotheses with
data and sources in a study or an experiment. Thus, Report Writing can help you use logic,
reasoning, and analysis to make informed and rational decisions.
Neutral presentation of facts
Report Writing can help you present facts in a neutral and objective manner. For example,
if you are a student, you can write a Report to avoid bias or emotion in your writing and use
facts and evidence to support your points. If you are a teacher, you can write a Report to
avoid bias or emotion in your assessment and use facts and evidence to evaluate your
students.
Researchers can write a Report to avoid bias or emotion in their research and use facts
and evidence to demonstrate their findings. Report Writing can help you maintain a
professional and ethical tone in your communication.
A managerial tool
Report Writing can help you manage your work or project effectively and efficiently. For
example, if you are a student, you can write a Report to plan, organise, and monitor your
progress or outcomes in a course or a project. If you are a teacher, you can write a Report
to plan, organise, and monitor your activities or objectives in a course or an assignment.
If you are a researcher, you can write a Report to plan, organise, and monitor your
methods or results in a study or an experiment. As a result, Report Writing can help you
set goals, allocate resources, and measure performance.
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Proper control
Report Writing helps you control your work or project effectively and efficiently. For
example, if you are a student, you can write a Report to check, review, and revise your
work or project before submission or presentation. If you are a teacher, you can write a
Report to check, review, and revise your work or project before delivery or evaluation.
If you are a researcher, you can write a Report to check, review, and revise your work or
project before dissemination or publication. Thus, Report Writing can help you ensure
quality, accuracy, and consistency in your work or project.
Professional advancement
The importance of Report Writing lies in advancing and developing your professional
career. For example, if you are a student, you can write a Report to demonstrate your
competence, knowledge, and skills in a course or a project. In contrast, if you are a
teacher, you can write a Report to demonstrate your competence, knowledge, and skills in a
course or an assignment.
If you are a researcher, you can write a Report to demonstrate your competence,
knowledge, and skills in a study or an experiment. Report Writing can help you showcase
your achievements, contributions, or innovations in your field of interest.
Encountering advance and complex situation
Report Writing can help you encounter advanced and complex situations in your work or
project. For example, if you are a student, you can write a Report to deal with challenging
questions or issues that arise in your course or project. If you are a teacher, you can write
a Report to deal with challenging questions or issues that arise in your course or
assignment.
If you are a researcher, you can write a Report to deal with challenging questions or issues
that arise in your study or experiment. Report Writing can help you solve problems,
overcome obstacles, or discover new possibilities in your work or project.
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How to write Research Report
Here are some steps you can follow to write a research report:
• Identify the research question: The first step in writing a research report is to
identify your research question. This will help you focus your research and organize your
findings.
• Conduct research: Once you have identified your research question, you will need to
conduct research to gather relevant data and information. This can involve conducting
experiments, reviewing literature, or analyzing data.
• Organize your findings: Once you have gathered all of your data, you will need to
organize your findings in a way that is clear and understandable. This can involve creating
tables, graphs, or charts to illustrate your results.
• Write the report: Once you have organized your findings, you can begin writing the
report. Start with an introduction that provides background information and explains the
purpose of your research. Next, provide a detailed description of your research methods
and findings. Finally, summarize your results and draw conclusions based on your findings.
• Proofread and edit: After you have written your report, be sure to proofread and
edit it carefully. Check for grammar and spelling errors, and make sure that your report is
well-organized and easy to read.
• Include a reference list: Be sure to include a list of references that you used in
your research. This will give credit to your sources and allow readers to further explore
the topic if they choose.
• Format your report: Finally, format your report according to the guidelines
provided by your instructor or organization. This may include formatting requirements for
headings, margins, fonts, and spacing.
Layout of the Research Report

There is scientific method for the layout of research report. The layout of research
report means as to what the research report should contain. The contents of the research
report are noted below:
1. Preliminary Page
2. Main Text
3. End Matter
(1) Preliminary Pages:
These must be title of the research topic and data. There must be preface of foreword to
the research work. It should be followed by table of contents. The list of tables, maps
should be given.
(2) Main Text:
It provides the complete outline of research report along with all details. The title page is
reported in the main text. Details of text are given continuously as divided in different
chapters.
• (a) Introduction
• (b) Statement of the problem
• (c) The analysis of data
• (d) The implications drawn from the results
• (e) The summary
(a) Introduction:
Its purpose is to introduce the research topic to readers. It must cover statement of the
research problem, hypotheses, objectives of study, review of literature, and the
methodology to cover primary and secondary data, limitations of study and chapter
scheme. Some may give in brief in the first chapter the introduction of the research
project highlighting the importance of study. This is followed by research methodology in
separate chapter.
The methodology should point out the method of study, the research design and method of
data collection.
(b) Statement of the problem:
This is crux of his research. It highlights main theme of his study. It must be in
nontechnical language. It should be in simple manner so ordinary reader may follow it. The
social research must be made available to common man. The research in agricultural
problems must be easy for farmers to read it.
(c) Analysis of data:
Data so collected should be presented in systematic manner and with its help, conclusions
can be drawn. This helps to test the hypothesis. Data analysis must be made to confirm
the objectives of the study.
(d) Implications of Data:
The results based on the analysis of data must be valid. This is the main body of research.
It contains statistical summaries and analysis of data. There should be logical sequence in
the analysis of data. The primary data may lead to establish the results. He must have
separate chapter on conclusions and recommendations. The conclusions must be based on
data analysis. The conclusions must be such which may lead to generalization and its
applicability in similar circumstances. The conditions of research work limiting its scope
for generalization must be made clear by the researcher.
(e) Summary:
This is conclusive part of study. It makes the reader to understand by reading summary
the knowledge of the research work. This is also a synopsis of study.
(3) End Matter:
It covers relevant appendices covering general information, the concepts and bibliography.
The index may also be added to the report.
Types of Research Report
Types of Research Report are as follows:
Thesis
Thesis is a type of research report. A thesis is a long-form research document that
presents the findings and conclusions of an original research study conducted by a student
as part of a graduate or postgraduate program. It is typically written by a student
pursuing a higher degree, such as a Master’s or Doctoral degree, although it can also be
written by researchers or scholars in other fields.
Research Paper
Research paper is a type of research report. A research paper is a document that presents
the results of a research study or investigation. Research papers can be written in a
variety of fields, including science, social science, humanities, and business. They typically
follow a standard format that includes an introduction, literature review, methodology,
results, discussion, and conclusion sections.
Technical Report
A technical report is a detailed report that provides information about a specific technical
or scientific problem or project. Technical reports are often used in engineering, science,
and other technical fields to document research and development work.
Progress Report
A progress report provides an update on the progress of a research project or program
over a specific period of time. Progress reports are typically used to communicate the
status of a project to stakeholders, funders, or project managers.
Feasibility Report
A feasibility report assesses the feasibility of a proposed project or plan, providing an
analysis of the potential risks, benefits, and costs associated with the project. Feasibility
reports are often used in business, engineering, and other fields to determine the viability
of a project before it is undertaken.
Field Report
A field report documents observations and findings from fieldwork, which is research
conducted in the natural environment or setting. Field reports are often used in
anthropology, ecology, and other social and natural sciences.
Experimental Report
An experimental report documents the results of a scientific experiment, including the
hypothesis, methods, results, and conclusions. Experimental reports are often used in
biology, chemistry, and other sciences to communicate the results of laboratory
experiments.
Case Study Report
A case study report provides an in-depth analysis of a specific case or situation, often
used in psychology, social work, and other fields to document and understand complex
cases or phenomena.
Literature Review Report
A literature review report synthesizes and summarizes existing research on a specific
topic, providing an overview of the current state of knowledge on the subject. Literature
review reports are often used in social sciences, education, and other fields to identify
gaps in the literature and guide future research.
Contents of Research Report
The researcher must keep in mind that his research report must contain following aspects:
1. Purpose of study
2. Significance of his study or statement of the problem
3. Review of literature
4. Methodology
5. Interpretation of data
6. Conclusions and suggestions
7. Bibliography
8. Appendices
(1) Purpose of study:
Research is one direction oriented study. He should discuss the problem of his study. He
must give background of the problem. He must lay down his hypothesis of the study.
Hypothesis is the statement indicating the nature of the problem. He should be able to
collect data, analyse it and prove the hypothesis. The importance of the problem for the
advancement of knowledge or removed of some evil may also be explained. He must use
review of literature or the data from secondary source for explaining the statement of
the problems.
(2) Significance of study:
Research is re-search and hence the researcher may highlight the earlier research in new
manner or establish new theory. He must refer earlier research work and distinguish his
own research from earlier work. He must explain how his research is different and how his
research topic is different and how his research topic is important. In a statement of his
problem, he must be able to explain in brief the historical account of the topic and way in
which he can make and attempt. In his study to conduct the research on his topic.
(3) Review of Literature:
Research is a continuous process. He cannot avoid earlier research work. He must start
with earlier work. He should note down all such research work, published in books, journals
or unpublished thesis. He will get guidelines for his research from taking a review of
literature. He should collect information in respect of earlier research work. He should
enlist them in the given below:
1. Author/researcher
2. Title of research /Name of book
3. Publisher
4. Year of publication
5. Objectives of his study
6. Conclusion/suggestions
Then he can compare this information with his study to show separate identity of his
study. He must be honest to point out similarities and differences of his study from
earlier research work.
(4) Methodology:
It is related to collection of data. There are two sources for collecting data; primary and
secondary. Primary data is original and collected in field work, either through questionnaire
interviews. The secondary data relied on library work. Such primary data are collected by
sampling method. The procedure for selecting the sample must be mentioned. The
methodology must give various aspects of the problem that are studied for valid
generalization about the phenomena. The scales of measurement must be explained along
with different concepts used in the study.
While conducting a research based on field work, the procedural things like definition of
universe, preparation of source list must be given. We use case study method, historical
research etc. He must make it clear as to which method is used in his research work. When
questionnaire is prepared, a copy of it must be given in appendix.
(5) Interpretation of data:
Mainly the data collected from primary source need to be interpreted in systematic
manner. The tabulation must be completed to draw conclusions. All the questions are not
useful for report writing. One has to select them or club them according to hypothesis or
objectives of study.
(6) Conclusions/suggestions:
Data analysis forms the crux of the research problem. The information collected in field
work is useful to draw conclusions of study. In relation with the objectives of study the
analysis of data may lead the researcher to pin point his suggestions. This is the most
important part of study. The conclusions must be based on logical and statistical reasoning.
The report should contain not only the generalization of inference but also the basis on
which the inferences are drawn. All sorts of proofs, numerical and logical, must be given in
support of any theory that has been advanced. He should point out the limitations of his
study.
(7) Bibliography:
The list of references must be arranged in alphabetical order and be presented in
appendix. The books should be given in first section and articles are in second section and
research projects in the third. The pattern of bibliography is considered convenient and
satisfactory from the point of view of reader.
(8) Appendices:
The general information in tabular form which is not directly used in the analysis of data
but which is useful to understand the background of study can be given in appendix.
Oral presentation:
An Oral Research Presentation is meant to showcase your research findings. A successful
oral research presentation should: communicate the importance of your research; clearly
state your findings and the analysis of those findings; prompt discussion between
researcher and audience.
Executive summary:
An executive summary is a thorough overview of a research report or other type of
document that synthesizes key points for its readers, saving them time and preparing
them to understand the study's overall content. It is a separate, stand-alone document of
sufficient detail and clarity to ensure that the reader can completely understand the
contents of the main research study. An executive summary can be anywhere from 1-10
pages long depending on the length of the report, or it can be the summary of more than
one document [e.g., papers submitted for a group project].

Need for executive summary:

Why Do We Compose An Executive Summary?
We compose an executive summary for several important reasons:
1. Decision-Making Support
Executives, stakeholders, or decision-makers rely on executive summaries to make
informed decisions. By presenting key information clearly and concisely, an executive
summary helps decision-makers understand the essence of the document and evaluate its
significance and potential impact.
2. Accessible To A Wide Audience
Executive summaries are shared with diverse audiences, including those without
specialized knowledge. By distilling complex information, executive summaries make the
content more accessible to a broader range of readers.
3. Overview Of Research Or Project
An executive summary offers a high-level overview of the research or project, outlining
objectives, methodology, and main findings. It provides a snapshot of the work, allowing
readers to quickly assess its relevance and determine if they need to explore the full
document. Also Read: How to Write a Summary of an Article

Chapterization:
Chapterization in research refers to the process of organising data and critical findings in
a legible manner. A thesis should have at least 5 chapters depending on its scope .
Chapterization is important because it helps organise data and critical findings in a legible
manner Chapterization can also refer to the automatic feature that starts a chapter on a
right-hand page in a report without having to account for a blank left-hand page with a
blank original
Chapter structures

When it comes to structuring a chapter, a chapter should:

• have an introduction that indicates the chapter's argument / key message
• clearly address part of the thesis' overall research question/s or aim/s
• use a structure that persuades the reader of the argument
• have a conclusion that sums up the chapter's contribution to the thesis and shows
the link to the next chapter.
PRECAUTIONS FOR WRITING RESEARCH REPORT
1. Length of the report: While determining the length of the report (since research
reports vary greatly in length), one should keep in view the fact that it should be long
enough to cover the subject but short enough to maintain interest. In fact, report writing
should not be a means to learning more and more about less and less.
2. Interesting: A research report should not, if this can be availed, be dull, it should
be such as to sustain reader's interest.
3. Use of abstract terminology and Jargon: Abstract terminology and technical Jargon
should be avoided in research report. The report should be able to convey the matter as
simply as possible. This in other words, means that report should be written in and
objective style in simple language, avoiding, expression such as, "it seems", "There may be"
and the like.
4. Presentation of the findings: Readers are often interested in acquiring a quick
knowledge of the main findings and as such the report must provide a ready availability of
the findings. for this purpose, charts, graphs and the statistical tables may be used for
the various results in the main report in addition to the summary of important findings.
5. Presentation of the report: The layout of the report should be well though out and
must be appropriate and in accordance with objective of the research problems.
6. Writing of the Report: The reports should be free from grammatical mistakes and
must be prepared strictly in accordance with the techniques of composition footnotes,
documentation, proper punctuation and use of abbreviations in footnotes.
7. Logical presentation of the report: The report must present the logical analysis of
the subject matter. it must reflect a structure wherein the different pieces of analysis
relating to the research problem fit well.
8. Originality in writing report: A research report should show originality and should
necessarily be an attempt to solve some intellectual problem. it must contribute to the
solution of a problem and must add to the store of knowledge.
9. Plan for future research and implications: Towards the end, the report must also
state the policy implications relating to the problem under consideration. It is usually
considered desirable if the report makes a forecast of the probable future of the subject
concerned and indicates the kinds of research still needs to be done in that particular
field.
10. Appendices: Appendices should be enlisted in respect of all the technical data in
the report.
11. Bibliography: Bibliography of sources consulted is a must for a good report and
must necessarily be given.
12. Index: Index is also considered an essential part of a good report and as such must
be prepared and appended at the end.
13. Appearance: Report must be attractive in appearance, neat and clean, whether
types or printed.
14. Stating confidence limits: Calculated confidence limits must be mentioned and the
various constraints experienced in conducting the research study may also be stated in the
report.
15. Introduction: Objective of the study, the nature of the problem, the methods
employed and the analysis techniques adopted must all be clearly stated in the beginning of
the report in the form of introduction.
Norms of using tables:
Tables and figures play a critical role in enhancing the overall quality and impact of a
research manuscript. Therefore, it is essential to ensure that the tables and figures in
your research manuscript are flawless, effective, and attractive. First decide whether a
table, figure, or text is the best format for presenting your data. Then, follow these
general guidelines to produce effective tables and figures while writing your research
paper:
1. Ensure that the tables and figures in your research manuscript are self-explanatory and
can be understood independent of text.
2. Do not repeat the contents of your tables and figures within the text. Instead, use the
text to focus on the significance or key points of your tables and figures.
3. Present values and details consistently in tables and text (e.g., abbreviations, group
names, treatment names).
4. Write clear, informative titles for your tables and figures, and label column heads, axis
labels, figure labels, etc., clearly and appropriately.
5. Follow your target journal’s instructions for preparing tables and figures, particularly
with regard to aspects such as the number of tables and figures you can include,
numbering style, titles, image resolution, file formats, etc.
6. If you are including a table or figure that has already been published, ensure that you
seek permission from the copyright holder (usually the publisher) and acknowledge the
source.