Modern Railway Track 4 TRACK LOADS

4 TRACK LOADS

4.1 In general

The requirementsfor the bearing strength and quality of the track depend to a large extent on the
load oarameters:

- axle load: static vertical load per axle;

- tonnageborne:sum ofthe axle loads;

- runningspeed.

The static axle load level, to which the dynamic incrementis added, in principledeterminesthe
requiredstrengthof the track.The accumulatedtonnageis a measurethat determinesthe deteriora-
tion of the track qualityand as such providesan indicationof when maintenanceand renewalare
necessary.The dynamicload componentwhich dependson speed and horizontaland verticaltrack
geometry also plays an essential part here.

4.2 Axle loads

The nominalaxle loadsappliedto the track are as shown in Table4.1.

number
empty loaded
of axles
trams 4 50 kN 70 kN
light-rail 4 80 kN 1 0 0k N
' 1 0 0k N '120kN
passengercoach A

passengermotor coach 4 150kN 1 7 0k N

locomotive 4or6 215kN
freightwagon 2 1 2 0k N 225 kN
heavy haul (USA,Australia) 2 1 2 0k N 250-350kN
fabb 4.1: Number of axles and weight per axle of several rolling stock types

With very high axle loadsthe numberof rail defectsincreasesconsiderablyand the track requiresfar
more maintenance.

4.3 Line classification

axle load weighUm
Category
The UIC (lnternaiionalUnion of Railways),which is the IKN] IkN/m]
or$anisationfor railwaycooperationand which counts stand- A 160 48
ardizationamong its tasks, makes a distinctionbetweenload B1 180 50
categoriesaccordingto UIC leaflet700; these categoriesare B2 180 64
shown in Table4.2.
v2 200 64
C3 200 72
The NS network, in general, complies with category C2;
when buildingnew linesCa or Da are applied. 200 80
Da 225 80

Table 4.2: UIC load classification

55
4 TRACK LOADS Modern Railway Track

4.4 Tonnages

Dailytonnageis usedto expressthe intensityor

capacity of rail traffic on a specific line.
Figure4.1 gives a summaryof the daily ton-
nages on the NS network.The averagedaily
tonnageis about20.000t. The most heavily
loadedsectionshave a daily load of 60.000t.
Abroad,on whatareknownas heavyhaullines,
dailytonnagesof 300.000 t canoccur.

Furthermore, all typesof trackdeteriorationfea-

tures, such as increasein geometricaldevia-
tions, increasein rail fractures,and rail wear,
can be verywell expressedas a functionof ton-
nage.This is oftenexpressedas MGT= million
grosstonnes(note:1 MGT(US)= 8896MN).

Forthe sakeof dimensioning and maintenance

of the permanentway, the track network is
dividedintoclassesdetermined by the equiva-
fenttonnagedefinedin UIC leaflet714 accord-
ingto:

v P ^
'r 'p100 s18D (4 1)
Figure 4.1: Daity lonnage mapfor Ns netuvork

in which:
T" Real load for daily passengertraffic;
T. Real load for daily freight traffic;
Maximumpermissiblespeed [km/h];
D Minimumwheel diameter[m];
P
' c Maximumaxle load with wheelsof diameterD [tonnes].

The groups used by the NS are globally speaking as follows:

class | 40.000< T1
class ll 20.000< Tf < 40.000
c l a s sl l l 1 0 . 0 0 0< Tf < 20.000
class lV Tf < 10.000

4.5 Speeds

The maximum speed on a specific section is expressed in km/h. Line section speeds used by the NS
are standardizedat 40, 60, 80, 100, 130 and 140 km/h.Table4.3 gives a survey.

passenger freighl
trains trains
branchlines 30-40 km/h
secondarylines 80-'120km/h 60-80 km/h
100-120
m a i nl i n e s 160-200km/h
km/h
h i g hs p e e dl i n e s - 250-300km/h
*world record = 51 5.3 km/h (TGV-SNCE May 1 990)

Table 4.3: Maximum speeds railwaYs

56
Modern Railway Track 4 TRACK LOADS

Freight trains are allowed to run at a maximum of 100 km/h. Tests are currently under way to deter-
mine whetherthis speed can be increasedto 120 km/h.

4.6 Causes and nature of track loads.

The forces acting on the track as a result of train loads are considerableand sudden and are charac-
terized by rapid fluctuations.The loads can be consideredfrom three main angles:

- vertical;

- horizontal,transverseto the track;

- horizontal,parallelto the track;

Generally, the loads are unevenly distributed over the two rails and are often difficult to quantify.
Dependingon the natureof the loadsthey can be dividedas follows:

- quasi-staticloads as a result of the gross tare, the centrifugal force and the centering force in
curves and switches,and cross winds;

- dynamic loads caused by:

. track irregularities(horizontaland vertical)and irregulartrack stiffnessdue to variable char-

acteristicsand settlementof ballast bed and formation;

. at welds,joints,switchesetc.;
discontinuities

. irregularrail running surface (corrugations);

. vehicle defects such as wheel flats, natural vibrations,hunting.

In addition,the effects of temperatureon CWR track can cause considerablelongitudinaltensile and

compressiveforces, which in the latter case can result in instability(risk of buckling)of the track.

4.7 Verticalrailforces.

4.7.1 Totalverticalwheelload

The total verticalwheel load on the rail is made up of the following components:

Q1o1 : (Q"1u1+ Q""n1rt Q*66) i Q6yn (4.2\

quasl-staflcforces

in which:

Q"1"1: static wheel load = half the static axle load, measured on straight horizontaltrack;
: increase in wheel load on the outer rail in curves in connectionwith non-compensatedcentrif-
Q""n1,.
ugal force;
Q*;n6 : idem for cross winds;
Q6un : dynamic wheel load components resultingfrom:

57
4 TRACK LOADS Modern Railway Track

sprungmass 0-20H2;

unsprung
mass 2 0 - 1 2 5H z ,

. corrugations,welds, wheel flats 0 - 2000 Hz.

From the equilibriumconsideration of the forces

acting on the vehicle,as shown in Figure4.2,
the following can be deduced for each wheelset
and a small cant angle:

Qcenr,'Qwna nY , ,-? (4 3)

with (3.4) it follows:

2
" g :!llK - n (cantdeficiency) (4.4)
hd

wherein:

G : weightof vehicleper wheelset;

Hw : cross wind force;
s : trackwidth;
v : speeo:
g : accelerationdue to gravity;
R : curve radius;
h : cant;
pc : vehicle centre of gravity distance;
pw : distanceof lateralwind force resultant.

The proportionof Q""n1ris usually 10 to 25o/oof Figure 4.2: Quasi-static vehicle forces in a curue
the static wheel load. With cross wind on the
other side H* is negative,which is importantfor
vehiclesstandingstillin curves.

The maximumwheel load usuallyoccursat the outer rail (h6 > 0) and is equal to:

p'h
Q" ^u,= '4 6 - 6Y! t g*Z-u (4.5)
s-

In view of the large number of load repetitions,the dynamic wheel load can be consideredas a
fatigueload. This means that it is not the greatestwheel load which is the determiningfactorfor the
bearingstrength,but the mean square of all the wheel loads. For a rough estimateof the dynamic
wheel load,the staticwheel load may be multipliedwith a dynamicamplification factor.

About 2 m in front of and behind a wheel the track bends in an upward direction.This means that
upwardly directedforces are also acting on the fasteningsand sleepers.

4.7.2 Tilting risk.

Tiltingof the vehiclein curvescan occur in the followinginstances:

- over the outer rail at high speeds in case of a great cant deficiencyand cross wind; due to off-load-
ing of the inner rail;

58
Modern Railway Track 4 TRACK LOADS

- over the inside rail in the case of lightweightempty wagons standingstill or wagons with a dis-
placed freight load on track with high cant and with a cross wind in an unfavourabledirection.

To determinesafetyagainsttilting,an equilibriumconsiderationhas to be made takingload and a shift

of the centre of gravity due to the suspension into account. A criterionfor tilting can be, for example,
that load-relievingof the criticalwheel by up to 60% of ihe static value is allowed.
The notionof tiltingas a risk should not be confusedwith tiltingas a mechanismused intentionally in
coaches to artificiallyincreasethe cant in curves.

4.8 Lateralforceson the rail.

4.8.1 Total lateral wheel load

The total horizontallateralforce exerted bv the wheel on the outer rail is:

Yd - (Ynqpse+
Yuru+ Y*in6)i Y6r, (4.6)
quasi-static forces

in which:

Yfl"no"ilateralforce in curve caused by flanging against the outer rail;

Y""n1r: lateralforce due to non-compensatedcentrifugalforce;
Y*1n6: idem for cross wind;
Y6un : dynamiclateralforce component;on straighttrack these are predominantlyhuntingphenom-
ut td.

and Y*;n6act entirelyon the outer rail, the equilibriumconsiderationper

lf it is assumedthat Y."n1..
wheelsetin Figure4.2 gives:

h"
Y. -.,= GJ + H* (4.7)
o

The actual situation is considerably more complex because of the presence of several coupled
wheelsets,the variouspositionsthe vehiclecan assume in a curve,and the adhesionforcesbetween
the wheel and the rail. The total lateral force cannot therefore be predicted with great reliability.In
practice, however, measuring methods have been developed for determining the total vertical and
horizontalforces on the rail.
There are also measuring wheelsets which can measure these quantities directly. Currently,a new
technique is being used to calculateY and Q forces from measured geometry.More details are given
on this in Chaoter16.

4.8.2 Derailmentrisk

As stated above, derailment can occur if the Y/Q ratio increases in value because of high lateral
forcesY actingon the high rail or low wheel loadsQ in the case of unloadedwheels.

ln Figure4.3 the situationis drawn where the forces are actingon the rail and where flange climbing
is about to begin.From the equilibriumconditionsthe normalforce N and the tangentialforce S in the
contact area can be expressed as:

N : YsinF+Qcosf (4.8)

S : QsinB-YcosB (4.e)
whereB=flangeangle.

59
4 TRACK LOADS Modern Railway Track

Apparently,flange climbing can be preventedor stopped

if the shearing force satisfiesthis relationship:

fN<S (4.10)

where f = friction coefficient.

Introducingthe formula:

f - tanQ (4.11)

( 4 . 1 0 r) e s u l t isn
t h e i n s e r t i oonf ( 4 . 8 )(, 4 . 9 )a n d ( 4 " 1 1 ) i n
the followingcondition:

Y <sinp tanQcosf (4.12)

t"nrB o'
Q - t a n Q s i n 1 -" o " i i - -

Tests[203]haveshownthat derailmentcan occurif the

Y/Q ratio over a distanceof more than 2 m is greater
than 1.2. For this reasonthe followingvalueis usually
retainedas the criterionfor safetyagainstderailment:

\. t., (4.13)

- 4.3: Quasi-static vehicle forces in a cuNe

Fioure
Often, a maximum wear angle o'f lzn - F = 32o is
accepted, resulting in p = 69o. For instance,with p = 66o
and f = 0.15 it followstrom (4.12)that Y/Q = 1.26, which
value is in accordancewith the internationalaccepted value mentionedabove.

Apparently,if the wheel flange or railhead is lubricatedthe situationregardingderailmentis consider-

ably improved because there is less friction.

4.8.3 Lateral force on the track

The total lateral force H on the track can be assessed as the sum of the Y-forces multiplied by a
dynamic amplificationfactor:

/ n, \
H: DAF.lc-!+H,) 9.14)

This total lateralforce exerted by the wheels on the track must be resisted by means of:

- resistanceto lateraldisplacementof the sleepers in the ballast bed;

- horizontalstiffnessof the track frame (5 to 10%).

In the horizontal direction the resistance of the track is limited. High lateral forces can cause the
sleepers to move in the ballast bed, possibly causing permanentdeformation.

A practical value for the lateral resistance required of a loaded track in order to guarantee stability
was determinedin the fiftiesbv SNCF and is known as the Prud'hommeformulawhich reads as fol-
lows:

H,r) t v r ; (4.15)

60
Modern Railway Track 4 TRACK LOADS

in which:

Htr : minimum lateralforce [kN] which the track should be able to resist without lateral deforma-
tion;
P : axle load [kN].
"l0'and'1/3') are dependenton
In general,the empiricalcoefficientsappearingin the formula(here
the type of track and its maintenancecondition.In this case it concerns shovel-packedtrack, crushed
stone, and wooden sleepers. Although measurements in tamped track with concrete sleepers sug-
gested a higher value for the first coefficient,formula (4.15) is generally adopted as design standard.
As far as the rolling stock is concerned, it is required that the horizontalwheel load Hr" exerted by a
vehicle is restrictedaccordinqto:

H, , ^ <J 0 . 8
\ 5 (3 1 0 )+ ? \
(4.16)

Whenassessing whetherthe formula(4.16)is used

actuallateralloadis lessthanthevalueallowed,
as a comoarison
in orderto be absolutelv
certain.

4.9 Longitudinalforces.

4.9.1 Gauses

Horizontal forcesoccurin the trackas a resultof:

longitudinal

- temperature
forces,especiallyin CWRtrack.Theseforcescan be considered
as a staticload;

- accelerating
and braking;
- shrinkagestressescausedby railwelding;

- trackcreep.

4.9.2 Temperatureforces

The changein lengthof a releasedrailas a resultof a changein temperature

is:

Ll: ulLT (4.17)

in which:

cr : linear expansion coefficientof rail steel;

AT: change in temperature(definedas AT= Tu"1ru; - T;p121)i
I : originalrail length.

This situationdoes not occur in the case of fixed rails, because in such a case the rail encounters a
longitudinalresistancewhich opposes the axial displacements.This resistance is produced by the
friction forces between rails and sleepers and between sleepers and ballast bed. In Chapter 7 this
subject is discussed in more detail.

4.9.3 Track creep

This phenomenonconcernsthe gradualdisplacementin the runningdirectionof eitherthe railsrela-

tive to the sleepers or of the rails plus sleepers relative to the ballast bed. On single track with two-
way traffic there is less creep. On gradients the track creeps downwards regardless of the traffic
direction.Creep has the followingdisadvantages:

61
 Modern Railway Track
4 TRACK LOADS

- increase in CWR forces;

- too large or too small expansiongaps in jointed tracks;

- non-uniformrail creep resultingin misalignmentof the sleepersdue to which horizontalbending

moments are exerted on the rail;

- displacementof sleepers resulting in disturbanceof the stabilityof the track in the ballastbed'

The cause of creep is to be found in the bending wave movement of the track close to the wheel.
Increasingelongationof the rail foot caused by the approachingwheel load producesa slight forward
displacementol that part of the track, because the shearing resistanceat this point is less than under
the loaded section. As the wheel load moves away, the section of track behind the wheel load shifts
forward slightly for the same reasons owing to the decreasing elongaiion of the rail foot. Creep is
eliminatedby usingfasteningswith a sufficientclampingforce and ballastwith an adequateshearing
resistance.

4.9.4 Braking load

When dimensioningstructures,braking loads must be taken into account.Many railwaysassume

2b% of the trainweightfor this axial load. ln Chapter7 this subjectis discussedin more detail.

4.10 Influenceof higher speedsand increasedaxle loads

4.10.1 Speed

Higher speeds and higher axle loads play an important role when competing with other forms of
transport. lt is hardly surprisingthat a great deal of research is being undertakenin this field the world
over. This subject has already been given some considerationin the precedingchapters.

Apart from causing rolling stock problems and difficultieswith pantographs,high speeds involve
keeping the forces on the track and the car body accelerationsat an acceptable level. These varia-
bles can be affectedby track geometry.Vehicle reactionsare a result of interactionwith the track. The
response variables consist not only of quasi-staticcomponents which occur in curves, but also of a
dynamiccomponent.

Q [kN] (97.5 %-value) Q [kNl (97.5 %-value)

150 -.-;;?
l\,4oderatetrack
Loc's on good
---' tracks
4'44
Good track
Freightwagons
with 22.5 t axle
toaos

60 100 140 70 90 110

Figure4.4: Q-forcesat highspeed Figure4.5: Q-forcesat 22.5t axleload

62
Modern Railway Track 4 TRACK LOADS

For the various high speed projects extensive series of measurements have been carried out to
checkwhetherthe limitvaluesare exceededor not.

A summary of the Q-force measurementscarriedout by DB [145] is presentedin Figure4.4. The

97.5%-valueof the wheel load due to locomotivesreaches 150 kN at 250 km/h. Wagons with an axle
load of 22.5 t on straighttrack at 120 kmlh also produce similar dynamic loads.

4.10.2 lncrease in axle loads

ln 1983 a large-scaleEuropeanmeasurementcampaignwas carriedout underthe auspicesof ORE

committeesD 161 and B 12. A speciallyformed measuringtrain was used consistingof wagons with
type Y 25 and DB 65 bogies.The NS recordingcar with the BMS system was also includedin the
train. Using measuring wheelsets Q and I force measurementswere carried out for 20 and 22.5 t
axle loads on differentquality track. These measurementsformed part of extensive research into the
effect of raisingthe axle load from 20 to 22.5 I1220|

The dynamicwheel loadsfor a nominalaxle load o'f22.5 t for varioustrack qualitiesexpressedin mm

standarddeviation(s) of BMS are presentedin Figure4.5. The track quality is subdividedinto 3
classes:0 - 1 mm: verygood, 1-2mm: good, more than 2 mm: moderate.This classification applies
in the followingto both leveland alignment.Figure4.5 clearlyshowsthe dominatinginfluenceof track
quality.
The dynamicaxle load increaseAIQ regarding20 t and 22.5 I aI speeds of 70, 90, and 110 km/h is
shown in Figure4.6.

The dynamic wheel loads are also measured in a variety of curves. The 99.85%-valuesfor lateral
wheel-railforces Y", under 20 t and 22.5 t, are gathered together in Figure 4.7.

DSO [kN] (97.5 %-value) Yu [kNl (99.85 %-value)

22.51

22.51

20t
201

- 22.5t
ai) Veru oood track
(2) Good track
':r (9 l\4oderatetrack

20t 20t 20t Axle 40

toao Curue radius
2 2 . 5| 2 2 . 5| 2 2 . 5t
IACK
quality: Ysry gssd Good l\.4oderate 300 500 700 900 1100 1300 R [m]

Figure 4.6: Dynamic component of wheel load versus axle Figure4.7:DynamicY-forcesin curues
load, speed and track quality

Stabilityof the trackdependson the totallateraltrackload,especiallythat partwhichis presentover

a lengthof at least2 m. Thisportionis referredto as IY2, and is obtainedfromthe sum of Y-leftand
Y-right,whichimpliesthatcontributions witha wavelength of lessthan2 m arefilteredout.
4 TRACK LOADS Modern Railway Track

Figure4.8 again shows

the 99.85%-values for
*'f)
, Vr, . O.OS1,O various parameters. An
t Y2m[kN] (99.85%-value)
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -,; upper limit is also given
7- 7 for lateral load as a func-
O Verygoodtrack e'' tion of non-compensated
@ Goodtrack
@ Moderatetrack
{ 2/ lateral acceleration. A
value of 0.85 m/s2 woulo
also seem to be accepta-
ble for 22.5 t axle loads on
very good and good
tracks. In the case of
22.5r the
moderate tracks
201
20t Prud'homme limit is
reached sooner.
22.51
P q \*u/
^(/::f,***,*n+*/. The DB measurements
20r publishedin [145] give a
.".;,./22.5t maximum Q force of 170
kN. As can be seen in
Figure4.9, these values
300 500 700 900 R [m] 0.85 a"" [m/s']
are reached in curyes
Figure4.8:Dynamiclateraltrackloadin curues when non-compensated
lateralaccelerationis 0.85
mls2.

Concfusionsof D 161researchon 22.5t axleloads

The conclusions of the researchundertakenby the

Q-forces in curues due to freight
ORE D 161 committeeinto the effectsof raising
wagons with 22.51axleloads the axle load from 20 I lo 22.5 t can be summa-
rizedas follows[220].
N/ax(97.5 %)
Formostof the parameters examinedthe increase
remained lessthanthe increase of 12.5%in nomi-
nal axle load.Accelerations in the track increase
by 2 to 10%.The increasein dynamicQ-force
comDonent is of the orderof 6%.The ballaststress
is almostthe sameas for an axleloadof 20 t when
NP46 is usedinsteadof UIC54.In general the laf
[,4in(2.5 %) eralloadturnsoutto be affectedonlyslightly.

The aboveORE researchrevealedthatspeedand

the qualityof trackgeometrywerethe mostimpor-
0 0.5 0.85 tant parameters. As can be deducedfrom figure
Figure 4.6,the dynamic component of the Q-force
Figure 4.9: Dynamic Q-force in curues measured by ORE
D 161/812 for an axleloadof 20 t on poorqualitytrackis con-
siderablygreaterthanthatfor an axleloadof 22.5t
on goodtracksupplemented by thestaticincreaseof 12.5kN.

Expectedincreasein track maintenancecosts

for tamping,rail renewal,

The oarameterwhichis considereddecisivein effectingthe requirements
and componentdamageis the verticalload.The ORE CommitteeD141 developeda methodfor
quantitative as describedin 12111.
calculations

oz+
Modern Railway Track 4 TRACK LOADS

In this approach damage/deteriorationis assumed to be a function of the power of the load according
IO:

E:kfPgv (4.18)

inwhich:
f = deteriorationsince renewal or last maintenanceoperation;
J = tonnage;
p = total axle load (static + dynamic);
V = speed;
k, cr,F, y = constants.

The shape of the function E in relation to ton-

nage and axle load is represented schemati- Deterioration
E
I
cally in Figure4.10.The equivalenttonnagefor "tr2 2 5 P =22.51
a 2 2 . S t a x l e l o a de q u a l s :

E'o -/ P = 2 01
r P-^ t!/a
T e qz z . s l . " l rzo (4.19)

o
- t E.^tl
T. (4.20)
l="1
LL 22 5J

Tonnage
The costsare inverselyproportional
to the ton-
nageborneat the momentmaintenance takes Teazz.s Tro

place.Consequently, the cost ratio K22.slK20

amountsto: Figure 4.10: Deterioratbn law according to ORE D 141

Kzz.s-- f Pzzsf\/"
(4.21)
x^ Lp.-)
ln practice only a limitedfraction of axles have loads of 20122.5t. As a result of this, the cost ratio for
two-axle load distributionsshould be calculatedbv:

I n,Pl'"
K 2 i
(4.22)
tt
>-r'
in which:
n2i,n1i = fractionper axle load class;
P; = average load level per axle load class;

The cr and p factors have been determinedempiricallyby ORE D 141 and ORE D 17. ln 12201thefol-
lowing factors have been used.

Phenomenon p 0ra
rail fatigue 3 1

rail surface defects J.J 3.5

fatigueof other components ? I

trackgeometrydeterioration 3 3
Table 4.4: Values of delerioralion faclors

65
4 TRACK LOADS Modern Railway Track

lln 12201calculations
a BMS Axle load of cost increase have
Increase in cost [%]
o = 3 m m2 0 o / 2
" 2.5t been made for several
10% 20 t
axle load distribu-
o = 3 mm 0% 22.51
30% 20 t tions. One of these
examplesis presented
i n F i g u r e4 . 11. T h e
reference distribution
m m 2 0 %2 2 . 5 1 consists of 30% axles
10% 20 t
o'f 20 t. The cost
m m 0 % 2 2 . 5|
300/,20t increase is computed
if the 30% of 20 t axle
loads is converted into
- - 1
mm 20% 22.5t 10ok of 20 t and 20%
10% 201
6 = 1 m m 0 % 2 2 . 5 t of 22.5 t axle loads,
30% 20 | taking track quality
and running speed
speed[m/s]
into account.

Figure 4.1 1: lncrease in maintenance costs in relation to track quality, axle load, and speed

Track quality appears to be the most importantfactor. For a track quality between 1 and 2 mm stand-
ard deviationBMS, the order of magnitudeof the cost increaseAK accordingto Figure4.11 can be
summarizedas follows:

ogyg=1mm -+ ogyg=2mm ) LK=23oh

V =80km/h -+ V =100km/h-_> LK=15o/o
P =2OI -+ P =22.5t -) AK= 8%

fnternational approval of 22.5 t axle loads at 100 km/h

For the purpose of requiringinternationalapproval of bogie wagons with 22.5 t axle loads and speeds
of up to 100 km/h, furtheranalyseswere carriedout by the UIC on the EuropeTour measurements
and approvalmeasurementswere undertakenby DB an SNCF. Based on this, the conclusionwas
drawn that for the boundaryconditionsappliedhere, i.e. R > 450 m and maximumcaht deficiencyof
'100km/h will produceno problemsprovidedosys-alignmentremains
130 mm (0.9 m/s2),a speed of
in the 0 - 25 m band below 2 mm. Under these circumstancesthe lateral load lies at least 2oohbelow
the Prud'hommelimit.

The running characteristicsof the rolling stock are characterizedby the Wr-factor according to Sper-
ling.The readeris referredto Chapter16 for the definitionof this factor.The permissiblevalue is 4.5,
whereas in the measurementspreviouslvmentionedW. values of the order of 3.0 were found.

4.11 Wheelflats

Byfarthelargest
dynamicloadsappliedto thetrackbyvehiclesarethosewhicharisefromirregular-
itiesonthewheelsuchaswheelflats.Normaldynamic forcesarelinkedto thetrackgeometry.
A locationwith bad track geometry will experiencehigh forces from most vehicles.These high forces
will contribute to track damage and geometry deteriorationat that location. Wheel flat forces differ
fundamentallyfrom those discussed previously.

66
 Modern Railway Track 4 TRACK LOADS

Wheel flats apply the same force ran-

domlyall alongthe trackwith no correla- Force
[kN]
tion to the track geometry. However, the ..n.]
occasionalhigh load appliedto the rail or ,,;;l
componentcan cause failureand can sig- ,,ol u
nificantly contribute to fatigue damage. ',oo.]u 1 0 m ml o n g
Figure4.12 shows a characteristicexam- uo.] 1 . 5m md e e p
ple of the force betweenrail and sleeper 60.]
during passageof a wheel with a flat. In +ol
extreme situations these forces can zo)
increaseto six times the staticvalue. o-1,-
-20
During the D161 studiesdescribedin 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.'t4 0.16
12191,a number of calculationswere
madewith a modeldeveloped by BR to Figure 4.12: Force between rail and sleeper during passage of a
investigate the effectof differentparame- wheel with a flat

ters on the magnitude of wheelflat forces

[273]. Figure4.13 shows some typical
examolesof calculated wheelflatforces.

40 50 60 Speed 50 60 Speed
Imis] Im/s]

Figure 4.13: Typical examples

Theseresultsrevealthatthe forcesat frequencies above500 Hz, referredto as P1-forces, increase

continuouslywith speed,whilstforcesat frequencies below100Hz, referredto as P2-forces, are
moreor lessindependent of speed.The P.1-forces, associated withthe stiffHertzian
contactspring,
are importantas far as wheel/railcontactstressesare concerned.lf railand sleeperstrainsare con-
sidered,the mediumfrequencies associatedwith the pad stiffnessand the low frequenciesassoci-
atedwiththe ballastspringare important.

The calculationresultsare confirmedby

the test measurementscarried out by
ORE D 161 t2191.Figure4.14 summa-
Concretesleeper
rizes these test results by plottingthe
wheelload in the 0 - 100 Hz bandas a
functionof the flat deoth for trackswith Wood sleeper
timberand concretesleepers.The largest
forceswerefoundat a speedof 30 km/h.
Accordingto UIC leaflet510-2,flats on 0 . 9- 1 . 4m m
't50
wheelswitha diameter of 1000- 630 mm
shouldbe restricted to a lengthof 60 mm
100
anda depthof 0.9- 1.4mm.In thisrange Flat depth [mm]
the dynamicwheel load increasesby
0 1.0 1.6 2.8 4.3 6.3
approximately30 kN/mmfor timbersleep-
ers and 50 kN/mmfor concretesleepers. Figure 4.14: Summary of D1 61 investigations into the effect of
wheel flats on the wheel load

67
4 TRACK LOADS Modern Railway Track

However,the higher frequency forces rise continuouslywith speed and very large dynamic railhead
forces can be recorded. The results of measurements on BR and the American Railroads have
shown that there may be a chanceof more than 1 in 10.000of obtainingwheel forcesas high as 300
kN.

4.12 Forcesdue to bad welds

Even relatively small vertical deviations in

weld geometry can cause huge dynamic
forces on passage of a wheel. Steps, i.e.
misalignments,are especiallyresponsible
for this, but so are kinks, normally
expressedas the versineon a 1.2 m base.
In order to confine these dynamic loads,
geometricaldeviationsin welds should be
limitedto a few tenthsof a millimetre.

Figure4.15 shows an exampleof load dis-

tributionas a functionof time duringwheel
passageover a poor weld. The behaviour
is similar to that of wheel flats. After a sharp
peak of some milliseconds, i.e.the P1-force
2 4 6 8 1 0 1 2 ' 1 4 1 6 1 8 2 0
mentioned earlier which only has a local
Figure 4.1 5: Dynamic wheel load during passage over a influenceon the wheel/railcontact stress, a
second, much broader,peak occurs which
penetratesthe whole construction.

The dynamic amplification of the Q-force

during passage over a poor weld is pre-
sented in Figure Figure4.16 as a function
of soeed. These values were obtainedfrom
BR measurements and calculations.
Dynamic amplifications of the vertical rail
load of up to 400o/ohave been found on the
NS network.

High frequencydynamic loads due to poor

welds, corrugation,and wheel flats are very
detrimentalto the track. Concrete sleepers
in particularare very susceptibleto these
loads. Delft University investigated load
transfer from rail to sleeper for ORE Com-
40 120 mitteeD 161, with specialemphasison the
propertiesof rail pads [219].
Figure 4.16: Dynamic Q-force magnification versus speed during
passage over a weld

Figure 4.17 shows sleeper strain versus time due to an impact load for normal and soft pads. The
strain peak in the case of soft pads is about 50% lower than for normal pads.

Transferfunctions have also been determined between vertical rail accelerationand vertical sleeper
acceleration.The results,summarizedin Figure4.18, revealthat the NS concretesleeperassembly
is susceptibleto loadsin the 20 - 300 Hz frequencyband.The pad hardnessseems to have littleinflu-
ence, neither on this frequency band nor on the modulus of the transfer function. The little difference
in sleeper strain accordingto Figure4.17 should thereforebe explainedby a lower dynamic load
between wheel and rail.

6B
Modern Railway Track 4 TRACK LOADS

p strarn

95
80
65
50 - Standard pad
35 - gsft p3(
20
5
-10
-25 0.2
-40
0.0
0 2.5 5 7.5 10 15 2 0 T i m e[ m s ] 400 1000 2000
Frequency[Hz]

Figure4.17: Sleeperstrainversustimedue to an impactload Figure 4.1 8: Estimated transfer function for rail pacls

4.13 Axle box accelerations

The resultsof the D 161calculations showthe importance of veryshortwavelengths in generating

the
significantverticalloadsappliedto the track.
Theseshortwavelengths of lessthan0.5 m are not normallyrecordedby mosttrackgeometrycars,
but the loadsthey producecan be importantin causingbothdeterioration of the geometryand dam-
age to components. Theseloadsare well represented by axle box accelerations.FromD 161meas-
urements,carriedout duringthe Europetour, the followingconclusionson the forcesfrom the
unsprungmassof the wheelselweredrawn:

- the standarddeviationof the axleboxaccelerations

rangedfrom6 m/s2to 20 m/sr;
- as anticipated,the trackgeometryas measuredby recordingcarsonly has a secondaryeffecton
the levelof accelerationand thuson force.

69