G1 MENDELIAN LAW OF

INHERITANCE
Gene:
- The basic functional unit of heredity.
- Carries the information that determines your traits
George Mendel:
- An Austrian-Czech biologist and monk
- Discovered the pattern of heredity
- In 1865, Mendel presented the results of his
experiments on how traits may be inherited through
generations.
- Mendel worked with pea plants to produce data to
support the Gene Theory
- The main concept of the Gene Theory is that traits are
from parents to offspring through gene transmission
Why did he use pea plants?
- Pea plants have multiple variable traits that are clearly
visible
- Mating is easy to control (through cross-pollination)
- Generations are short but there are many offsprings
VOCABULARY
Allele - a variant form of a gene.
Genotype - gene/allele combination an organism has (SS, Ss, ss)
Phenotype - refers to the observable traits or characteristics of an
organism (Color, Shape)
Homozygous Genotype - having two identical versions of the same
gene (XX, yy)
Heterozygous Genotype - having two different versions of that
gene (Aa, bB)
Dominant Allele - an allele of a gene is said to be dominant when it
effectively overrules the other. Expressed as uppercase letters.
Recessive Allele - a trait is expressed only when genotype is
homozygous. Tends to be masked by other inherited traits.
Expressed as lowercase letters.

Punnett Square:
- A graphical way of determining all the possible
outcomes of a genetic cross.
- It displays the possible genotypes offsprings can inherit
from two parental genotypes.
-
THREE PRINCIPLES
Mendel generalized the results of his experiments into three
principles that describe the basis of inheritance
PRINCIPLE OF SEGREGATION
This principle states that for any trait, each pair of alleles of a
gene passes from each parent to an offspring.
MULTIPLE ALLELES
PRINCIPLE OF INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT
This principle states that genes are sorted independent from
one another.
PRINCIPLE OF DOMINANCE
This principle states that dominant alleles are expressed and
recessive alleles will always be masked by dominant ones.
CODOMINANCE
- Two alleles or traits of the genotype are expressed in
the offspring.
- There is neither a dominant nor recessive allele in
cross-breeding
- Traits Controlled by a single gene more than two
alleles are called multiple allele traits.
- Many genes have multiple alleles. An example is ABO
blood type in humans. There are three common alleles
for the gene that controls this characteristic.

NON-MENDELIAN INHERITANCE
Non-mendelian genetics involves patterns of inheritance that
do not follow Mendel's laws.

INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE

- The traits blend together producing an intermediate

phenotype.
- A condition in which a dominant allele does not
completely mask the effects of a recessive allele.
- This occurs when neither trait is truly dominant over the
other. This means that both traits can be expressed in
the same regions, resulting a blending of two
phenotypes.

G2 Sex Linkage
Mendelian Inheritance - The inheritance of traits from the
parents to their offsprings, proposed by Gregor Mendel.
Chromosomes - Chromosomes are structures found in the
center (nucleus) of cells that carry long pieces of DNA. DNA is
the material that holds genes and is the building block of the
human body.
BASIC TYPES OF CHROMOSOMES
• Autosomes - carry the genetic coding for everything except
sex determination which is inherited from the parents of an
organism.
• Sex Chromosomes - are the chromosomes that determine
sex and sex-related hormonal traits.
The autosomes are the one who carries the genetic
information that is inherited from the parents. While sex
chromosomes are the one who determines the sex and sex
related hormonal traits of an organism. These are the X and Y
chromosome.
The mother gives an X chromosome because females has
only XX sex chromosomes and males have XY chromosomes.
After giving the mother an X chromosome, the father may
contribute an X or a Y sex chromosome that will determine the
sex of the baby.
X - Linked Dominant Mutation
takes place in the X Chromosome. Females have more
chance in becoming a carrier due to having XX, even having
only one affected X Chromosome is enough to become a
carrier.
X - Linked Recessive Mutation
takes place in the X Chromosome. A male carrying this
mutation is affected due to having 1 X Chromosome, on the
other hand Females are generally unaffected due to them
having 2 X Chromosomes.
Y - linked inheritance
A condition is considered Y linked if the altered gene that
causes the disorder is located on the Y chromosome. Because
only males have a Y chromosome, in Y-linked inheritance, a
variant can only be passed from father to son.
Hypertrichosis of the ears (or hairy ears)
- is a condition wherein there is a conspicuous growth of
hair on the outside rim of the ear.
Webbed toes condition
- is characterized by having web-like connection
between second and third toes.
Hemophilia
- It's more common in males due to it being a recessive
x trait also known as “Bleeder’s Disease”
 G3 DNA Structure Function
and
Discovery
WHAT IS DNA?
- DNA is a group of molecules that is responsible for
carrying and transmitting the hereditary materials or the
genetic instructions from parents to offsprings."
- DNA is known as deoxyribonucleic acid. it is an
organic compound that has a unique molecular
structure. it is found in all prokaryotic cells and
eukaryotic
cells.
WHO DISCOVERED DNA?
- DNA was first recognized and identified by the Swiss
biologist Johannes Friedrich Miescher in 1869
during his research on white blood cells.
TYPES OF DNA
A-DNA
- It is a right-handed double helix similar to the B-DNA
form. Dehydrated DNA takes an A form that protects
the DNA during extreme conditions such as
desiccation. Protein binding also removes the solvent
from DNA, and the DNA takes an A
B-DNA
- This is the most common DNA conformation and is a
right-handed helix. The majority of DNA has a B type
conformation under normal physiological conditions.
form.
Z-DNA
- Z-DNA is a left-handed DNA where the double helix
winds to the left in a zig-zag pattern. It was discovered
by Andres Wang and Alexander Rich. It is found ahead
of the start site of a gene and hence, is believed to play
some role in gene regulation.
SRUCTURE
• A DNA molecule is composed of two long strands, each of
which is made of building blocks called nucleotides bonded
together.
• The DNA molecule consists of 4 nitrogen bases, namely
adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C) and Guanine (G), which
ultimately form the structure of a nucleotide. The A and G are
purines, and the C and T are pyrimidines.
• The DNA coils up, forming chromosomes, and each
chromosome has a single molecule of DNA in it.
DNA REPLICATION
Step 1: Initiation
The replication of DNA begins at a point known as the origin of
replication. The two DNA strands are separated by the DNA
helicase. This forms the replication fork.
Step 2: Elongation
DNA polymerase III reads the nucleotides on the template
strand and makes a new strand by adding complementary
nucleotides one after the other.
Step 3: Termination
The termination sequence present opposite to the origin of
replication terminates the replication process. The TUS protein
(terminus utilization substance) binds to terminator sequence
and halts DNA polymerase movement. It induces termination.
DNA DISORDERS
- Structural chromosomal abnormalities
Deletion
a part of a chromosome is missing or "deleted." A very small
piece of a chromosome can contain many different genes.
When genes are missing, there may be errors in the
development of a baby, since some of the "instructions" are
missing.
• Edwards syndrome - A genetic condition that causes
serious health problems and disabilities. It's caused by an
extra copy of chromosome 18. Edwards syndrome is very rare.
About 1 in 5000 babies has Edwards syndrome.
• Patau Syndrome - Also called trisomy 13, is a clinical sign
syndrome that occurs when all or some cells of the body
contain an extra copy of chromosome 13.

Duplication • Cri Du Chat Syndrome - A rare genetic disorder caused by

a part of a chromosome is duplicated, or present in 2 copies.
This results in having extra genetic material, even though the
total number of chromosomes is usually normal.
Inversion
is a chromosome rearrangement in which a segment of a
chromosome becomes inverted within its original position. An
inversion occurs when a chromosome undergoes two breaks
within the chromosomal arm, and the segment between the
two breaks inserts itself in the opposite direction in the same
chromosome arm.
missing pieces on a particular chromosome. It is not the result
of anything the parents have done or failed to do.
• Williams Syndrome - Developmental disorder that affects
many parts of the body. This condition is characterized by mild
to moderate intellectual disability or learning problems, unique
personality characteristics, distinctive facial features, and heart
and blood vessel (cardiovascular) problems.
\

Translocation
a part of a chromosome is duplicated, or present in 2 copies.
This results in having extra genetic material, even though the
total number of chromosomes is usually normal.

DISORDERS
• Down syndrome - is a condition in which a baby is born with
an extra chromosome number 21. The extra chromosome is
associated with delays in the child's mental and physical
development, as well as an increased risk for health problems.
 Genetically engineered microbes are used to produce
G4 GENETIC ENGINEERING enzymes used in laundry detergents and contact lens
solutions.
ENERGY PRODUCTION
A process that uses laboratory-based technologies to alter the Recombinant DNA technology has tremendous scope in
DNA makeup of an organism. This may involve deleting or energy production. Through this technology, it is now possible
adding a specific segment or region of DNA to generate a to bioengineer energy crops or biofuels that grow rapidly to
desired trait. yield huge biomass that used as fuel or can be processed into
oils, alcohols, diesel, or other energy products.
Basic Technique of Genetic Engineering
1. DNA EXTRACTION - It is the process of isolating DNA from Benefits and Hazards of Genetic Engineering to
the cells of an organism isolated from a sample, typically - a Humans
biological sample such as blood, saliva, or tissue.
BENEFITS
2. GENE IDENTIFICATION Gene identification depends on
In the future, genetic therapies may be used to prevent, treat,
mapping the mutation to a locus to pinpoint its location.
or cure certain inherited disorders, such as cystic fibrosis,
3. GENETIC RECOMBINATION - It is the exchange of genetic
alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency, hemophilia, beta thalassemia,
material between different organisms which leads to
and sickle cell disease. They also may be used to treat
production of offspring with combinations of traits that differ
cancers or infections, including HIV.
from those found in either parent.
HAZARDS
4. TRANSFORMATION - A process where a new gene
Genetic therapies hold promise to treat many diseases, but
(transgene) is delivered into the nucleus of a plant cell and
they are still new approaches to treatment and may have risks.
inserts into a chromosome where it is passed on to progeny
Potential risks could include certain types of cancer, allergic
reactions, or damage to organs or tissues if an injection is
involved.
Applications of Genetic Engineering
AGRICULTURE
Scientists uses genetic engineering to increase crop yields,
lower food costs, improve food quality, food security, and
medicinal value.
MEDICINE
In medicine, genetic engineering has been used to mass-
produce insulin, human growth hormones, follistim (for treating
infertility), human albumin, monoclonal antibodies,
antihemophilic factors, vaccines, and many other drugs.
INDUSTRY
 G5 RECOMBINANT DNA
Recombinant DNA, which is often shortened to rDNA, is
an artificially made DNA strand that is formed by the
combination of two or more gene. It involves using
enzymes and various laboratory techniques to
manipulate and isolate DNA segments of interest.
USE
Recombinant DNA technology composes altering genetic
material outside an organism to obtain enhanced and
desired characteristics in Living organisms or as their
products.
IMPORTANCE
Recombinant DNA technology has also proven important
to the production of vaccines and protein therapies.
HISTORY (1)
In 1972, Paul Berg created the first recombinant DNA
molecules By combining DNA from the Monkey virus
SV40 (Simian virus 40) with that of the lambda virus
(bacteriophage)
HISTORY (2)
1972 to 1974 in a series of experiment American
biochemists Stanley N. Cohen and/ Herbert W. Boyer
became the first to insert recombined genes into bacterial
cells, which then reproduced.
Examples:
Herceptin - targets HER2-positive cancer cells
Human Insulin - first commercial healthcare product
from rDNA
Human Growth Hormone - for treating growth disorder in
children
Erythropoietin - manage anemia in patients with kidney
failure and cancer
TYPES:
1. General or homologous recombination - is a
type of genetic recombination in which nucleotide
sequences are exchanged between two similar or
identical molecules of DNA.
2. Illegitimate or non-homologous recombination
- is the process by which two unrelated double
stranded segments of DNA are joined.
3. Site-specific recombination - is the exchange of
genetic material between DNA strands that posses
a certain level of sequence homology.
4. Replicative recombination - is the process of
generating a new copy of a segment of DNA.
 GEOLOGICAL TIMESCALE
G6 HOW LIFE BEGAN ON EON
EARTH - largest GTS spanning from hundreds of thousands of million
years. There are 4 eons: Archean, Hadean, Phanerozoic, and
Proterozoic.
- PHANEROZOIC EON - represents a relatively brief
DIVINE CREATION - life on Earth may have been created by
period of half a billion years that constitutes the age of
supernatural forces. Many religions believe that God may have
multicellular life on earth.
created life. According to the Bible, God created the world in 7
- PROTEROZOIC EON - also known as "age of hidden
days.
life".
EXTRATERRESTIAL ORIGIN - also referred to as
ERA- spans a period of ten to hundred million years.
panspermia. This hypothesis suggests that a certain meteor or
- ARCHEAN ERA - the earth’s crust was formed and the
comic dust that carried significant molecules has hit Earth and
oldest bacteria, the CYANOBACTERIA, was believed
started the evolution of life.
to have existed during this time.
SPONTANEOUS ORIGIN - the hypothetical process by which
- PALEOZOIC ERA - fish diversified and marine
living organisms develop from nonliving matter.
organisms were very abundant. It means “middle life”.
TRILOBITES were believed to have existed during this
AT THE OCEAN’S EDGE - life may have arisen from the
era.
constantly forming bubbles at the edge of the ocean.
- MESOZOIC ERA - the time of dinosaurs. It means
UNDER THE FROZEN OCEAN - life was hypothesized to
“middle life”.
have been formed deep within the frozen ocean just like
- CENOZOIC ERA - also known as the “age of
Jupiter’s moon, Europa.
mammals” and “recent life”.
DEEP IN THE EARTH’S CRUST - life may have formed due
to a byproduct of volcanic activities where sulfuric minerals,
iron, and nickel recombine.
WITHIN CLAY - the surface of clay has positive charges which
may attract organic molecules, providing a catalytic surface for
evolution of organisms.

MILLER-UREY EXPERIMENT - This experiment is conducted

by Stanley L. Miller and Harold C. Urey in 1953, to test the
theory of Aleksandr Oparin and J. B. S. Haldane that life on
Earth came from non-living matter through a step-by-step
process, starting from simple monomers to complex proteins.
EPOCH
- a subdivision of a geological period during which a rock
series is deposited.
- EDIACARAN EPOCH - uppermost division of the
Proterozoic Eon of Precambrian time and latest of the
three periods of the Neoproterozoic Era. The
CORONACOLLINA ACULA was believed to exist
during this time.
- TRIASSIC EPOCH - from the end of the Permian
Period to the beginning of the Jurassic Period. The
MYOSAURUS GRAILIS was believed to exist during
this time.
- JURASSIC EPOCH - spanned from the end of the
Triassic epoch to the beginning of cretaceous epoch.
The Tyrannosaurus rex belongs to this epoch.
- CRETACEOUS EPOCH - mass extinction of three-
quarters of the plant and animal species occurred
during this epoch. Mosasaurus was believed to have
existed during this time.
PERIOD
- the basic unit of the geologic time scale.
- PALEOGENE PERIOD - the continents drifted farther
apart, heading toward their modern positions.
Plesiadapiforms, are archaic members of the order of
Primates, they originated from this period.
- NEOGENE PERIOD - animal life was dominated by
mammals that bear a resemblance to modern animals.
Ardipithecus ramidus, the oldest species that
possesses features that can be related to the hominid
lineage existed during this period.
G7 MECHANISM OF
CHANGE IN POPULATION
MUTATION
✓ Little copying alteration or change (mutations) occurs
during the process of DNA replication.
✓ Since the blueprint of any cell function is dictated by its
genotype, even a minute mutation might mean that the
cells fail work properly.
GENE FLOW
✓ A result of migrating individuals that breed in a new
location.
✓ Genes from immigrants may add new alleles to the
existing gene pool of a population.
✓ They may modify the allele frequencies if they come
from a population with different alleles frequencies.
RECOMBINATION
✓ Because of sexual reproduction. New gene
combinations are introduced into population
✓ Some genetic “recombination” occurs in meiosis
Genetic recombination increases genetic variability
GENETIC DRIFT
✓ A result of migrating individuals that breed in a new
location.
✓ Genes from immigrants may add new alleles to the
existing gene pool of a population.

NATURAL SELECTION
✓ Mechanism of evolution
✓ Process of nature through which living organisms
adapt and change in response to an environmental
condition
✓ This process causes species to change and diverge
over time
ARTIFICIAL SELECTION
✓ Same mechanism as natural selection but its sort is
controlled by human purposes rather than natural
forces.
✓ Microevolution, wherein the frequency of alleles in the
population has change but not that great enough to
produce an actual new species.
GENETIC EQUILIBRIUM
✓ The frequency of alleles (variants of a gene) will be the
same from one generation to another.
Without genetic variation, a population cannot evolve in
response to changing environmental variables and, as a result,
may face an increased risk of extinction
G8 DESCENT WITH
MODIFICATION
Is the process that is used by natural selection. These
modifications are the differences that natural selection will
either get rid of, or will increase, based on the environment.
SPECIATION is how a new kind of plant or animal species is
created.
1.) ALLOPATRIC SPECIATION OR GEOGRAPHIC
SPECIATION- (ALLO – other, PATRIC – place; “OTHER
PLACE”) •> occurs when some members of a population
become geographically separated from the other members
thereby preventing gene flow.
2.) PARAPATRIC SPECIATION ( PARA- beside, PATRIC-
place “BESIDE PLACE/ EACH OTHER” •> Occurs when the
groups that evolved to be separate species are geographic
neighbors. Gene flow occurs but with great distances is
reduced and have limited or no interbreeding due to factors
like different ecological niches or behaviors.
3.) SYMPATRIC SPECIATION ( SYM- same, PATRIC- place
“ SAME PLACE •> occurs when members of a population that
initially occupy the same habitat within the same range diverge
into two or more different species. Example is change in
chromosome number (polyploidization).
4.) REINFORCEMENT is the enhancement of reproductive
isolation by natural selection: forms are selected to mate with
their own, and not with the other type. Sympatric speciation
requires reinforcement to happen; parapatric speciation
usually requires it; allopatric speciation can take place with or
without reinforcement.
PRE-ZYGOTIC ISOLATION MECHANISMS
1. Geographic or habitat isolation (Ecological) – potential
mates occupy different areas or habitats thus, they never
come in contact. EXAMPLE: Darwin’s finches in the
Galapagos Islands.
2. Temporal or seasonal isolation (Allochronic) – different
groups may not be reproductively mature at the same season,
or month or year. EXAMPLE: The case of two species of
orchids that bloom at different times of the year.
3. Behavioral isolation (Ethological) patterns of courtship are
different. EXAMPLE: The mating dances of different species of
birds of paradise.
1. Hybrid inviability – fertilized egg fails to develop past the
early embryonic stages. EXAMPLE: Horse mates with a
donkey.
2. Hybrid sterility – hybrids are sterile because gonads
develop abnormally or there is abnormal segregation of
chromosomes during meiosis. EXAMPLE: Lion mates with a
tiger
3. Hybrid breakdown – F1 hybrids are normal, vigorous and
viable, but F2 contains many weak or sterile individuals.
EXAMPLE: Plants like rice:
Remember the different genetic mechanisms that can change
gene frequencies. In simple terms, when populations are
isolated from each other in some way, different genetic
changes can occur in each population. These will lead to
genetic divergence and ultimately to species formation or
speciation.

4. Mechanical isolation – differences in reproductive organs

prevent successful interbreeding. EXANPLE: The differences
in genitalia between species of insects. 5. Gamete Viability
isolation (Gametic) – incompatibilities between egg and sperm
prevent fertilization. EXAMPLE: The gametes of sea Urchins.

G9 THE EVOLUTIONARY
THOUGHTS
The Origin of Evolutionary Thoughts
George Louis Leclerc-described descent with modification
such as environmental influences, migration, geographical
isolation and the struggle for existence.
Jean Baptiste de Lamarck
-He proposed the Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics,
which is also called Lamarckian Evolution.
Georges Cuvier
-proposed the theory of catastrophism
James Hutton & Charles Lyell - believed that natural forces
now changing the shape of the earth's surface have been
operating in the past much the same way.
Charles Darwin
-His groundbreaking work, "On the Origin of Species,"
published in 1859, transformed our understanding of the
diversity of life on Earth.
The Theories Related to Evolution
CREATIONISM
is the idea that living things are created and remains
unchanged since the beginning.
CATASTROPHISM
-are the idea that violent and sudden natural catastrophes
have resulted to death and extinction of most plants and
animals
UNIFORMITARIANISM
-claims that large geological changes occurred not in
catastrophic events but by gradual accumulation of small
geological changes over long periods of time
Evidences of Evolution
Fossils- are remains of ancient organisms trapped in rocks,
tar pits, frozen in ice or embedded in amber
Body Fossils - The fossils of bones, teeth, and shells are
called body fossils. Most dinosaur fossils are collections of
body fossils.
Cast- fossils that forms in the mold
Mold - an imprint of an organism left in rock
Evidences From Structure
Homologous Structure- Structures with the same set of
bones that presumably evolved from a common ancestor.
Analogous Structure- Structures that perform the same
function but have very different embryological development or
set of structures like bones.
Vestigial Structure- Structures or attributes that have lost
most of its ancestral function in more recent species.
Evidences from Embryology
Similarities in embryos are likely to be evidence of common
ancestry.
Evidences from Molecular Biology
The near universality of the genetic code reflects evidence of
common ancestry and relatedness and can be inferred from
the similarities in the DNA sequences between and among
organisms.