AMI

NUKANOCOLLEGEOFI SLAMI C&LEGALSTUDIES

SCHOOLOFSHARI A&CI VILLAW
DEPARTMENTOFLAW
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Cour
seOut
li
ne:

1.Nuisanc
e
A)Intr
oduc t
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B)De fi
nit
ion
C)Type sofNui sa
nce(Publ
ic&Pr i
vate
)
D)Di f
fere
nce sbet
we e
nPublic&Pr i
vat
eNuisa
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E)Ca t
egorie
sofPr iva
teNuisanc
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F)TheBa sisofLi a
bil
it
yinPrivat
eNuisanc
e
G)Whoc ans ue
H)Whoc anbes ued
I) Remedies
J) Defe
nces

2.Dec
eit
A)De fi
niti
on
B)Eleme nt
sofDe ceit
i) Fa l
seRe pr
esentat
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ii)Intent
ionthatthestat
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houl
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eli
edupon
iii
)Re l
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nti
ff
iv)Da ma ge
C)Re medies

3.De
famat
ion
A)Introduc t
ion
B)De finiti
on
C)Type sofDe f
a mati
on(Libel&Slande
r)
D)Dis t
inc t
ionbetweenLibel&Slander
E)Sp ecialDa mageinSlander
F)Vu lga rAbuse
G)Re mot enessofDa mageinLibe
l&Sl ande
r
H)Wha tthePlainti
ffMustProve
I) Reme dies
J) Defenc e
s

4.PostLe
ctureAc ti
vit
ies
A)Compul sor
yCl assPre
sent
at
ions(
10Mar
ks)
B)Qu izCompe tit
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ssA,B,C&Eveni
ng
C)Tut or
ialQue st
ions(Tes
t&Exa ms)
D)Te st(
30Ma rks)
E)Exa ms( 60Ma rks)

0
 CHAPTERONE:NUI
SANCE
A)I
ntr
oduc
tion
Nui
sanc
eisal
ega
lte
rm whi
chha
snode
fini
teme
ani
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tge
ner
all
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nte
dbyl
aw
whi
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esi
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the
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eofr
ight
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c
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hee
njoyme
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and,ot
here
nvi
ronme
nta
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ght
sanda
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cla
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tat
utet
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I
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obes
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tat
ute
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rimi
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.Onl
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ai
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hema
sa
nui
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e.Nui
sanc
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er.I
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rimi
nals
ome
ti
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sinpubl
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e.I
nth
isc
our
se
wes
hal
lconc
ent
rat
eonpubl
ica
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iva
tenui
sanc
e.

`
B)De
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ti
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Thewor
d"Nui
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it
era
ll
yme
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our
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.Buti
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uli
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l
andorofs
omer
ightove
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.Ac
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ma
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ase
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ight
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a
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eor
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nyt
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r
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iz
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TheTor
tofnui
sanc
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sar
est
ri
ct
eds
copea
ndnote
ver
yinc
onve
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nceora
nnoya
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sac
ti
ona
ble
.
Thes
it
uat
ionsde
scr
ibe
dasnui
sanc
einc
lude
:
i
) Emi
ssi
onsofnoxi
ousga
sorf
ume
sfr
omaf
act
ory
.
i
i)Emi
ssi
onofnoxi
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ume
sfr
ommovi
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ainsora
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ii
)Noi
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nthee
arl
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hemor
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i
v)Theobs
truc
ti
onofpubl
ichi
ghwa
yfors
oci
alorr
eli
giousa
cti
vit
y.
v) Thec
oll
aps
eofabui
ldi
ngduet
oth
evi
bra
ti
onso
fanot
herc
ompa
nyne
xtdoor
.

C)Type
sofnui
sanc
e:The
rea
ret
wot
ype
sofnui
sanc
e;Publ
ica
ndPr
iva
teNui
sanc
e.
i
)Publ
icNui
sanc
e
A publ
icnui
sanc
eisc
ommi
tt
edwhe
reape
rsonc
arr
iesons
omeha
rmf
ula
cti
vit
ie
swhi
cha
ffe
ctt
he
ge
ner
alpubl
icoras
ect
ionoft
hepubl
ic
.Ane
xampl
eofapubl
icnui
sanc
eiswhe
reama
nuf
act
uri
ng

1
c
ompa
nyc
aus
esora
ll
owsf
ume
sors
moket
opol
lut
ethea
tmos
phe
rei
nthel
oca
li
tyorl
eaka
geof
a
tomi
cwa
stec
anda
sta
rdl
yaf
fec
tthee
nvi
ronme
ntc
aus
ingda
maget
opl
ant
s,a
nima
lsa
ndhuma
n
be
ingsorwhe
rea
nobs
truc
ti
oni
sca
use
donapubl
ichi
ghwa
y.
Se
c183(
1)oft
hePe
nalCodede
fine
sPu
bli
cNui
sanc
ethus
:
"
Ape
rsoni
sgui
lt
yofpubl
icnui
sanc
ewhodoe
sana
ctori
sgui
lt
yofa
nil
le
galomi
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onwhi
ch
c
aus
esa
nyc
ommoni
njur
y,da
nge
rora
nnoya
ncet
othepubl
icort
othepe
opl
einge
ner
alwho
dwe
lloroc
cupypr
ope
rtyi
nthevi
ci
nit
yorwhi
chmus
tne
ces
sar
il
yca
usei
njur
y,obs
tr
uct
ion,
da
nge
rora
nnoya
ncet
ope
rsonswhoma
yha
veoc
cas
iont
ous
eanypubl
icr
ight
."

Se
cti
ons192,194oft
hePe
nalCode&S.234oft
heCr
imi
nalCodede
alr
espe
cti
vel
ywi
tht
heof
fenc
es
ofma
kinga
tmos
phe
renox
ioust
ohe
alt
handobs
truc
ti
oni
npubl
icwa
yorl
ineofna
viga
ti
on.Howe
ver
unde
rtheCr
imi
nalCode
,theof
fenc
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all
edCommonNui
sanc
e.
I
tist
obenot
edt
hatPubl
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sanc
eisac
rimea
cti
ona
blebyt
heAt
tor
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Gene
ralwhous
ual
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ort
hepubl
ic
.A pr
iva
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annots
uei
npubl
icnui
sanc
eexc
epthepr
ove
stha
thes
uff
ersa
‘
par
ti
cul
arda
mage
’fa
rabovet
hege
ner
alda
mag
esuf
fer
edbyot
her
s.Fori
nst
anc
e,whe
ret
he
c
ompl
ai
nantwa
sinj
ure
dwhe
nhi
sca
rcol
li
dedwi
tht
heobs
truc
ti
onde
pos
it
edc
are
les
slybyt
he
de
fenda
nta
ndi
tthe
nbe
come
sat
ort
.Anot
here
xampl
ewhe
re“
par
ti
cul
arda
mage
”wa
ses
tabl
is
hedi
s
whe
ret
hepl
ai
nti
ff
’ss
lee
pwa
sdi
st
urbe
dbyt
henoi
seoft
hede
fenda
nt’
sve
hic
les
,andt
hepa
intwor
kof
hi
sca
r,whi
chwa
spa
rke
dint
hes
tre
eta
ndwa
sda
mage
dbya
cids
mut
sfr
omt
hede
fenda
nt’
sfa
ctor
y.
Publ
icnui
sanc
eca
nbepr
ose
cut
eda
sac
rimi
nalma
tt
era
ndi
tca
nnowbema
int
ai
nedbya
nyme
mbe
r
oft
hep
ubl
icwi
thoutt
hec
ons
entoft
heA.
G.Se
eAde
dir
anv.I
nte
rla
ndTr
ans
por
t(1991)9NWLR155;
Yi
nus
aDa
oduv.WWPC(
1998)2NWLR315

i
i)Pr
iva
teNui
sanc
e
Apr
iva
tenui
sanc
eisac
ivi
lwr
ongt
hata
ffe
ctsas
ingl
eindi
vidua
lorade
fini
tenumbe
rofp
ers
onsi
n
t
hee
njoyme
ntofs
omepr
iva
ter
ightwhi
chi
snotc
ommont
othepubl
ic
.Inot
herwor
ds,apr
iva
te
nui
sanc
eisas
ubs
tant
ia
landunr
eas
ona
blei
nte
rfe
ren
cewi
tht
hepr
iva
teus
eande
njoyme
ntofone
’s
l
and.Ge
ner
all
y,apr
iva
tenui
sanc
eist
heus
eofape
rsonorhi
sla
ndorpr
ope
rtyunr
eas
ona
blyt
othe
de
tri
mentoft
hepe
opl
eint
hee
nvi
ronme
nts
urr
oundi
nghi
sla
ndorpr
ope
rty.Exa
mpl
esi
ncl
ude
i
nte
rfe
renc
ewi
tht
hephy
sic
alc
ondi
ti
onoft
hel
and,di
st
urbi
ngt
hec
omf
ortofi
tsoc
cup
ant
s,or
t
hre
ate
ningi
njur
yordi
st
urba
ncei
nthef
utur
e.
Nui
sanc
est
hati
nte
rfe
rewi
tht
hephys
ica
lcondi
ti
onoft
hel
andi
ncl
udevi
bra
ti
onorbl
ast
ingt
hat
da
mage
sahous
e;de
str
uct
ionofc
rops
;ra
isi
ngofawa
tert
abl
e;ort
hepol
lut
ionofs
oil
,as
tre
am,ora
n

2
unde
rgr
oundwa
ters
uppl
y.Exa
mpl
esofnui
sanc
esi
nte
rfe
ringwi
tht
hec
omf
ort
,conve
nie
nce
,orhe
alt
h
ofa
noc
cupa
nta
ref
oulo
dor
s,noxi
ousga
ses
,smoke
,dus
t,l
oudnoi
ses
,exc
ess
ivel
ight
,orhi
gh
t
empe
rat
ure
s,e
.g.al
ando
wne
rbur
ningpl
ast
ica
ndol
dtyr
ess
otha
tthes
mel
lands
mokea
ffe
cthi
s
ne
ighbour
s.
Nui
sanc
eisnota
cti
ona
blepe
rsee
xce
pti
nca
seswhe
reda
magei
spr
esume
de.
ginc
ase
sofe
ase
ment
orr
ightofwa
yanda
ninj
unc
ti
onwhe
reha
rmi
sre
aso
nabl
yfe
are
d.Ape
rsonc
annots
uef
orn
uis
anc
eif
hei
sas
tra
nge
rorague
sta
swa
she
ldi
nMa
lonev.La
ske
y.Al
soi
nac
ti
onf
ornui
sanc
ethepl
ai
nti
ffc
an
r
ecove
rcompe
nsa
ti
ont
oda
mage
stoc
hat
te
ls.
Ca
sesofpr
iva
tenui
sanc
einc
lude
:Abi
olav.I
ji
oma(
1970)2ALLNLR268;Hunt
erv.Ca
nar
yWha
rf
Lt
d(1997)2N.
L.R684;Ca
mbr
idgeWa
terWor
ksCo.v.Ea
ste
rnLe
athe
r.

D)Di
ff
ere
ncebe
twe
enPubl
ic&Pr
iva
teNui
sanc
e
Publ
icNui
sanc
e Pr
iva
teNui
sanc
e
1.I
tac
rime& i
sat
ortwhe
repa
rti
cul
arI
tisac
ivi
lwr
ong.
da
magei
spr
ove
d.
2.I
tisa
ninf
ri
nge
mentofpubl
icr
ight I
tisa
ninf
ri
nge
mentofr
ightofapr
iva
te
pe
rson.
3.I
tisi
nte
rfe
renc
ewi
tht
her
ight
sof I
tisi
nte
rfe
renc
ewi
tht
her
ight
sofapa
rti
cul
ar
pubi
cinge
ner
al pe
rson.
4.Thec
ompl
ai
nantne
ed nott
o ha
ve Thepl
ai
nti
ffmus
tha
vei
nte
res
tinl
and.
i
nte
res
tinl
and

E)Ca
tegor
iesofPr
iva
teNui
sanc
e
Pr
iva
tenui
sanc
efa
ll
sint
othr
eec
ate
gor
ies
:
i
. Phys
ica
linj
uryt
othepl
ai
nti
ff
’spr
ope
rtye
.g.whe
revi
bra
ti
onsf
rom t
hede
fenda
nt’
sbui
ldi
ng
ope
rat
ionsc
aus
est
ruc
tur
alda
maget
othepl
ai
nti
ff
’shous
eorwhe
ret
hepl
ai
nti
ff
’spe
tsa
re
ki
ll
edbyf
ume
sfr
omt
hede
fenda
nt’
sfa
ctor
y.
i
i. Subs
tant
ia
lint
erf
ere
ncewi
tht
hepl
ai
nti
ff
’sus
eande
njoyme
ntofhi
sla
nd,e
.g.whe
ret
he
pl
ai
nti
ffi
ssubj
ect
edt
o unr
eas
ona
ble noi
se ors
mel
lema
nat
ing f
rom t
he de
fenda
nt’
s
ne
ighbour
ingl
and.
i
ii
. I
nte
rfe
renc
e,e
ase
menta
ndpr
ofi
tse
.g.whe
ret
hede
fenda
ntwr
ongf
ull
yobs
truc
tst
hep
lai
nti
ff
’s
r
ightofwa
yorr
ightt
oli
ght
.

3
F)TheBa
sisofLi
abi
li
tyi
nPr
iva
teNui
sanc
e
Thema
inpr
obl
emi
nthel
aw ofpr
iva
tenui
sanc
eist
ist
ri
keaba
lanc
ebe
twe
ent
her
igh
toft
he
de
fenda
ntt
ous
ehi
sla
nda
shewi
she
s,a
ndt
her
ightoft
hepl
ai
nti
fft
obepr
ote
cte
dfr
omi
nte
rfe
renc
e
wi
thhi
senj
oyme
ntofl
and
.Inor
dert
ost
ri
ket
hisba
lanc
e,t
hei
njur
yori
nte
rfe
renc
ecompl
ai
nedofwi
ll
bec
ons
ide
redbyac
our
tint
hef
oll
owi
ngoneorac
ombi
nat
ionoff
act
ors
:
i
) Whe
the
rthe
rei
sphys
ica
linj
uryors
ens
ibl
ema
ter
ialda
mage
.
i
i)Whe
the
rthe
rei
ssubs
tant
ia
lint
erf
ere
ncewi
tht
heus
eande
njoyme
ntoft
hel
and.
i
ii
)Unr
eas
ona
ble
nes
soft
hec
onduc
toft
hede
fenda
nt.
i
v)Thema
li
ceormot
iveoft
hede
fend
ant
.
v)Theut
il
it
yoft
hea
ctoft
hede
fenda
nt.
vi
)Dur
ati
onoft
heha
rmori
nconve
nie
nce
.
vi
i)Pr
act
ic
abi
li
tyoft
her
eli
efs
oughtbyt
hepl
ai
nti
ff
.
vi
ii
)Thec
are
les
sne
ssoft
hede
fenda
nt.

G)WhoCa
nSue
?
Pr
iva
tenui
sanc
e
Si
ncepr
iva
tenui
sanc
eise
sse
nti
al
lya
nint
erf
ere
ncewi
tht
heus
eande
njoyme
ntofl
and,onl
yape
rson
whoha
sani
nte
res
tint
hel
anda
ffe
cte
dise
nti
tl
edt
obr
inga
nac
ti
on.Ape
rsonha
vingnol
ega
lint
ere
st
i
nthepr
ope
rty,s
ucha
sague
st,al
odge
rorame
mbe
roft
heowne
r’sf
ami
ly,c
annots
uef
orpr
iva
te
nui
sanc
e.Fur
the
rmor
e,e
venape
rsonwhoha
sani
nte
res
tint
hel
andc
annots
uei
fhei
snoti
n
pos
ses
sionbutha
sonl
yar
eve
rsi
ona
ryi
nte
res
t.Thus
,whe
repr
ope
rtyi
sle
ttoat
ena
ntha
vinge
xcl
usi
ve
pos
ses
sion,t
hel
andl
ordc
annotma
int
ai
nana
cti
oni
nnui
sanc
einr
espe
ctofa
nya
cti
vit
yoft
he
de
fenda
ntwhi
choc
cur
sdu
ringt
het
ena
ncy,unl
esshec
ans
howt
hatt
hea
cti
vit
yha
sca
use
dori
sli
kel
y
t
oca
usepe
rma
nentda
maget
othepr
ope
rty,f
ore
xampl
eda
mageduet
ovi
bra
ti
onss
etupont
he
de
fenda
nt’
sla
nd,whi
chwi
lli
njur
ehi
sre
ver
siona
ryi
nte
res
t.
Publ
icNui
sanc
e
Anype
rsonwhoc
ans
howt
hatheha
ssuf
fer
edpa
rti
cul
arda
mageove
randa
bovet
hats
uff
ere
dbyt
he
ge
ner
alpubl
icc
ans
uef
orpubl
icnui
sanc
e.Ther
angeofpe
rsonswhoma
ysuef
orpubl
icn
uis
anc
eis
t
her
efor
ewi
dert
hant
hatofpr
iva
tenui
sanc
eint
hati
npubl
icnui
sanc
e:
i
) Thepl
ai
nti
ffne
ednotha
vea
nint
ere
sti
nla
nd,
i
i) Thepl
ai
nti
ffc
anr
ecove
rda
mage
sforpe
rsona
linj
uri
es.

4
H)Whoc
anbes
ued?
Thepr
ope
rde
fenda
nti
nac
ti
onf
orpubl
icorpr
iva
tenui
sanc
eist
hepe
rsonwhobe
arss
omed
egr
eeof
pe
rsona
lre
spons
ibi
li
tyf
ori
t.The
ref
ore
,thepe
rsonswhoc
anbes
uedf
ort
het
ortofnui
sanc
einc
lude
:
i
) TheCr
eat
oroft
heNui
sanc
e
i
i) TheLa
ndl
ord
i
ii
) AnOc
cupi
er

I
)Re
medi
es
i
) Da
mage
s
i
i)I
njunc
ti
on
i
ii
)Aba
teme
nt

J
)DEFENCES
i
) Re
aso
nabl
ene
ssofHi
sAc
torOmi
ssi
on
i
i)St
at
utor
yAut
hor
it
y
i
ii
)Pr
esc
ript
ion
i
v)Ac Ac
tofGod( t
usde
ine
minif
aci
tinj
uri
am)
v)Ne
ces
sit
y(Ne
ces
sit
asnonha
betl
ege
m)
vi
)Cons
e Vol
nt( ent
inonf
iti
njur
ia)

5
 CHAPTERTWO:DECEI
T

A)DEFI
NITI
ON
Thewor
d“de
cei
t”i
n Engl
is
h me
ansdi
shone
sty,f
raudul
entc
onduc
t,de
cept
ion,f
all
aci
ous
nes
s,
f
als
ehood,me
nda
cit
y,f
als
it
y,i
nsi
nce
rit
y,unt
rut
hful
nes
s,e
.t
.c
.
I
nla
w oft
ort“
Dec
eit
”isami
sre
pre
sent
at
ionma
dewi
the
xpr
essi
nte
nti
onofde
fra
udi
ngs
ome
one
,
whi
chs
ubs
eque
ntl
yca
use
sinj
uryt
otha
tpe
rson.I
tca
nal
sobede
fine
dast
hei
nte
nti
ona
lac
tof
mi
sl
eadi
ngape
rsonofor
dina
rypr
ude
ncebygi
vingf
als
eimpr
ess
ion.I
not
herwor
dsde
cei
tisat
ort(
a
wr
ong)a
ris
ingoutofaf
als
est
at
eme
ntoff
actma
debyonepe
rson/
ent
it
y,knowi
ngl
yorr
eckl
ess
ly,
wi
tht
hei
nte
nti
ont
hati
tshoul
dbea
cte
duponbya
not
herpe
rson/
ent
it
y,whos
uff
ersda
magea
sar
esul
t.
The
ref
ore
,tor
tuousl
ia
bil
it
yca
nbei
mpos
edonpe
rso
nwhof
als
elyr
epr
ese
ntsaf
actwi
tht
hei
nte
nti
on
t
oma
kea
not
herpe
rsonde
tri
ment
al
lyr
elya
nda
ctuponi
t.

Unde
rSe
cti
on320oft
hePe
nalCodewhe
rede
cei
tisr
efe
rre
dtoa
s“Che
ati
ng”pr
ovi
dest
hus
:
Whoe
verbyde
cei
vinga
nype
rson–
a
)fr
audul
ent
lyordi
shone
stl
yinduc
est
hepe
rsons
ode
cei
vedt
ode
li
vera
nypr
ope
rtyt
oany
pe
rsonort
ocons
entt
hata
nype
rsons
hal
lre
tai
nanypr
ope
rty;or
b)i
nte
nti
ona
ll
yinduc
est
hepe
rsons
ode
cei
vedt
odooromi
ttodoa
nyt
hingwhi
chhewoul
d
notdooromi
ttodoi
fhewe
renots
ode
cei
ved&whi
cha
ctoromi
ssi
onc
aus
esori
sli
kel
y
t
oca
useda
mageorha
rmt
hatpe
rsoni
nbody,mi
nd,r
eput
at
ionorpr
ope
rtyi
ssa
idt
oche
at.

Adi
shone
stc
onc
eal
mentoff
acti
sade
cept
ionwi
thi
ntheme
ani
ngoft
hiss
ect
ion.
Se
c419oft
hePe
nalCodede
alswi
thObt
ai
ningPr
ope
rtybyFa
lsePr
ete
nce&Che
ati
ng.

B)El
eme
ntsofDe
cei
t
i
) Fa
lser
epr
ese
nta
ti
onoff
act
i
i) I
nte
nti
ont
hatt
hes
tat
eme
nts
houl
dber
eli
edupon
i
ii
) Re
li
anc
ebyt
hepl
ai
nti
ff
i
v) Da
mage
v) Kn
owl
edgeoft
hef
als
it
yoft
hes
tat
eme
nt

6
  Fa
lseRe
pre
sent
ati
onofFa
cts
Fa
lser
epr
ese
nta
ti
onoff
act
sisoneoft
hec
ardi
nalpoi
ntsi
nthes
tudyofde
cei
t.I
tist
obenot
edt
hatt
he
ke
ywor
dsa
re“
fac
t”a
nd“
fal
se”
.Iff
act
sar
enotf
als
elyr
epr
ese
nte
d,t
her
ewi
llnotbef
als
e
r
epr
ese
nta
ti
onoff
act
s.The
rea
rege
ner
all
ythr
eea
spe
ctsoft
her
equi
reme
ntoff
als
ere
pre
sent
at
ionof
f
act
.The
sei
ncl
ude
:
1)Thef
als
est
ate
mentma
ybema
debys
poke
norwr
it
tenwor
ds,orbyc
onduc
t.Spoke
norwr
it
te
n
wor
dsa
rec
lea
renought
obeunde
rst
oodbot
hdi
rec
tl
yandi
ndi
rec
tl
y.Buta
nyc
onduc
tde
signe
dto
de
cei
vea
not
herpe
rsonbyl
eadi
nghi
mtobe
li
evet
hatac
ert
ai
nfa
cte
xis
tise
qui
val
enti
nla
wtoa
s
tat
eme
nti dst
nwor hatt
hatf
actdoe
snote
xis
t(s
eeKodi
li
nye1995r
epr
int
ed.TheNi
ger
ianLa
wof
Tr
ots
,Spe
ctr
umBooksLt
d,I
bada
n,Ni
ger
ia,p.209)
.Int
heNi
ger
ianc
aseofJ
ame
sv.Mi
d-Mot
or
Ni
g.Co.Lt
d(1978)2L.
R.N187)ama
npa
idf
orave
hic
leonhi
repur
cha
sea
ndpa
idpr
emi
umf
or
ac
ompr
ehe
nsi
vei
nsur
anc
eaf
terwhi
cht
hec
ompa
nywa
sfoundt
obef
ict
it
iousa
ndt
hema
nage
rof
t
hei
nsur
anc
ecompa
nyde
li
ber
ate
lys
etoutt
ode
fra
udt
hema
n.TheSupr
emeCour
the
ldt
he
de
fenda
ntwa
svi
car
ious
lyl
ia
ble
.
2) Ge
ner
all
y,t
heme
renon-
dis
clos
ureoft
het
rut
hisnota
cti
ona
blede
cei
t.I
not
herwor
ds,s
il
enc
e
doe
snotnor
mal
lyc
ons
ti
tut
efr
aud.Thi
spr
inc
ipl
eiss
eenmos
tcl
ear
lyi
nthec
ont
extoft
hes
aleof
goodsort
hes
aleorl
eas
eofl
and,whe
rei
tfi
ndse
xpr
ess
ioni
nthema
xim“
cave
ate
mpt
or”(
lett
he
buye
rbe
war
e).Fori
nst
anc
e,ac
arowne
rwhowa
ntst
ose
lli
ttoa
not
herpe
rsonwi
thoutd
isc
los
ing
t
hati
twa
sinaba
dst
at
ene
edi
nga
nove
rha
uli
ngorar
epl
ace
mentoft
hee
ngi
newi
llbehe
ldnot
l
ia
blet
othebuye
rinde
cei
t.Fort
heowne
rha
sma
denopos
it
ivemi
sre
pre
sent
at
iona
stot
he
c
ondi
ti
onoft
hee
ngi
nenorha
dhe“
rea
sont
osuppos
etha
tthepl
ai
nti
ffwoul
dnotdowha
ta
r
eas
ona
blebuye
rinhi
sse
nse
swoul
ddo,na
mel
yma
kingpr
ope
rinve
sti
gat
ioni
ncl
udi
ngi
nvi
ti
nga
ve
hic
leme
cha
niconhi
sbe
hal
f,a
nds
ati
sfyhi
mse
lfa
stot
hec
ondi
ti
onoft
heve
hic
lebe
for
e
a
cce
pti
ngt
opa
rtwi
thhi
smone
yfori
t”(
seeKe
ate
sv.CaDoga
n(1851)138E.
R234a
tp.238)
.

Howe
ver
,the
rea
rec
ert
ai
nexc
ept
ionst
othege
ner
alr
ulei
.es
il
enc
ewi
llc
ons
ti
tut
ede
cei
tint
he
f
oll
owi
ngc
irc
ums
tanc
es:
i
) Whe
ret
hef
actdi
st
ort
sapos
it
iver
epr
ese
nta
ti
on,f
ore
xampl
e,whe
reave
ndorde
scr
iedhi
s
pr
ope
rtya
s“f
ull
yle
t”butomi
tt
edt
ost
at
ethef
urt
herf
actt
hatt
het
ena
ntsha
dgi
vennot
iet
o
qui
t.Ther
eas
oni
nghe
rei
stha
tha
lft
rut
hma
ybea
sgooda
sli
e.
i
i) Whe
reat
ruer
epr
ese
nta
ti
on o
ffa
ctwhe
n ma
des
ubs
eque
ntl
y be
come
sunt
ruea
nd t
he
r
epr
ese
ntorke
epss
il
enc
eabouti
t.Fori
nst
anc
e,abui
ldi
ngma
ter
ialc
ostN2,
000api
ecea
ndt
he
pr
icenowf
all
stoN1,
500a
ndt
hebuye
rwa
sma
det
ocont
inuet
opa
ytheol
dpr
iceofN2,
000

7
 pe
rpi
ece
.He
re,t
hes
ell
erwi
llbel
ia
blei
nde
cei
toff
als
ere
pre
sent
at
ion.
i
ii
)Whe
readut
yofdi
scl
osur
eisi
mpos
edbys
tat
utee
.g.i
tist
hedut
yoft
hepr
ose
cut
ort
opr
ovea
c
asea
gai
nsta
nac
cus
edpe
rson.Nott
heot
herwa
yround.
i
v)Whe
ret
her
eisa
cti
vec
onc
eal
mentofaf
act
,fo
rexa
mpl
e,whe
reas
ell
erc
ove
rsupde
fec
tsi
nan
a
rti
cl
einor
dert
omi
sl
eadt
hebuy
eri
ntot
hinki
ngt
hatt
hea
rti
cl
eisi
ngoodc
ondi
ti
on.
3) Thet
hir
das
pec
toft
her
equi
reme
ntoff
als
ere
pre
sent
at
ionoff
actc
ons
ti
tut
est
at
eme
ntsofi
nte
nti
on.
Fore
xampl
e,whe
reapl
ai
nti
ffwhowa
sinduc
edt
ole
ndmone
ytoac
ompa
nybyc
ert
ai
nst
at
eme
nts
i
nthec
ompa
ny’
spr
ospe
ctust
othee
ffe
ctt
hatt
hemone
ywa
stobeus
edi
nthei
mpr
ove
mentoft
he
pr
emi
sesa
ndt
hee
xte
nsi
onoft
hebus
ine
ss,whe
rea
sthedi
rec
tor
sint
ende
dtous
ethemone
ytopa
y
of
fthec
ompa
ny’
sde
bts
.Hewi
lls
ucc
eedi
nana
cti
onoff
als
ere
pre
sent
at
iona
gai
nstt
hedi
rec
tor
s
(
seet
hec
aseofEdgi
ngt
onv.Fi
tzma
uri
ce(
1885)29Ch.D.459,476)
.

 I
nte
nti
ont
hatt
hes
tat
eme
nts
houl
dber
eli
edupon
Thepl
ai
nti
ffmus
tpr
ovet
hatt
hede
fenda
nt’
sst
at
eme
ntwa
sma
dewi
tht
hei
nte
nti
ont
hati
tsh
oul
dbe
r
eli
edupona
nda
cte
dupo
nbyt
hepl
ai
nti
ff(
seeEdgi
ngt
onv.Fi
tzma
uri
ceSupr
a)orbyac
las
sof
pe
rsonswhi
chi
ncl
ude
sthepl
ai
nti
ff
.
Thede
fenda
ntmus
tha
vema
det
hede
cei
tf
uls
tat
eme
ntknowi
ngl
ywi
thoutbe
li
efi
nit
str
utha
nd
r
eckl
ess
ly,c
are
les
sast
owhe
the
ritbet
rueorf
als
e(s
eeDe
rryv.Pe
ak(
1889)14AC337HL)
.
I
tisnotne
ces
sar
ytha
tthes
tat
eme
ntbec
ommuni
cat
eddi
rec
tl
ytot
hepl
ai
nti
ffbyt
hede
fenda
nt.I
tis
s
uff
ici
enti
fitge
tst
othep
lai
nti
fft
hroughat
hir
dpa
rty,s
eePi
lmor
ev.Hood(
1838)132ER1042a
nd
La
ngr
idgev.Le
vy(
1839)150ER863.

 Re
lia
ncebyt
hePl
aint
if
f
Apl
ai
nti
ffmus
tpr
ovet
hathea
ctua
ll
yre
li
edonora
cte
dont
heof
fendi
ngs
tat
eme
ntt
ohi
sde
tri
ment
.
Pa
rti
alr
eli
anc
eons
uchs
tat
eme
ntbyt
hepl
ai
nti
ffdoe
snotde
nyhi
mther
ightofl
ega
lac
ti
on.Al
so
c
ont
ri
but
oryne
gli
genc
eoft
hepl
ai
nti
ffi
snotade
fenc
ebyt
hede
fenda
nta
ndc
annots
topt
hepl
ai
nti
ff
f
romt
aki
nga
nya
ppr
opr
iat
ele
gala
cti
onf
orde
cei
t.Thi
scons
truc
ti
veknowl
edgei
snoti
mput
edt
othe
pl
ai
nti
ffi
nsuc
hac
ti
oni
ncour
t.
I
nthec
aseofSul
ev.Ar
omi
re(
1951)20NLR202,t
hede
fenda
nts
oldac
ert
ai
nla
ndt
othepl
ai
nti
ffa
nd
t
het
it
lede
edc
ove
ringt
hes
alei
sfoundi
nane
nti
rel
ydi
ff
ere
ntpa
rce
lofl
andwhi
chha
sbe
ende
cla
red
f
ort
hede
fenda
nta
sit
sbe
nef
ici
alowne
r.Thepl
ai
nti
ffc
oul
dnott
akepos
ses
sionoft
hel
ands
oldt
ohi
m.
I
twa
she
ldt
hatt
hede
fenda
ntwa
sli
abl
e.

8
I
tshoul
dhowe
verbenot
edt
hatade
fenda
ntma
ynotb
eli
abl
eforde
cei
tif
:
a
)Thepl
ai
nti
ffdi
dno
tre
lyont
her
epr
ese
nta
ti
on.
b)Whe
ret
hepl
ai
nti
ffa
cte
donde
cei
taf
tera
ninde
pende
ntc
ont
rac
torora
gentha
sinve
sti
gat
ed
t
hema
tt
er.
c
)Whe
ret
hepl
ai
nti
ffa
ctua
ll
ykne
wtha
tther
epr
ese
nta
ti
onwa
sunt
ruea
ndhegoe
sahe
adt
oac
t
oni
t eSmi
.Se thv.Cha
d(1884)9AC187.

 Da
mage
Da
magei
sana
cti
ont
hatc
aus
esi
njur
ytope
rsonsphy
sic
all
y,me
nta
ll
yors
pir
it
ual
ly.Thet
ortofde
cei
t
i
snota
cti
ona
blepe
rseonme
reoc
cur
renc
e.Howe
ver
,thepl
ai
nti
ffmos
tpr
ovet
hathei
ncur
reda
ctua
l
da
magei
nor
dert
osuc
cee
dinac
ivi
lac
ti
onf
orde
cei
tint
hel
awoft
ort
.
Asf
ara
sthepl
ai
nti
ffc
anpr
ovet
hathes
uff
ere
dfr
omt
hede
cei
toft
hede
fenda
nt,as
uitofda
magec
an
bes
ust
ai
nedbyt
hepl
ai
nti
ff
.Iti
sir
rel
eva
ntt
hatt
hepe
rpe
tra
tor
soft
hede
cei
t(de
fenda
nt)di
dnot
be
nef
itf
romt
hede
cei
t;t
hepl
ai
nti
ffi
sent
it
le
dtor
ecove
rda
mage
.
I
nthec
aseofDoyl
ev.Ol
byI
ronMonge
rsLt
d(1969)2ALLER119t
hepl
ai
nti
ffwa
sinduc
edt
obuy
abus
ine
ssa
tapr
icea
bovei
tst
ruema
rke
tpr
iceorv
alue
.Thepl
ai
nti
ffl
ostmuc
hmone
yandhes
ued
f
orde
cei
t.Thec
our
the
ldt
hatt
hepl
ai
nti
ffwa
sent
it
le
dtor
ecove
rthedi
ff
ere
ncebe
twe
enwha
thepa
id
f
ort
hebus
ine
ssa
ndi
tst
ruema
rke
tva
luei
ncl
udi
ngot
here
xpe
nse
sinc
urr
edbyhi
mint
hee
ffor
tto
r
evi
veorc
arr
yont
hebus
ine
ss.

C)Re
medi
esForDe
cei
t
i
) Da
mage
s
i
i)Re
sci
ssi
on
i
ii
)Re
sti
tut
ion
i
v)Cr
imi
nalpr
ose
cut
ion,whe
ret
hede
cei
tal
soa
mountt
oac
rimea
nds
ofor
th.

9
 CHAPTERTHREE:DEFAMATI
ON
Yourc
har
act
eri
swha
tyour
eal
lya
re,whi
leyourr
eput
at
ioni
sme
rel
ywha
tot
her
sthi
nkyouar
e.
(
JohnWoode
n)
A)I
ntr
oduc
tion
Thet
ortofde
fama
ti
oni
sconc
erne
dwi
thi
nte
nti
ona
loruni
nte
nti
ona
lda
maget
other
eput
at
ionofa
phys
ica
lorac
orpor
atepe
rsonc
aus
edbyi
njur
iousde
cla
rat
ionorpubl
ic
ati
on.Anywor
dsp
oke
nor
wr
it
te
ntot
hehe
ari
ngorknowl
edgeoft
hir
dpa
rti
est
hatc
anbr
ingdownt
her
eput
at
ionofpe
rsonsbe
ing
r
efe
rre
dtoa
ndc
ons
ti
tut
ingda
maget
her
eofc
ons
ti
tut
esde
fama
ti
on.
Thet
ort
sofde
fama
ti
onc
anbei
nor
alf
orm(
sla
nde
r)o
rinwr
it
te
norpubl
is
hedf
orm(
li
bel
).
Thel
aw ofde
fama
ti
oni
sde
signe
dtop
rot
ect
,comp
ens
atea
ndr
eme
dya
nyi
njur
ydonet
othegood
na
me,r
eput
at
ion,of
fi
cee
tcoft
hepe
rsonwhoha
ssuf
fer
eda
sar
esul
t.
Howe
ver
,ape
rsonc
annotr
ecove
rda
mage
sfort
hel
ossofr
eput
at
ionhedoe
snotha
ve.Whe
reape
rson
ha
snogoodr
eput
at
ion,i
nre
spe
ctofwha
tiss
aid,t
hent
hel
awha
snot
hingt
opr
ote
cthi
mfor
.

B)De
fini
ti
on
De
fama
ti
oni
sanye
xpr
ess
ionorpubl
ic
ati
ont
hatda
mage
sther
eput
at
ionofa
not
herpe
rso
n.Thus
,
de
fama
ti
oni
sthepubl
ic
ati
onofi
nfor
mat
iont
hatl
owe
rsape
rsoni
nthee
sti
mat
ionofr
ightt
hinki
ng
pe
rsonsge
ner
all
y.Ac
cor
di oWi
ngt nfi
eld,hes
aidt
hat
;“De
fama
ti
oni
sthepubl
ic
ati
onofas
tat
eme
nt
whi
cht
endst
olowe
rape
rsoni
nthee
sti
mat
ionofr
ightt
hinki
ngme
mbe
rsoft
hes
oci
et
yge
ner
all
y,or
whi
cht
endst
oma
ket
hems
hunora
voi
dtha
tpe
rson”Es
sent
ia
ll
y,de
fama
ti
oni
sanyc
ommuni
cat
ionof
a
nyi
nfor
mat
iont
hati
njur
est
her
eput
at
ionofape
rsona
nde
xpos
eshi
mtoha
tre
d,r
idi
cul
e,orda
mage
s
hi
minhi
sof
fi
ce,pr
ofe
ssi
on,c
all
ing,t
radeorbus
ine
ss eAt
.Se oye
biv.Odudu(
1990)6NWLRpt
.157,
p.384S.
Cse
eal
soCompl
eteComm.Lt
d.v.Onoh(
1998)5NWLRpt
.549,p.197C.
A.

C)Type
sofDe
fama
tion
De
fama
ti
oni
scl
ass
ifi
edi
ntol
ibe
l&s
lande
r.
i
) Wha
tisLi
bel
?
Al
ibe
lisade
fama
tor
yst
at
eme
ntma
dei
nvi
si
blepe
rma
nentf
orms
ucha
swr
it
te
norpr
int
eds
tat
eme
nt.
Fore
xampl
e,books
,ne
wspa
per
s,not
es,
cir
cul
ar,pa
int
ing,phot
ogr
aph,f
il
ms,l
et
te
rsa
ndme
mor
anda
.
Se
cti
on3De
fama
tionLa
w(1961)a
ndSe
cti
on3La
wofLa
gosSt
ate(
1973)Ca
p34a
lsopr
ovi
dest
hat
a
nyde
fama
tor
ywor
dsc
ont
ai
nedi
nar
adi
oandt
el
evi
si
onbr
oadc
ast
,anda
nyr
ecor
deda
udi
o-vi
sua
l
ma
ter
iala
rewi
thi
nthea
mbi
tofl
ibe
l.Se
eal
soSe
cti
on2(
1)La
wofWe
ste
rnNi
ger
iaCa
p32.
nSke
I tchPubl
is
hingCo.Lt
dv.Aj
agbeMoke
fer
i(1989)INWLRpt100,pg.678SC.I
twa
she
ldt
hat
i
nli
bel
,thede
fama
tor
yst
at
eme
ntr
ema
insi
nape
rma
nentf
orml
onga
fte
rpubl
ic
ati
ona
ndma
ybe
10
r
efe
rre
dtobya
nype
rsonsi
nfut
urea
ndc
aus
eda
maget
othepe
rsonorhi
sfa
mil
y,e
xce
ptt
hema
ter
ial
s
a
rewi
thdr
awnf
romc
irc
ula
ti
onorde
str
oye
dbyt
hede
fenda
nta
ttheor
deroft
hec
our
t.
Cr
imi
nalLi
bel
Se
cti
on373-
380Cr
imi
nalCodea
lsopr
ovi
det
hatc
rimi
nall
ibe
lisac
rimei
.e
.whe
reade
fama
ti
ont
ends
t
obr
eac
hthepe
ace
,ar
res
tandpr
ose
cut
ionma
yfol
lowade
fama
tor
ypubl
ic
ati eRv.Wi
on.Se cks(
1936)
IALLER384.
i
i) Wha
tisSl
ande
r?
Sl
ande
risas
tat
eme
ntma
dei
nat
rans
it
oryf
orma
ndnoti
nape
rma
nentf
orm,mos
tof
tent
hrought
he
me
dium ofs
poke
nwor
dsorge
stur
e.I
tiss
ome
ti
mess
aidt
hatl
ibe
lsi
saddr
ess
edt
othee
ye,whi
ls
t
s
lande
risa
ddr
ess
edt
othee
ar.
The
ref
ore
,iti
sdoubt
fulwhe
the
rde
fama
tor
yst
at
eme
ntsc
ont
ai
nedi
nta
per
ecor
dingsorc
ass
ett
esa
re
l
ibe
lors
lande
r,f
ort
heya
repe
rma
nentf
orma
ndye
taddr
ess
edt
othee
ar.
Sl
ande
risonl
yac
ti
ona
bleonpr
oofofd
ama
ges
,unl
essi
nthee
xce
pti
onswhe
res
lande
rope
rat
esl
ikea
l
ibe
l.Opa
rav.Ume
h(1997)7NWLRpt
.11,pg.95C.
A.
nYe
I suf
uv.Gba
damos
i(1993)6NWLRpt299,pg363C.
A.I
twa
she
ldt
hati
nsl
ande
rthea
ll
ege
d
de
fama
tor
ywor
dsr
eli
eduponmus
tbepl
eade
dandpr
ove
dine
vide
nce
.
I
not
herwor
dss
lande
risnota
cti
ona
blepe
rse
,unl
essi
tinput
sac
rime
,cont
agi
ousdi
sea
se,unc
has
ti
ty
i
nawoma
n,ori
tda
mage
sape
rsoni
nan
yof
fi
ce,t
rad
e,pr
ofe
ssi
onc
arr
iedonbyhi
m.Se
eal
sot
hec
ase
Cowa
rdv.We
lli
ngt
on(
1839)173ER234a
ndOnoj
oghof
iav.Voki
ti
kpi(
1974)ECSLR465.
D)Di
st
inc
tionbe
twe
enLi
bel&Sl
ande
r
Hi
st
ori
cal
ly,l
ibe
lands
lande
rwe
res
epa
rat
etor
ts,butt
oda
ythe
yar
etr
eat
eda
stwoa
spe
ctsoft
he
s
ingl
etor
tofde
fama
ti
ona
nda
rege
ner
all
ygove
rne
dbyt
hes
amepr
inc
ipl
e.Thedi
ff
ere
ncebe
twe
ent
he
t
wohowe
veri
stha
tli
beli
sac
ti
ona
blepe
rse
,i.
e.wi
thoutt
hene
edt
opr
oofs
pec
ialora
ctua
lda
mage
,
s
lande
risnota
cti
ona
blepe
rsee
xce
pti
nce
rta
inc
ase
se.
g.
i
)Imput
at
ionofc
rime
i
i)I
mput
at
ionofc
ert
ai
ndi
sea
ses
i
ii
)Imput
at
ionofunc
has
ti
tyora
dul
te
ry
i
v)I
mput
at
iona
ffe
cti
ngpr
ofe
ssi
ona
lbus
ine
ssr
eput
at
ion
I
nthea
bovef
oure
xce
pti
ons
,sl
ande
risa
cti
ona
blepe
rsea
ndi
tdoe
sope
rat
eandha
vee
ffe
cta
sifi
tisa
l
ibe
l.
Se
e: Gua
rdi
anNe
wspa
perLt
dvs
.Aj
eh(
2005)12NWLR(
Pt938)C.
A
Al
h.Da
uduOl
ani
yivsAj
iba
deEl
ero(
2007)
8NWLR(
Pt1037)
Egbevs
.Ade
far
asi
n(1987)
1NWLR(
Pt47)
1

11
E)Spe
cia
lDa
magei
nSl
ande
r
I
nca
sesofs
lande
rwhi
cha
renota
cti
ona
blepe
rse
,thepl
ai
nti
ffc
annotr
ecove
rda
mage
sme
rel
yon
a
cco
untofhi
slos
sofr
eput
at
ionunl
essi
fhec
anpr
ovet
hatheha
ssuf
fer
eds
ome“
spe
cia
li.
e(a
ctua
l)
da
mage
.
“
Spe
cia
lda
mage
”he
reme
ansl
ossofmone
yors
omema
ter
ialort
empor
ala
dva
nta
ge,s
ucha
s:l
ossof
e
mpl
oyme
nt,l
ossofac
li
ent
,los
sofpr
ospe
cti
vema
rri
age
,los
sofc
ons
ort
ium,l
ossofhos
pit
al
it
yof
f
ri
ends
;e.
tc
.Se
e:Onoj
ioghof
iav.Oki
ti
pai(
1974)E.
S.C.
L.R465
I
nca
sesofl
ibe
l& s
lande
rac
ti
ona
blepe
rse
,thepl
ai
nti
ffc
ans
ue& r
ecove
rge
ner
alda
mage
sfort
he
i
njur
ytohi
sre
put
at
ionwi
thoutt
hene
edt
opr
oves
pec
ialda
mage
.Ifhec
anpr
oves
pec
ialda
mage
,he
c
anr
ecove
raf
urt
hers
umi
naddi
ti
ont
othege
ner
alda
mage
s.

F)Vul
garAbus
e
Asage
ner
alr
ule
,me
revu
lga
rabus
eori
nsul
tar
enota
cti
ona
blei
nsl
ande
r.Ba
kar
ev.I
shol
a(1959)
WNLR106.
Thequ
est
ionwhe
the
rthea
nnoyi
ngori
rr
it
at
ingwor
dsa
reme
revul
gara
bus
eorwhe
the
rthe
yac
tua
ll
y
a
mountt
oas
lande
risama
tt
eroff
actwhi
chha
stobede
cide
dbyt
hec
our
tlooki
nga
tthe
c
irc
ums
tanc
esi
nwhi
cht
heywe
reut
te
redi
.e
.thef
act
sofe
achc
ase
.
Whe
nVul
garAbus
eisAc
tiona
ble
Whe
reavul
gara
bus
eal
le
gesas
pec
ifi
cac
torwr
ongdoi
ng,ora
ccus
est
hatt
hepl
ai
nti
ffc
ommi
tt
eda
s
pec
ifi
ccr
ime
,the
nthes
tat
eme
ntwi
llnotber
ega
rde
dasame
res
lande
r,a
sthes
tat
eme
ntma
yle
adt
o
t
hepl
ai
nti
ffbe
ings
hunne
dbyt
hepubl
icora
rre
ste
dbyt
hepol
ic
e.Thec
our
twi
llhol
dsu
chvul
gar
a
bus
easde
fama
tor
ywhe
the
rornoti
twa
ssa
idi
nana
tmos
phe
reofj
oke
sori
nthehe
ato
fange
r.
I
bea
nuv.Uba(
1972)2ECSLR194a
t195.
G)Re
mot
ene
ssofDa
magei
nLi
bel&Sl
ande
r
Asage
ner
alpr
inc
ipl
eoft
ort
,theda
magec
ompl
ai
nedofa
sar
esul
tofade
fama
tor
yst
at
eme
ntmus
tnot
bet
oor
emot
e.Thepl
ai
nti
ffma
yre
cove
rcompe
nsa
ti
ononl
yfort
hos
econs
eque
nce
soft
hede
fama
tor
y
s
tat
eme
ntwhi
chwe
ref
ore
see
abl
e eVi
.Se casv.Wi
lcox(
1806)103E.
R244.
Fore
xampl
e,i
f‘A’s
lande
rs‘
B’t
o‘C’
,and‘
C’r
epe
atst
hes
lande
rto‘
D’whot
hendi
smi
sse
s‘B’
,‘A’
i
snotl
ia
blef
or‘
B’’
sdi
smi
ssa
lbe
caus
etheda
maget
oBi
sre
mot
e.But‘
A’wi
llbel
ia
blet
o‘B’i
f:
a
)Hea
uthor
ize
dthes
lande
rto‘
D’;
b)‘
C’ha
dal
ega
lormor
aldut
ytor
epe
att
hes
lande
rtoD;
c
)‘A’s
houl
dha
vef
ore
see
ntha
thi
ssl
ande
rof‘
B’woul
dber
epe
ate
dby‘
C’t
o‘D’
.
Thi
srul
eofr
emot
ene
sse
qua
ll
yappl
ytoc
ase
sofl
ibe
l.

12
H)Wha
tthePl
aint
if
fMus
tPr
ove(
Ele
ment
sofDe
fama
tion)
Thepl
ai
nti
ffi
nade
fama
ti
ona
cti
onmus
tes
tabl
is
hthef
oll
owi
ng;
1)De
fama
tor
ywor
ds.
2)Re
fer
enc
etot
hepl
ai
nti
ff
.
3)Publ
ic
ati o3rdpa
ont rty
4)Da
maget
opl
ai
nti
ff
’sr
eput
at
ion

1)WORDSMUSTBEDEFAMATORY
Thewor
dsc
ompl
ai
nedofbyt
hepl
ai
nti
ffmus
tbede
fama
tor
yandi
tisf
ort
hej
udget
ode
cidewhe
the
r
t
hewor
dsc
ompl
ai
nedofa
rer
eas
ona
blyc
apa
bleofbe
ingde
fama
t y.Okol
or ov.Mi
dwe
stNe
wspa
per
Cor
por
ati
on(
1974)2CCHCJ203a
tpg.205a
ndDi
nv.Af
ri
canNe
wspa
perLt
d(1990)3NWLRpt
.
139pg.392S.
C.96Whe
ret
hewor
dsc
ompl
ai
nedofa
rec
lea
rlyde
fama
tor
yi.
e.“
Aisat
hie
f”,“
Bis
c
orr
upt
”,t
hej
udge
’st
aski
scompa
rat
ive
lys
impl
e.
Thewor
dsus
edmus
tbec
apa
bleofde
fami
ngt
hepl
ai
nti
ffi
nthe
irna
tur
alme
ani
ng,ot
her
wis
ethec
lai
m
ofde
fama
ti
onwi
llf
ail
,exc
eptde
fama
ti
onbya
ninnue
ndoi
sal
le
geda
ndpr
ove
di.
e.wor
dsa
reus
ual
ly
i
nte
rpr
ete
dint
hei
ror
dina
ry,na
tur
ala
ndl
it
era
lme
ani
ng,unl
esst
hepl
ai
nti
ffpl
eadst
hatt
hewor
ds
c
ont
ai
nai
nnue
ndoi
.ei
ndi
rec
tde
fama
ti
onbyt
heus
eofwor
dswi
thahi
dde
nors
econda
ryme
ani
ng
whi
chi
sei
the
rtr
ue(
lega
linnue
ndo)orf
als
e(popul
ari
nnue
ndo)
.

2)THATTHEWORDSREFERREDTOTHEPLAI
NTI
FF
Fort
hepl
ai
nti
fft
osuc
cee
dina
nac
ti
onf
orde
fama
ti
on,t
hepl
ai
nti
ffmus
tpr
ovet
hatt
hepubl
ic
ati
on
r
efe
rre
dtohi
m.I
not
herwor
ds,hemu
stpr
ovet
hathei
sthepe
rsonde
fa d–BPPCvGwa
me gwa
da
(
1989)4NWLRpt
.116,pg439C.
AandNe
wNi
ger
ianNe
wspa
per&Anorv.Ot
eh(
1992)4NWLR
pt237,pg626C.
A

3)THATTHESTATEMENTWASPUBLI
SHED
Thepl
ai
nti
ffmus
tpr
ovet
hatt
hede
fama
tor
yst
at
eme
ntwa
spubl
is
hedorc
ommuni
cat
edbyt
he
de
fenda
ntt
oatl
eas
tonepe
rsonot
hert
hant
hepl
ai
nti
ff
.Theba
sisofa
cti
oni
nde
fama
ti
oni
snott
he
wor
dst
hems
elve
sbutt
hepubl
ic
ati
onofi
ttoa
not
herpe
rsonot
hert
hant
hepl
ai
nti
ff
.Publ
ic
ati
onbya
de
fenda
ntma
ybei
nthef
ormofwr
it
inga
sal
ibe
loror
all
ybywor
dsa
sas
lande
r.
I
tisnotne
ces
sar
yina
llc
ase
stopr
ovet
hatt
hel
ibe
lousma
tt
erwa
sac
tua
ll
ybr
oughtt
othenot
ic
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omet
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fiti
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eas
ona
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act
,apr
imaf
aci
e

13
c
aseofpubl
ic
ati
onwi
llbee
sta
bli
she
d.Thi
sispa
rti
cul
arl
ysowhe
nabook,ma
gaz
ineorne
wspa
per
c
ont
ai
ningal
ibe
liss
old.Att
hisi
nst
anc
e,whe
ret
hema
ter
iali
spr
oduc
edt
othec
our
tbyt
heNa
ti
ona
l
Li
bra
ryofNi
ger
ia,t
hatwi
llbeac
lea
revi
denc
etha
titwa
spubl
is
hedt
oat
hir
dpa
rty,s
ee;Awoni
yiv.
Re
gd.Tr
ust
eesofAMORC(
1990)6NWLRpt154pg42C.
AandFa
wehi
nmiv.Aki
lu(
1994)6
NWLRpt351pg387.

Ot
herType
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fama
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 De
fama
ti
onofaCl
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 Tr
ade
/Comme
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ge
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nnoc
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put
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14
TYPESOFPRI
VILEGE
1)Abs
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Be
stofLuc
k!

15