CHAPTER 21

INSPECTION OF DEEP FOUNDATIONS

21.1 Introduction
The quality of a deep foundation is governed by the methods used to install it. The appropriate
choice of installation procedure and equipment, good workmanship, and tight control of all
installation work are essential to the construction of a good deep foundation. Consequently,
inspection (review) is of utmost importance. Sentence 4.2.2.3(l) of the National Building Code
(1995) requires that:

“A review shall be carried out by the designer or by another suitably qualified person to
ensure that the subsurface conditions are consistent with the design and that construction
is carried out in accordance with the design and good engineering practice.”

Inspection shall be carried out on a continuous basis during the construction of all deep
foundation units.

It is essential that inspection personnel be well experienced in this field, so as to be able to:

• recognize faulty construction procedures;

• interpret pile driving data properly, particularly when piles are driven into rock;
• evaluate actual soil conditions in bored piles.

21.2 Documents
Good inspection practices begin prior to actual construction, with the examination of all design
documents. The following should be provided to the inspector for review before the start of
construction and then should be kept for reference at the site:

• soil investigation report;

• all drawings pertaining to the foundation; specifications; contract;
• any other documents on special design features or assumptions, such as design briefs,
hammer data sheet, etc.

On the foundation drawings, the exact location of each deep foundation unit should be indicated,
and each unit should be identified by a unique designation: pile number, column number, or
structure designation followed by the pile number. This designation should be used for reference
throughout the construction and the inspection process.

If any of the documents contain unclear or contradictory matter, this should be reported by the
inspector and clarified immediately.
21.3 Location and Alignment

21.3.1 Location
The location of each deep foundation unit should be staked in advance and checked immediately
prior to installation of each unit. After the installation is complete, the location of each unit
should be checked against the design location and permissible deviations, as indicated on the
design documents.

Article 4.2.7.5 of the National Building Code (1995) states

“… where a deep foundation unit has not been placed within the permissible deviations
referred to in Article 4.2.7.4, the condition of the foundation shall be assessed by the
person responsible for the design, any necessary changes made and action taken as
required in Article 2.3.4.7.”

It is usually impractical to limit the location deviations to values smaller than 70 mm for deep
foundation units. A deviation of 50 mm would be the limit even under favourable conditions. In
marine construction, where piles are driven into or through water, the practical value of tolerance
of location is 150 mm. The foundation design should allow for this expected variation.

Units constructed in the wrong locations will result in: modified load distribution on the different
units in a group; and modified stress distribution in the cross-section of single acting units and,
potentially, a reduction of the structural capacity of the unit.

Subsection 4.2.7 of the National Building Code (1995) requires that when a deep foundation unit
is wrongly located, the condition of the foundation shall be assessed by the person responsible for
the design and the necessary changes made. However, it should be recognized that as a result of a
stringent inspection (quality control), the actual safety has been improved by the assurance gained
through the inspection. Therefore, off-locations not giving rise to more than 15% increase of load
on a pile can normally be accepted.

21.3.2 Alignment
During and after installation of any deep foundation unit, its alignment should be checked against
the design alignment and the permissible deviation, as indicated on the design documents.

Current practice is to limit the total deviation from design alignment to a certain percentage of the
final length of the deep foundation unit; 2% is a value in common use. However, such practice
does not ensure proper structural behaviour of the unit, since it does not take into account the
length over which this deviation is distributed. It should be recognized that:

• the total deviation from alignment of a deep foundation unit has little influence on its
geotechnical capacity;
• practically all piles, particularly when driven, are more or less out of design alignment; (a
perfectly straight pile is a theoretical concept, seldom achieved in practice);
• the 2% alignment limit refers to the direction or slope of the pile at cut-off elevation,
because alignment problems affect the pile cap and the superstructure and not the pile-
soil behaviour below the pile cap; and
• only the curvature of a pile is of importance for its structural and geotechnical behaviour.
Although the mechanism is not fully understood at present, vibrations generated at the toe of the
pile during driving in weak soils may cause the pile to deflect from its vertical path. This
deflection may cause the pile toe to move toward adjacent piles in a group, or to induce unsafe
curvatures in the pile column. H-piles are inherently more prone to this behaviour than circular
sections.

21.3.3 Curvature
When long piles are driven into any type of soil, or shorter piles are driven through soils
containing obstructions, the piles can bend, dogleg, and even break without this being recognized
by the usual inspection means after the driving. Pipe piles that are closed at the toe provide the
possibility of inspection of the curvature and integrity given by the open pipe. It is normally not
possible to inspect a precast concrete pile for binding. However, by casting a centre tube in the
precast concrete pile, access is provided for inspection down the pile.

Often, the inspection down the pile is only carried out by lowering a flashlight into the pipe or
centre tube to check that the pile is sound, which it is considered to be if the flashlight can reach
the bottom of the pile while still being seen from above. However, dust and water can obstruct the
light, and if the light disappears because the pile is bent, there is no possibility to determine
whether the pile is just gently sweeping, which is of little concern, or whether the pile is severely
bent or doglegged. In such a case, a specially designed, but simple, plumb-bob probe can be used
to confirm undamaged piles and to provide data that aids in judging and evaluating a suspect pile.

The plumb-bob probe consists of a staff pipe with dimensions chosen so that it, theoretically, will
'jam' inside the pipe or centre tube at a predetermined limiting bending radius. For obvious
reasons, both the probe and the centre tube should be made from standard pipe sizes. A suitable
size for a centre tube in precast concrete piles is 1.5 inch schedule 40 (inside diameter 40.9 mm),
with a corresponding size of pipe for the probe of 1.0 inch schedule 80 (outside diameter 33.4
mm). (The probe must be made from heavy, stiff pipe). The probes used in steel pipe piles should
have about the same ratio between the outside diameter of the probe and the inside diameter of
the pipe, i.e., about 0.8.

The length of the probe is determined by the desired limiting bending radius and the annulus
between the probe and the tube, as given by the following relation (see Figure 21.1):

L2
R= 21.1
8t

where R = bending radius

L = length of the plumb-bob probe
t = annulus = D1 – D2
D1 = inside diameter of the pipe or centre tube
D2 = outside diameter of the plumb-bob probe
Figure 21.1: Design of the plumb-bob probe used for inspection down pipe piles, or
centre tubes in precasts concrete piles (after Fellenius, 1983)

When the plumb-bob probe is passed down the pile it is affected by numerous irregularities, such
as an oval shape and diameter tolerances of pipes used, unavoidable 'snaking' of the centre tube
cast in a concrete pile, offsets when splicing the pile, etc. However, the plumb-bob is not intended
to be an exact instrument for determining bending. Instead, it is a refinement of the slow, crude,
and imprecise inspection by eye and flashlight. Its main purpose is to save piles, which otherwise
may have to be rejected.
Consequently, when inspecting the limiting bending radius, one should not use the approach
according to calculations of the bending moment, M (M = EI/R), and work from the calculated
bending stress. If so, limiting radii in the order of 400 m, and more, would result. Probes designed
according to such strict values are impractical and cause more problems than they solve.

Practice has shown that the most suitable probes are those designed for limiting radii of 200 m
and 100 m, the 100-m probe being used only if the 200-m probe 'jams'. Any 'jamming' (inability
of the probe to reach the bottom of the pile) would then be evaluated, considering the location of
the 'stop', the pile driving records, the behaviour of the neighbouring piles, the intended use of the
pile, etc.
Centre tubes used in concrete piles must be seamless and smooth inside. They can consist of steel
tubes or PVC pipes. The steel tubes are preferred for practical reasons, as they are stiffer and
heavier. The PVC pipes are cheaper but more apt to snake laterally, to float in the fresh concrete,
and to be dislocated by the vibrator.

The splicing of the tubes must be made square and with outside couplings to ensure that no inside
lips or edges obstruct the passage of the probe. Conical couplings are unsuitable because the
tubes (particularly the PVC tube), expand thermally from the heat generated by the concrete when
curing and arising from steam curing when used. The subsequent longitudinal force is substantial
and would squeeze the tube end into the conical coupling and deform it, causing an obstruction
inside the centre tube. Naturally, all couplings must be almost water tight to prevent the cement
solution from entering the tubes.

To ensure a straight centre tube, it must be supported in the casting form and tied to the
longitudinal reinforcement. A centre tube is considered straight in the casting form before pouring
the concrete if the maximum deviation of the tube as measured over a distance of 4 m is 5 mm.
This deviation tolerance corresponds to a calculated bending radius of 400 m. Thus, the limit is
quite liberal. Experience has shown that there is no difficulty in having the tubes cast straight in
the piles.

Piles with centre tubes are usually equipped with pile shoes. Where this is the case, it is necessary
to supply the base plate of the shoes with a receiving pipe to centre the tube in the pile, and to
ensure positively that the tube at the toe of the pile (the zone of particular importance in the
inspection) is straight.

If splices are used in the pile, a similar centring of the tube is necessary to enable the probe to
pass through the splices without encountering difficulties due to the offset of centres, 'knees', etc.

It is advisable to check that the tubes are straight and unobstructed after casting by pushing the
probe into and through the centre tube while the pile lies on the ground in the casting yard (the
probe has to be attached to the end of a standard pipe of small diameter or pulled through by a
line blown ahead through the tube).

21.4 Inspection of Pile Driving Operations

21.4.1 Introduction
Dynamic monitoring of the pile driving should always be considered. The dynamic measurements
will not only enable an estimate of the pile-bearing capacity of a large number of piles for the
equivalent cost of one test loading, but will also provide valuable information on the hammer-
and-pile performance including the energy actually delivered to the pile, stresses in the pile, and
variations of behaviour between hammers and between piles at the site.

If it is recognized during the design phase that dynamic monitoring will be used at a site as a
means of quality control, the allowable load can often be increased due to the improved assurance
gained.

Items of importance in driving different types of piles are discussed in Chapter 21. The following
checklists are given for the guidance of inspection personnel.
21.4.2 Driving Equipment
Items to be checked and recorded include the following:

(1) Type of hammer is as specified.

(2) For drop hammers:

• mass of the hammer
• type of crane and trip mechanism drop height
• sliding condition in the leads.

(3) For steam hammers:

• type (single or double acting), make, serial number
• mass of the hammer and ram
• positions of the valves, trips, and resulting stroke
• steam pressure
• energy rating
• blows per minute when driving piles at each and hard driving
• general condition of the hammer.

(4) For diesel hammers:

• type, make, serial number
• mass of the hammer and ram stroke
• energy rating
• blows per minute when driving piles at each and hard driving.

(5) For driving cap:

• mass of the cap
• dimensions as related to pile, hammer, and lead dimensions
• type of capblock
• thickness of capblock
• condition of the capblock (this should be checked regularly, and burned, crushed, or
broomed capblocks should be replaced immediately)
• type of hammer cushions used
• thickness of hammer cushion
• condition of hammer cushion.

(6) Type and characteristics of other equipment such as drive heads, followers, etc.

21.4.3 Piles
Items to be checked include the following:

(1) Type of pile is as specified.

(2) For steel piles:
• that there is a mill certificate indicating that the product meets the specifications
(each shipment) (cut off about 0.4 m of the pile, weigh the cut piece and calculate the
exact size of the pile from the known unit weight of the material);
• that the condition of the piles is satisfactory (not damaged or bent);
• that toe and head protections, if any, are as specified;
• that proper handling and storage procedures are followed;
• that the head of the pile is perpendicular to the longitudinal axis;
• that splices conform to specifications.

(3) For precast concrete piles:

(a) At the plant:
• that the geometry and other characteristics of the forms are as required;
• that dimensions, form, and quality of reinforcing are as specified;
• that proper curing conditions are provided;
• that proper handling and storage procedures are followed;
• that the quality of the concrete: mix, slump, strength, etc. are as required.

And for prestressed piles:

• that there is a certificate indicating that the prestressing cables meet specifications;
• that the prestressing procedure and forces used are as specified;
• that strand slippage is minimal (about 2 mm maximum when releasing the wire
pretension).

(b) On site:
• that the age of delivered piles and corresponding strength of concrete (based on test
cylinders or Schmidt hammer tests) are as specified;
• that the geometry of piles (heads perpendicular to the longitudinal axis, length,
straightness) conform to specifications;
• that proper handling and storage procedures are followed;
• that the condition of the piles is satisfactory (not fissured, sparred, etc.);
• that splices, if any, conform to specifications;
• whether strands appear recessed at the segment ends.

(c) For wood piles:

• that there is a certificate indicating the species and grade of timber;
• that there is a certificate regarding protective treatment, where specified;
• that length and dimensions at toe, mid-height, and head of piles are recorded;
• that the piles are straight within the specified tolerances;
• that proper handling and storage procedures are followed;
• that points or shoes, if any, conform to specifications and are properly installed;
• that protective treatment is intact over the full surface of the pile where specified.

21.4.4 Driving Procedures

Items to be checked or noted include:
 • general information such as date, weather conditions, pile identification;
• the exact location of the pile;
• the stability and alignment of the driving rig and leads and the number of blows;
• deformations of the pile under blows at various depths;
• the position and quality of splices;
• the location, time, and duration of any interruption in driving;
• elastic deformations, permanent set (millimetre per blow) determined from the
penetration for the final five or ten blows;
• the elevations of ground surface, pile toe and cut off;
• any erratic or unusual pile behaviour, together with a record of the time of observation
and corresponding toe elevation; possible heave of adjacent piles; and
• other pertinent information.

21.5 Inspection of Compacted Concrete Piles

21.5.1 Introduction
The construction of compacted concrete piles requires the use of special equipment and
specialized technique. It should be undertaken only by contractors experienced in the construction
of this particular type of deep foundation.

21.5.2 Equipment
The equipment should be checked to ensure that it conforms to the specifications or to good work
practices. Of particular importance are:

• the size and mass of the ram;

• the dimensions of the driving tube; and
• the condition of the clamping equipment to hold the driving tube when forming the base.

21.5.3 Installation
Items to be checked or noted include:

• general information such as date, weather conditions, pile identification, time driving was
started and completed, and time concreting was started and completed;
• the location of the pile;
• the alignment of the driving tube;
• the resistance to driving of the tube: drop height; mass of the hammer; number of blows
per 300-mm penetration;
• the elevation of the bottom of the driving tube before forming the base;
• specifics of the concrete for the base: the mix used, strength determined from the
compacted samples;
• the formation of the base: number of buckets and number of blows per bucket; hammer
mass, drop height, and resulting energy per blow; final volume of the base; and final
driving energy for the last bucket;
• elevation of the bottom of the ram when forming the base;
• placement of reinforcement, if any;
• seating into the base of the permanent liner, if any;
 • quality of concrete for the shaft: mix, slump, freshness; and that there are test cylinders
for each day of the pour, of each 30 m', and of any suspect batch;
• the relative position of the bottom of the driving tube and top of the concrete during
compaction of the shaft;
• the volume of the concrete in the compacted shaft compared to the length of the shaft;
• the cut-off elevation;
• the elevation of the top of the liner, if any, immediately after installation;
• the elevation of each liner after all adjacent units are driven (to check for possible heave);
and
• the backfiring of the annular space around the permanent liner.

21.6 Inspection of Bored Deep Foundations

21.6.1 Preliminary Information

In addition to the usual information on soil stratigraphy, type, and strength, information on the
following should be available:

• presence of water-bearing strata; location and thickness of such strata; piezometric levels
in such strata;
• piezometric level in the bedrock if the piles are founded in bedrock;
• rate of flow from water-bearing strata or bedrock into the borehole;
• presence of large obstructions above the founding level; presence of natural gas in the
soil or bedrock; and
• chemical analysis of the groundwater, especially pH, hardness, chlorides and sulphates
content plus such compounds as may be considered hazardous by the authorities.

21.6.2 Excavation
Items to be checked or noted include:

• general information such as date, weather conditions, unit identification, time excavation
was started and completed;
• location of the unit;
• conformity of the excavation technique to the specifications or to good practice;
• alignment and dimensions of the excavation at regular intervals;
• the technique and equipment used to penetrate water-bearing strata, if any;
• the technique and equipment used to penetrate large obstructions, if any;
• log of sediments and rock penetrated during excavation;
• depth of the socket in sound rock, if any (elevation of the bottom);
• elevation and shape of the bell, if any;
• quality of the founding stratum (this should be done by visual inspection whenever
possible; for high-capacity units, coring and in-situ testing of the material to a depth of 1
to 2 diameters below the base of the unit should be done);
• cleanliness of the bottom and sides of the excavation and permanent liner, if any;
• rate of seepage into the excavation;
• quality of the bentonite slurry, if any; and
• losses of bentonite slurry, if any, (time, elevation and quality).
21.6.3 Concreting
After the excavation has been inspected and accepted, placing of reinforcement and concrete may
proceed. Items to be checked or noted include:

• general information such as date, weather conditions, unit identification, time concreting
was started and completed;
• quality of the concrete: mix, slump, freshness; that there are test cylinders for each truck
load, for any suspect batch and at least three for each foundation unit;
• the placing method: position of the pouring chute or tube, (whether, or not, the bottom of
the tremie pipe was always kept below the surface of concrete being placed);
• that reinforcing and the position of the reinforcing cage conform to the drawings and
specifications;
• that the weight of the concrete is adequate to balance the existing groundwater pressure;
• quantity of concrete compared to the height of shaft;
• concrete level in the casing during casing withdrawal;
• vibration of the top of the concrete;
• elevations of cutoffs and exact lengths of units;
• spot checking of completed units by NX corebarrel, inspection of core and borehole by
methods such as borehole camera, caliper logging, ultrasonic logging, if specified; and
• correct location of the completed unit.

21.6.4 General
In most projects, the contractor performs the work as he thinks best and takes responsibility for it.
The inspector should not direct the contractor, but keep good and complete records, as indicated
above. Copies of these records should be provided to the contractor on a regular basis. If the
inspector discovers methods and events that in his opinion are not in accordance with the contract
or good practice, he should immediately bring this to the attention of his supervising engineer and
inform the contractor about this action. It is excellent practice to take one or more photographs of
the site each day to visually document the progress of the work, location of equipment, etc.

Additional comments and discussion that may benefit the inspector are given by Davisson (1972),
the Deep Foundation Institute (1979a,b), Hunt (1979) and O’Neill and Reese (1999).