MCB 481 LECTURE NOTES

BY MR G. E. JOHN
2021/2022 SESSION

MICROBIAL ECOLOGY OF FOOD

Microbial ecology of food refers to the study of microorganisms and their interactions within the
context of food and food processing environments. It focuses on understanding the diversity,
dynamics, and functions of microbial communities associated with food, as well as their impact
on food quality, safety, and preservation

The foods we eat are rarely sterile. They carry microbial associations whose composition is very
different. The microorganisms present originate from the natural microflora of raw material but
also, microorganisms are introduced in the course of harvesting, slaughter, processing, storage,
and distribution of food. In most cases, the food is consumed without objection and consequences.
In some cases, microorganisms manifest their presence in 3 ways,

1. By causing spoilage of food,

2. By causing food-borne illness or
3. By transforming the food in a beneficial way (food fermentation).

Microorganisms are key factors both in food processing and spoilage. Either added purposely or
acquired from contact with the environment, all must deal with conditions imposed to eliminate or
control the growth of pathogens and compete with each other for the nutrients that are abundantly
available.

The microbial ecology of foods is dependent not only upon their composition, packaging systems,
the origin of raw materials, but also on the unit operations employed during food processing, their
intensity, and combinations. Unit operations modify material properties aiming to produce
uniform and high-quality food products both with greater acceptance by the consumers and with
longer shelf life.

Microorganisms, including bacteria, yeasts, molds, viruses, and parasites may have different
susceptibilities to unit operations employed during food processing. While viruses and parasites
are not able to grow but to survive in foods, bacteria, molds, and yeasts can survive, grow as well
as be inactivated, inhibited, or removed from foods. Several technologies can be applied to
achieve such objectives, like on-farm (cleaning, selection and classification, cooling, storage, and
transport) or on-factory unit operations (heating, refrigeration/freezing, dehydration, modification
of atmosphere, irradiation and physical, chemical, and microbial-based operations).

The microbial ecology of foods can be studied by conventional culturing microbiological

methods, which are time-consuming and laborious. However, a variety of novel methodologies
with more sensitive, precise, and reproducible results can be employed to get insights into the
microbial ecology of foods. Even with the effort of industries and government regulatory agencies
to guarantee good quality food products, foodborne diseases remain occurring.

The microbial ecology of foods is influenced dramatically by food processing and preservation
techniques. Some of the processes used are traditional and are known to be effective in controlling
any foodborne pathogens present. Control may be achieved by the effects of the product
formulation, including the incorporation of preservatives, the use of decontamination treatment,
and other hygiene measures. Although vegetative bacteria may sometimes survive such
conditions, they are often sub-lethally injured. In fact, almost all microorganisms of concern in the
food industry are susceptible to stress and injury by chemical or physical treatments involved in
food production. The sub-lethal injury was first demonstrated with lactic acid bacteria used as
starter cultures in dairy fermentations.

Microorganisms, such as bacteria, yeasts, and molds, are present in various stages of the food
production process, including raw materials, processing equipment, and final products. The
microbial ecology of food explores how these microorganisms colonize, interact, and evolve
within these environments. Some key aspects of microbial ecology in food include
1. Microbial diversity: Different types of microorganisms inhabit food and food-processing
environments, and their diversity can vary depending on factors such as the type of food,
processing methods, and storage conditions. Understanding the microbial composition and
diversity helps in assessing the potential risks associated with foodborne pathogens and
spoilage organisms
2. Microbial interactions: Microorganisms can interact with each other in food ecosystems
through competition, cooperation, or antagonism. These interactions can influence the
overall microbial community structure, function, and dynamics. For example, some
 microorganisms produce antimicrobial compounds that inhibit the growth of pathogens or
spoilage organisms
3. Food safety: Certain microorganisms can pose a risk to human health if they contaminate
food. The microbial ecology of food aims to identify and understand the behavior and
survival mechanisms of foodborne pathogens, such as Salmonella, Escherichia coli, and
Listeria monocytogenes, in different food matrices. This knowledge helps in implementing
effective control measures to prevent foodborne illnesses
4. Food quality and spoilage: Microorganisms play a crucial role in food spoilage by causing
changes in texture, flavor, and appearance. Understanding the microbial communities
associated with food spoilage helps in developing strategies to extend shelf life and
maintain product quality. For example, controlling the growth of specific spoilage
organisms through modified atmospheres or preservatives can prevent spoilage and
maintain product freshness
5. Food fermentation: Microbial ecology is also important in the context of food fermentation
processes. Fermentation involves the controlled growth and metabolism of specific
microorganisms to produce desirable changes in food properties, such as taste, texture, and
preservation. Examples of fermented foods include yogurt, cheese, sauerkraut, and
sourdough bread

CONTROL AND ELIMINATIONS OF PATHOGENS IN FOODS

The control and elimination of pathogens in foods are essential to ensure food safety and prevent
foodborne illnesses. Several measures can be implemented throughout the food production and
handling process to reduce or eliminate the presence of pathogens. Here are some key strategies;
1. Good Agricultural Practices (GAPs): Implementing proper agricultural practices can
reduce the initial contamination of foods. This includes maintaining hygiene in the field,
using safe irrigation water, preventing animal fecal contamination, and properly handling
and storing raw materials
2. Good Manufacturing Practices (GMPs): GMPs provide guidelines for maintaining
cleanliness and preventing cross-contamination during food processing. This includes
proper sanitation of equipment, utensils, and food contact surfaces, regular cleaning of
processing areas, and training of personnel in food safety procedures
3. Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP): HACCP is a systematic approach
used to identify and control potential hazards in the food production process. It involves
 identifying critical control points where interventions can be implemented to eliminate or
reduce pathogens. HACCP plans are specific to each food production facility and should
be tailored to address the specific risks associated with that operation
4. Thermal Processing: Heat treatment methods, such as pasteurization, sterilization, and
cooking, are effective in killing or inactivating pathogens in food. The specific
temperature and duration of heating depend on the type of food and the target pathogen.
Proper cooking and reheating of foods to recommended temperatures are important for
eliminating pathogens
5. Cold Storage: Maintaining low temperatures inhibits the growth of many pathogens.
Refrigeration and freezing are commonly used to preserve foods and slow down the
growth of microorganisms. It is important to store perishable foods at appropriate
temperatures to prevent pathogen growth
6. Irradiation: Food irradiation involves the use of ionizing radiation to kill pathogens and
reduce spoilage microorganisms in food. It is an effective method for controlling
pathogens, but its use is regulated and varies between countries
7. Good Hygiene Practices: Personal hygiene of food handlers, including proper
handwashing, wearing clean protective clothing, and maintaining cleanliness in food
preparation areas, is critical to prevent the introduction and spread of pathogens
8. Testing and Monitoring: Regular testing and monitoring of food samples for the presence
of pathogens is important to ensure early detection and intervention. Microbiological
testing methods, such as culture-based methods or rapid detection techniques, can be
employed to verify the effectiveness of control measures and ensure compliance with food
safety standards

It is important to note that multiple strategies and interventions may be necessary, and the specific
approaches employed may vary depending on the type of food, the level of risk, and the
regulatory requirements in different regions. It is recommended to follow local food safety
guidelines and regulations and consult with food safety experts or regulatory authorities for
specific guidance

ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS AFFECTING FOOD MICROORGANISMS

Environmental factors play a significant role in influencing the growth, survival, and activity of
microorganisms associated with food. These factors can affect the microbial ecology of food and
impact food safety, spoilage, and preservation. Here are some key environmental factors that
influence food microorganisms;
1. Temperature: Temperature is one of the most critical environmental factors affecting
microbial growth. Different microorganisms have specific temperature ranges for optimal
growth, and they can be categorized into psychrophiles (cold-loving), mesophiles
(moderate temperature-loving), and thermophiles (heat-loving). Temperature abuse, such
as improper storage temperatures, can lead to increased microbial growth and food
spoilage or even facilitate the growth of foodborne pathogens
2. pH: The pH level of a food matrix influences microbial growth by affecting enzyme
activity and membrane integrity. Microorganisms have different pH requirements for
growth, and they can be classified as acidophiles (acid-loving), neutrophiles (neutral pH-
loving), or alkaliphiles (alkaline pH-loving). Foods with low pH, such as acidic fruits or
fermented products, create an inhospitable environment for many pathogenic
microorganisms, while some spoilage organisms thrive under acidic conditions
3. Water Activity (aw): Water activity refers to the amount of available water in a food
system, and it affects microbial growth and survival. Microorganisms have different water
activity requirements, and a lower water activity can inhibit their growth. Controlling
water activity through drying, salting, or using preservatives helps to prevent microbial
proliferation and food spoilage
4. Oxygen Availability: Oxygen availability has a significant impact on the types of
microorganisms that can thrive in a food system. Aerobic microorganisms require oxygen
for growth, while anaerobic microorganisms can grow in the absence of oxygen. Some
microorganisms are facultative, meaning they can adapt to both aerobic and anaerobic
conditions. Oxygen availability influences the spoilage patterns of foods and the growth of
specific pathogens, such as the aerobic bacteria responsible for causing foodborne illnesses
5. Nutrient Availability: The availability of nutrients, such as carbohydrates, proteins, and
lipids, influences microbial growth and metabolism. Different microorganisms have
specific nutrient requirements, and food composition affects their growth rates. Proper
handling and storage of food, including avoiding cross-contamination and minimizing
nutrient-rich environments, help control microbial growth and reduce the risk of foodborne
illness
6. Presence of Inhibitory Substances: Some foods contain natural antimicrobial compounds
that can inhibit the growth of microorganisms. Examples include spices, herbs, essential
 oils, and organic acids. These substances can be used as natural preservatives to extend the
shelf life of foods and inhibit the growth of spoilage organisms and foodborne pathogens
7. Food Processing Conditions: Food processing methods, such as heat treatment,
pasteurization, fermentation, and canning, can significantly impact microbial populations
in food. Processing conditions, including time, temperature, and pressure, can selectively
kill or inhibit certain microorganisms while preserving the quality and safety of the
product
Understanding and controlling these environmental factors is crucial for ensuring food safety,
preventing spoilage, and preserving the quality of food products. Proper food handling, storage,
and processing techniques, along with monitoring and control measures, help mitigate the risks
associated with microbial growth and improve overall food safety