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(Download PDF) Built On Sand The Science of Granular Materials Mit Press Etienne Guyon Online Ebook All Chapter PDF
(Download PDF) Built On Sand The Science of Granular Materials Mit Press Etienne Guyon Online Ebook All Chapter PDF
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B U I LT ON S AND
B U I LT ON S AND
T H E SC IENCE OF GRANULAR MATE RI AL S
FO R E W O R D B Y K E N KAM R I N
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form by any
electronic or mechanical means (including photocopying, recording, or information
storage and retrieval) without permission in writing from the publisher.
This book was set in ITC Stone and Avenir by Toppan Best-set Premedia Limited.
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
CONTENTS
FOREWORD vii
PREFACE ix
2 GRAIN PRODUCTION 17
3 PILES OF GRAINS 39
5 MAKING CONTACTS 81
CONCLUSION 231
vi Contents
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 235
GLOSSARY 237
BIBLIOGRAPHY 245
INDEX 251
FOREWORD
The three authors are leaders in this modern wave of the field. I have
had the pleasure of extensive interactions with Dr. Delenne and Dr. Radjai,
in the United States and in France. We organized an international confer-
ence in 2014 in Montpellier and Dr. Radjai spent several years as a visit-
ing researcher at MIT. Over the last half-decade, we have had numerous
exchanges and served on committees for each other’s students and post-
doctoral scholars. My appreciation of them as friends is surpassed only
by my respect for them as scientists. Delenne and Radjai have developed
some of the best computational tools out there for simulating granular
materials—be the grains jagged, wet, soft, or bouncy. Their methods are
used sometimes in place of experiments due to their reliability and have
played a significant part in the development of novel theories of granular
mechanics. As for Dr. Guyon, his seminal work in hydrodynamics and
granular media was fundamental in my own education. But in synthesis
with his technical work, Dr. Guyon has worked intensely for improving
scientific communication to the public. I was fortunate to get to see Dr.
Guyon present on the history and creation of the French museum system
and its successes in public outreach. His drive and passion to communi-
cate the joy of science, regardless of the audience’s background, is evident
in the presentation of this book.
This book is not just a work about the science and applications of
granular media. It is a history book as well. It is also a how-to book of
sorts, explaining methods for how these materials have been made and
manipulated since early civilization. The discussions are broad, ranging
from ancient ways to shape flint, to the science of making couscous, to
the statistics of percolating chains, to the etymology of our words. Such
breadth does justice to a subject matter rife with so many different direc-
tions to study. While the common link is granular media, this text is
really an opportunity to witness a storyline that passes through chemis-
try, physics, astronomy, math, and engineering.
Enjoy the ride!
prototype, the paradigm for granular media: both the basis for simple
table-top experiments and the foundation for high-level collaboration
and research.
An earlier book, Du sac de billes au tas de sable (From a Bag of Marbles to
a Pile of Sand, 1994) by Etienne Guyon and Jean Paul Troadec discussed
these advances and research programs up to 1990, especially in France.
Together with Nobel laureate Pierre Gilles de Gennes, Etienne Guyon
established an open community known as MIAM (Milieux Aléatoires Mac-
roscopiques; [Macroscopic Random Media]), which marked the starting
point for intensive research on an international scale for over twenty-five
years. Today, it is no longer surprising to find a sandcastle on the cover
of a serious journal such as Nature, or to see the stability of its structure
being studied as a function of water content at the European Synchotron
Radiation Facility in Grenoble or on zero-
gravity flights. Important
applications are already evident in the technological revolution of high-
performance concretes—for example, large-scale building projects that
capitalize on an improved understanding of the structure of materials at
the granular level.
If experimental models still play a vital role in research, the intensive
use of numerical simulations represents a new development. From the
1960s to the 1980s, computers started being used to describe dense, dis-
ordered phases of matter at the atomic level—liquids and glasses. The
methods pioneered in this context bore fruit for the study of macroscopic
granular systems. In turn, this opened the way for studying both the
forces acting among the grains themselves and the rich phenomenology
of their collective motion.
This book stems from collaboration between two researchers work-
ing on new developments (Jean-Yves Delenne and Farhang Radjai) and
the author (Etienne Guyon) of the aforementioned title. The work at
hand introduces new fields of application—in particular, soil science and
agronomy—and seeks to satisfy the curiosity of a broad, and extremely
diverse, readership. It surveys recent research on granular media, espe-
cially by means of computer simulations in two and three dimensions.
New developments in imaging have enabled scientists to understand
organized ensembles of macroscopic grains; such metamaterial presents a
Preface xi
Highly diverse in shape and origin, grains of matter occupy a key position
in our environment. Granular matter, our object of study in this work,
represents the result of a vast number of grains combining in a pile, just
as a crowd represents many people coming together to form a group. The
phenomenon we will be examining in the following pages is a physical
reality, and countless examples abound all around us, on a human scale.
This opening chapter is devoted, above all, to the basic unit of matter,
the tiny object that, in analogy to the seed of plants (granum in Latin), is
called a grain.
A CL O S E L O O K
M AN Y POWERS O F TEN
To understand granular matter as a whole, we’ll start by examining a sin-
gle grain. The field to be explored is vast indeed. All states of matter admit
description as an assemblage of particles of highly variable dimensions,
2 CHAPTER 1
TIN Y G RAINS
A crystal may be viewed as an ensemble of atomic grains that are well
ordered and fixed in place. A liquid also consists of atoms or molecules
in a compact state, but they are disordered and mobile. Finally, a gas
comprises the same elements in dispersed and diluted form; they can be
pictured as a mass of nanoscopic* bumper cars. Grains just a few angstroms
(1 Å = 10–10 m) in diameter are constantly colliding—a manifestation of
the gas’s absolute temperature. Such movement can overlap with mean
1 Words and terms followed by an asterisk are explained in the glossary at the end
of the book.
Grains, Seeds, and Powders 3
Thermal Agitation
In 1827, the botanist Robert Brown first described the continuous and dis-
ordered movement exhibited by small grains of pollen suspended in water,
thereby renewing an observation made by Lucretius some two thousand years
earlier! This motion is a manifestation of thermal agitation affecting inert
particles of matter in permanent collision with each other. The root mean
square of these particles’ velocity v T is related to their mass m and to absolute
1
temperature T by mv 2T ≈ k B T , where k B is the Boltzmann constant (which
2
is universal) and “≈” means “of the order of.” When applied to the molecules
of a gas, the formula yields a velocity of several hundred meters per second,
depending on the value of m. This velocity is visible under a microscope for
colloidal particles a few thousand angstroms in diameter, with a mass a mil-
lion times larger. In contrast, it is completely negligible for grains of matter
larger than a few microns (which we mainly will be discussing in this book).
The thermal agitation of particles that settle in a fluid limits their accumu-
lation: on the surface of the Moon, for instance, it is sufficiently large that
gravity cannot hold oxygen near the surface. In general, the density of Brown-
ian particles decreases rapidly (exponentially) the higher the altitude and the
weaker the gravity. Using this law when conducting research based on Albert
Einstein’s theoretical work, Jean Perrin (figure 1.1) was able to determine the
Avogadro constant N A (the number of gas molecules contained in a volume of
22.4 liters). He received the Nobel Prize for the experiment.
Grains, Seeds, and Powders 15