CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

For the review of appropriate literature, this study will be discussed using the following outline:

a) Concept of Student Population

b) The Impact of Student Population on Teaching and Learning Outcomes

c) Models of the Student Population and Their Impact on Teaching and Learning

d) Student population and educational outcomes

e) Factors Affecting the Student Population in Secondary Schools in Ilorin

f) Enhancing Educational Development in Ilorin South

g) Critical evaluation of the literature reviewed

Concept of Student Population

The student population represents a pivotal component of educational systems worldwide,

embodying a multitude of demographic, academic, and socio-economic characteristics.

Understanding the intricacies of student population dynamics is imperative for shaping inclusive

and equitable educational practices. Utilizing this knowledge can help educators create

environments that support the diverse needs of their students and promote academic success for

all. The student population serves as a microcosm of societal demographics, playing a

fundamental role in shaping educational policies and practices (Hanushek & Woessmann, 2020).

By analysing the composition of the student body, educators and policymakers gain valuable
insights into societal trends, inequalities, and educational needs, enabling them to tailor

interventions and resources accordingly (Darling-Hammond et al., 2019).

It encapsulates the diverse demographic, academic, and socio-economic characteristics of

learners within educational settings. By addressing the challenges and embracing the

implications associated with a diverse student population, educational institutions can foster

inclusive, equitable, and enriching learning environments. Through concerted efforts by

policymakers, educators, and stakeholders, it is possible to create educational systems that cater

to the diverse needs and aspirations of all students, ensuring that every learner has the

opportunity to succeed.

Also, the concept of student population refers to the number of students enrolled in an

educational institution at a given level of education. This concept is crucial to understanding the

dynamics of teaching and learning processes and the resources required to support students'

academic growth. In this context, the student population is defined as the number of enrolments

at a specific level of education, measured as an index with a base year of 2015 (Filgona, Jacob,

John, & Gwany, 2020).

The student population plays a crucial role in determining the quality of education and the

resources allocated for teaching and learning. The number of students enrolled in a school or

school district can significantly impact the allocation of resources, the quality of instruction, and

the overall effectiveness of the educational system. For instance, larger student populations may

require more resources, such as additional teachers, classrooms, and instructional materials, to
maintain a high level of teaching and learning quality (Laitsch, Nguyen, & Younghusband,

2021).

Class size is a key component of the student population concept, representing the number of

students in a specific classroom. Class size refers to the number of students enrolled in a

particular classroom and has been a subject of debate among educators and researchers. Research

has shown that class size can have profound effects on instructional delivery, classroom

management, and student outcomes (Oyeniran & Akinlowo, 2024). Larger class sizes may result

in reduced teacher-student interactions, limited opportunities for individualized instruction, and

difficulties in maintaining classroom discipline, thus impacting teaching effectiveness and

student learning experiences (Oteniya Mojeed Gbenga, Aminu Surajo, & Ibrahim, 2023).

Student population demographics, such as socioeconomic backgrounds and learning needs, can

also influence the quality of education. Schools with diverse student populations may require

tailored approaches to instruction and support, posing additional challenges for educators

(Kutsyuruba, Klinger, & Hussain, 2015). For example, schools with a higher percentage of

students from low socioeconomic backgrounds or with a migration background may require

more resources and support to ensure effective teaching and learning (Kutsyuruba, Klinger, &

Hussain, 2015).

In summary, the student population is crucial for comprehending the dynamics of teaching and

learning in educational institutions. It is essential to consider factors such as class size,

demographic diversity, and resource allocation when assessing the impact of the student

population on teaching effectiveness, student engagement, and academic achievement. By

understanding these factors, educators, policymakers, and stakeholders can make informed
decisions to improve the quality of education and ensure that students receive the support they

need to succeed academically.

The Impact of Student Population on Teaching and Learning Outcomes

The assessment of the impact of student population on teaching and learning outcomes in

secondary schools is essential for understanding how variations in class size and demographic

composition affect educational quality and equity. The classroom environment significantly

affects teaching effectiveness and student engagement, with class size playing a crucial role in

instructional delivery and student experiences. By examining the relationship between student

population dynamics and educational outcomes, this research seeks to inform evidence-based

interventions and policy reforms aimed at enhancing educational quality and equity in secondary

education settings.

Various researchers, including Ajao (2001), Blumende (2001), and Ekwesili (2006), have

identified factors such as educational facilities, teacher competency, student enrolment, and

students' attitudes. Among them are educational facilities, teacher competency, student

enrolment, and even students’ attitudes. One crucial factor is student enrolment, which represents

the total number of students enrolled in the school. Societal awareness of the benefits of

education is on the rise. Population, in this context, refers to the total number of individuals

within a specific group or area. In the school system, it represents the total number of students

enrolled in a given academic session. Studying the school population is essential to this research

due to its significant impact on the effectiveness of teachers. Teachers are more effective in less

crowded classrooms because it allows for better classroom management. The Nigerian

population, as reported by the National Population Commission (NPC) in 2004, is steadily

increasing. The population data from the Federation Census shows an increase from 107 million

in 1996 to 140 million in 2006, and further to 170 million in 2014 (NPC 2014). The increase in

population figures is not without effects on the

states of the Federation as well as all the sectors of the economy, education, and thereby putting

extra pressure on educational facilities.

All education stakeholders are aware of the population explosion or congestion that exists in the

classroom at all levels of educational institutions, especially at the basic level in the public

schools in towns and cities in Nigeria. There is an increase in school enrolment without proper

planning to adequately meet the increase in school population. Poor and insufficient funding for

the management of public schools by the government both at the federal and state levels has

greatly affected students’ enrolment trends and teachers’ effectiveness in basic schools (Kolade,

2007; Adeyemi, 2007). The issue of student population and teaching and learning effectiveness

has become a challenge for managers of education, who have the responsibility to ensure that

teachers’ activities positively yield good results. especially in terms of students’ academic

performance.

The Federal Republic of Nigeria National Policy on Education (2004) stipulated that the teacher-

student ratio at the secondary school level should be 1:35. Educational planners are yet to

determine what number is considered large or small. Slate and Jones (2012) defined optimal

school size as a range in which economic efficiency and educational outcomes both show a

positive relationship with large school sizes. Large schools offer a wider variety of classes for

students and allow for specialized teaching by dividing labour among teachers, as suggested by

Leithwood and Jantzi (2009). It carries power and righteousness. It can be run at a lower per

pupil cost, draw a more diverse population, and have a high dropout rate, a high level of
disorderliness, drug use, and violence, and a low level of attendants and participation in school

activities. Whereas small school sizes help to develop relationships with other students, there is a

better chance for teachers to get to know their students well. Blumende (2001) submitted that

small schools can improve education by creating small, intimate learning communities where

students are well known, reducing discrepancies in the achievement gap that plagues poor

children, Schneider, Teske, and Marschall (2000) added that small schools often encourage

parental involvement, which benefits students and the entire

community and higher achievement.

Fadipe (2000) opined that the right type of atmosphere is required for effective teaching.

and learning is that it consists of a better or average population of students and a better

conducive environment. Oyedeji (2000) observed that with the recent population explosion in

basic schools, they are not well equipped and therefore make teaching of less quality.

Models of the Student Population and Their Impact on Teaching and Learning

Theoretical frameworks serve as conceptual lenses through which the relationship between class

size and educational outcomes can be understood (Blatchford, Bassett, & Brown, 2005). These

frameworks offer structured perspectives and organizing principles to guide research inquiries,

data interpretation, and theoretical explanations. In the context of class size and educational

outcomes, theoretical frameworks help elucidate the mechanisms and processes through which

class size influences teaching effectiveness, student engagement, and academic achievement.

Resource Dilution Model: An Explanation of How Larger Class Sizes May Lead to Reduced

Resources per Student and Its Implications for Teaching and Learning
The Resource Dilution Model, introduced by Blatchford (2012), suggests that larger class sizes

dilute resources per student, resulting in reduced educational experiences. This model suggests

that as class sizes increase, the available resources, such as teacher’s attention, instructional

materials, and opportunities for individualized support, become distributed among more students,

thus reducing the number of resources allocated to each student. Consequently, students in larger

classes may receive less personalized attention from teachers, have limited access to instructional

materials, and experience fewer opportunities for tailored instruction. These resource limitations

can hinder teaching effectiveness and impede student learning experiences, potentially leading to

lower academic achievement outcomes. In essence, the Resource Dilution Model highlights the

negative impact of overcrowded classrooms on educational quality and underscores the

importance of maintaining manageable class sizes to ensure adequate resource allocation and

student support.

Interaction Model: Discussion on the Role of Teacher-Student Interactions in Mediating the

Effects of Class Size on Teaching Effectiveness and Student Engagement

The Interaction Model emphasizes the quality of interactions between teachers and students as a

critical mediator of the effects of class size on teaching effectiveness and student engagement.

This model suggests that effective teacher-student interactions can mitigate the negative effects

of large class sizes on educational outcomes. According to the Interaction Model, the quality of

interactions, such as teacher responsiveness, feedback provision, and student participation, plays

a crucial role in shaping teaching effectiveness and fostering student engagement, regardless of

class size. In other words, even in larger classes, proactive efforts by teachers to establish

positive relationships with students, provide individualized support, and create interactive
learning environments can enhance teaching effectiveness and promote student engagement. By

prioritizing meaningful interactions, educators can counteract the challenges posed by large class

sizes and create conducive learning environments that facilitate student learning and academic

success. Therefore, the Interaction Model underscores the importance of teacher-student

interactions in mediating the effects of class size on educational outcomes and highlights the role

of pedagogical practices in optimizing teaching effectiveness and student engagement across

diverse class sizes.

Student population and educational outcomes

The impact of the student population on educational outcomes has been a subject of significant

interest and research in the field of education. As classrooms become increasingly diverse in

terms of student demographics, it is essential to understand how varying student populations

influence educational outcomes such as academic achievement, graduation rates, and social-

emotional development. This article provides an overview of the literature on student

populations and their relationship with educational outcomes, drawing on a range of empirical

studies and theoretical frameworks.

Demographic Composition and Academic Achievement:

One crucial aspect of the student population is its demographic composition, which includes

factors such as socioeconomic status, race or ethnicity, language proficiency, and special

education status. Research suggests that these demographic characteristics can have a significant

impact on academic achievement. For instance, a study by Lee and Burkam (2002) found that

students from low-income backgrounds tend to have lower test scores and higher dropout rates
compared to their peers from higher-income backgrounds. Similarly, studies have shown that

English language learners and students with special education needs may face additional

challenges in achieving academic success (Hakuta et al., 2000; Oswald et al., 2005).

However, it is important to note that the relationship between student demographics and

academic achievement is complex and influenced by various factors. For example, a study by

Sirin (2005) found that the effect of socioeconomic status on academic achievement is mediated

by factors such as parental involvement, school resources, and teacher quality. Moreover,

research has also highlighted the potential strengths and resilience exhibited by students from

disadvantaged backgrounds, challenging the notion of a deterministic relationship between

demographics and academic outcomes (Valenzuela, 1999).

Cultural and Linguistic Diversity:

Another key aspect of the student population is cultural and linguistic diversity. Schools with

diverse student populations provide opportunities for cross-cultural learning and the development

of intercultural competence. Research has shown that exposure to diverse perspectives and

experiences can enhance critical thinking skills and promote cultural sensitivity (Starkey, 2021).

Additionally, multicultural education practices that value and incorporate students' cultural

backgrounds have been associated with improved academic achievement and increased

engagement (Abdulrahim & Orosco, 2019).

However, cultural and linguistic diversity can also present challenges. Language barriers,

cultural differences in learning styles, and varying educational experiences prior to school entry

may impact educational outcomes for culturally and linguistically diverse students. Studies have
emphasized the importance of providing appropriate language support, culturally responsive

teaching practices, and inclusive classroom environments to address the diverse needs of

students (Mirose Paia et al., 2015).

Class Size and Student-Teacher Ratios:

The size of the student population, particularly class size and student-teacher ratios, has been a

topic of debate regarding its influence on educational outcomes. Smaller classes and lower

student-teacher ratios are often associated with improved academic achievement and increased

student engagement (Lee & Walsh, 2015). Research suggests that smaller classes allow for more

individualized attention, increased opportunities for student participation, and improved teacher-

student relationships (Blatchford et al., 2005).

However, it is important to consider the broader context when examining the impact of class

size. While smaller classes may have benefits, reducing class size significantly across all schools

can be challenging due to resource constraints. Moreover, the effectiveness of smaller classes

may also depend on other factors, such as teacher quality, instructional practices, and classroom

management strategies (Abdulrahim & Orosco, 2019).

Student demographics, cultural and linguistic diversity, as well as class size, all play a role in

shaping educational outcomes. It is crucial to recognize the diverse needs of students, provide

appropriate support and resources, and create inclusive learning environments that value

students' backgrounds and experiences (Oni & Alade, 2015). Furthermore, actively addressing

and dismantling systemic barriers to access and success is essential for promoting educational

equity and ensuring all students have the opportunity to thrive (Oyeniran & Akinlowo, 2024).
Understanding the impact of student population on educational outcomes can inform educational

policies and practices aimed at promoting equity and enhancing learning experiences for all

students. Future research should continue to explore the intricate interactions between the student

population and educational outcomes, considering the multifaceted nature of this relationship and

the specific contexts in which it operates.

Factors Affecting the Student Population in Secondary Schools in Ilorin

The student population in secondary schools in Ilorin, Kwara State, can be influenced by various

factors, as evidenced in several research studies (Olawuyi et al., n.d.). These factors include

family background and socio-economic conditions (Oyeyemi, 2020), the availability of school

facilities, and the physical school environment. The latter refers to factors like noise level,

lighting, temperature, locational factors, and the overall condition of the school (Olawuyi et al.,

n.d.), as indicated in previous studies.

Various factors influence the student population in secondary schools, impacting enrolment,

retention, and academic performance. It is essential for educational policymakers and

stakeholders to understand these factors in order to develop targeted interventions that address

the needs of students in Ilorin. This paper examines the factors affecting the student population

in secondary schools in Ilorin, Nigeria, considering socio-economic, cultural, and educational

influences.

Socio-Economic Factors
Socio-economic status (SES) significantly impacts the student population in Ilorin's secondary

schools (Oja, 2014). Families with higher SES levels often prioritize education and have the

resources to support their children's schooling, leading to higher enrolment rates (Ajayi &

Ekundayo, 2017). Conversely, students from low-income households may face financial barriers

to education, resulting in lower enrolment and higher dropout rates (S.I., 2020).

Additionally, access to quality education facilities and resources varies based on SES, further

influencing student enrolment and retention (Akinsolu, 2010). Schools located in affluent areas

may attract more students due to better infrastructure and educational offerings, while those in

low-income areas struggle to provide adequate resources.

Cultural Factors

Cultural beliefs and practices also play a significant role in shaping the student population in

Ilorin's secondary schools (Nwozor & Okhillu, 2022). In some communities, traditional gender

roles and expectations may limit girls' access to education, leading to gender disparities in

enrolment (Fabunmi et al., 2007). Moreover, cultural norms regarding early marriage or labour

may result in early dropout among students, particularly girls (Nwozor & Okhillu, 2022).

Furthermore, language and religious affiliations can influence school choice and enrolment

patterns in Ilorin (Olowe & Ibrahim, 2016). Schools that offer instruction in the predominant

local language or align with families' religious beliefs may attract more students, while others

may struggle to enrol diverse populations.

Educational Factors
Educational policies and practices also impact the student population in secondary schools in

Ilorin (Awak, 2019). The availability of quality teachers, curriculum relevance, and

extracurricular activities can influence student enrolment and retention rates (Fabunmi et al.,

2007). Schools with a reputation for academic excellence or specialized programs may attract

more students, while those with poor performance may experience declining enrolment.

Additionally, access to scholarships, bursaries, or government incentives can impact student

enrolment, particularly among marginalized populations (Moja, 2014). Financial assistance

programs can mitigate socio-economic barriers to education and increase access for

disadvantaged students.

The student population in secondary schools in Ilorin is shaped by a complex interplay of socio-

economic factors, such as income levels and access to resources; cultural influences like

traditions and beliefs; and educational factors, including teaching methodologies and curriculum

structure (Oyeniran & Akinlowo, 2024) (Perry, 2012). Understanding these factors is crucial for

developing targeted interventions, such as mentorship programs for at-risk students, culturally

sensitive teaching approaches, and inclusive curriculum designs, that can promote equitable

access to education and improve outcomes for all students. By implementing targeted financial

aid programs, cultural competency training for educators, and policy reforms that promote

inclusivity, stakeholders can actively create inclusive learning environments where every student

has the opportunity to thrive. (Oyeniran & Akinlowo, 2024).

Enhancing Educational Development in Ilorin South

The educational landscape of Ilorin South is a dynamic and multifaceted entity influenced by

various factors, including population trends, school infrastructure, and government policies. This

comprehensive analysis delves into the intricate interplay of these elements, elucidating their

significance and implications for educational development in the region (S.I., 2020).

Population Trends

Population trends in Ilorin South are indicative of its evolving socio-demographic landscape.

Over the years, the region has experienced steady population growth, driven by factors such as

natural increases and rural-urban migration. The burgeoning population presents both

opportunities and challenges for the educational sector (Elegbede & Lateef, 2019).

One significant implication of population growth is the increasing demand for educational

facilities and services. As the population expands, so does the need for schools, classrooms, and

qualified teachers to accommodate the growing number of students. This necessitates strategic

planning and resource allocation to ensure that educational infrastructure keeps pace with

demographic changes.

Moreover, population trends also influence the composition of the student body in schools.

Changes in population dynamics, such as shifts in age distribution or migration patterns, can

impact enrolment rates and student-teacher ratios. Understanding these demographic shifts is

crucial for educational planners to devise targeted interventions that address the evolving needs

of the student population (S.I., 2020).

Furthermore, demographic diversity within the student body adds complexity to educational

management and instructional planning. Schools must cater to the diverse backgrounds, learning
styles, and needs of students from varied socio-economic, cultural, and linguistic backgrounds.

Embracing this diversity enriches the learning experience and fosters inclusivity within

educational institutions.

School Infrastructure

The availability and quality of school infrastructure are critical determinants of educational

quality and outcomes in Ilorin South. While efforts have been made to improve infrastructure,

challenges persist, particularly in rural and underserved areas. Inadequate infrastructure impedes

the delivery of quality education and exacerbates educational disparities (Musa Sirajo &

Abdullahi, 2023).

One of the primary challenges is the shortage of essential amenities such as classrooms, libraries,

laboratories, and sanitation facilities. Many schools in Ilorin South lack basic infrastructure,

hindering effective teaching and learning. Overcrowded classrooms, insufficient instructional

materials, and dilapidated facilities undermine the quality of education and limit students'

academic potential.

Moreover, disparities in infrastructure between urban and rural areas exacerbate educational

inequalities (Elegbede & Lateef, 2019). Schools in urban centres generally have better-equipped

facilities and resources compared to their rural counterparts. This urban-rural divide in

infrastructure perpetuates inequities in access to quality education and contributes to disparities

in educational outcomes (Eziuzo, 2022).

Addressing the infrastructure deficit requires concerted efforts from government agencies,

educational institutions, and community stakeholders. Investments in school construction,

renovation, and maintenance are essential to improving infrastructure and creating conducive

learning environments (None, Olubusola Odeyemi et al., 2024). Additionally, innovative

approaches such as public-private partnerships can mobilize resources and expedite

infrastructure development in underserved areas.

Government Policies

Government policies play a pivotal role in shaping the educational landscape of Ilorin South.

Policy decisions regarding access to education, curriculum development, teacher recruitment,

and resource allocation have far-reaching implications for educational development and equity.

One of the cornerstone policies aimed at enhancing access to education is the Universal Basic

Education (UBE) program (Eziuzo, 2022). The UBE program seeks to provide free and

compulsory education for all children, with a focus on improving access and retention rates. By

prioritizing access to quality basic education, the UBE program aims to reduce educational

disparities and promote inclusive development (Chukwuneke & Chikwenze, 2014).

Additionally, policies related to teacher recruitment, training, and remuneration are crucial for

improving instructional quality and student outcomes. Investing in teacher professionalism and

capacity-building initiatives is essential to enhancing teaching effectiveness and student

engagement. By prioritizing teacher development, policymakers can strengthen the quality of

education and foster positive learning outcomes (Oyeyemi, 2020).

Furthermore, resource allocation and budgetary priorities for education reflect the government's

commitment to educational development (Oni & Alade, 2015). Adequate funding is essential to

address infrastructure deficits, provide instructional materials, and implement educational

reforms. However, budgetary constraints and competing priorities may hinder the government's

ability to fully address the needs of the education sector.

The educational landscape of Ilorin South is shaped by population trends, school infrastructure,

and government policies. Population growth presents opportunities and challenges for

educational development, requiring strategic planning and resource allocation to accommodate

the evolving needs of the student population (Oyelade & Abolade, 2018). Inadequate school

infrastructure undermines the quality of education and perpetuates disparities, particularly

between urban and rural areas. Government policies play a crucial role in promoting access to

education, enhancing instructional quality, and mobilizing resources for educational

development (Ukpong et al., 2023). By addressing the interconnected issues of population trends,

school infrastructure, and government policies, stakeholders can work towards creating inclusive

and equitable educational environments in Ilorin South (Chukwuneke & Chikwenze, 2014).

Challenges Posed by Overcrowded Classrooms

Overcrowded classrooms and limited resources present significant challenges for teaching and

learning in secondary schools in Ilorin South. These challenges may hinder effective instruction,

student engagement, and academic achievement, particularly in schools with high student-to-

teacher ratios and inadequate infrastructure.

A classroom is said to be overcrowded if the number of students exceeds the optimum level,

which causes hindrance in the teaching and learning process. In Nigerian secondary education,

the burden of overcrowding is overwhelming to the point of having 100 students for one teacher,

as against the UNESCO benchmark of 35 students per teacher, culminating in students learning
under trees for lack of classrooms.

Overcrowded classrooms do not allow teachers to have enough personal office space for lesson

preparation. Teaching in a small space is stressful for the teacher, making the teacher focus more

on the work students can complete at their desk instead of group work or team projects that

require more space. Overcrowded classrooms also prevent students from concentrating on the

lessons. This is because when students sit with each other, their attention is distracted, making

them have difficulty focusing on the lessons, which leads to low academic performance.

Overcrowding is one of the most significant issues facing secondary schools and teachers today.

This problem is a combination of an increase in population, a shortage of teachers, and a

decrease in funding, which has caused class sizes to soar. Teaching in an overcrowded classroom

brings stress and frustration for teachers and students.

Critical evaluation of the literature reviewed

The literature review underscores the importance of considering student population dynamics in

educational policy and practice. Policymakers, school administrators, and educators should

prioritize strategies that promote educational quality, foster inclusive school environments, and

ensure equitable resource allocation.

To enhance educational quality, schools should implement evidence-based practices such as

differentiated instruction, personalized learning, and culturally responsive teaching (Menken &

García, 2010). Professional development programs should also be provided to equip teachers

with the knowledge and skills needed to effectively engage diverse student populations.
Moreover, efforts to create inclusive and supportive school climates are essential for promoting

student well-being and academic success. Schools should implement strategies to address issues

of diversity, equity, and inclusion, including anti-bullying initiatives, restorative justice practices,

and student support services (Egberi & Madubueze, 2023).

Furthermore, policymakers should prioritize equitable resource allocation to ensure that all

schools have the necessary resources to meet the needs of their student populations. This may

involve revising funding formulas, increasing investments in high-need schools, and providing

targeted support for marginalized student groups (Freeman et al., 2020).

The impact of the student population on secondary schools is a complex and multifaceted issue

that warrants careful consideration in educational policy and practice (Darling-Hammond et al.,

2020). By examining existing literature, this review has highlighted the various ways in which

student population dynamics influence educational quality, school climate, and resource

allocation. Moving forward, it is essential for stakeholders to collaborate and implement

evidence-based strategies that promote inclusive, equitable, and high-quality education for all

students (David, 2007).

Despite the existing body of literature on the impact of student populations in secondary schools,

gaps remain in our understanding of this complex relationship. Further research is needed to

explore the nuanced interactions between student population dynamics, teaching effectiveness,

and student outcomes, particularly in specific contexts such as Ilorin South.

In conclusion, the literature review provides a comprehensive overview of theoretical

frameworks, empirical evidence, and contextual factors relevant to the assessment of the impact

of the student population on teaching and learning outcomes in secondary schools in Ilorin

South. By synthesizing existing research and identifying gaps in the literature, this review sets

the stage for the empirical investigation of this important topic and informs evidence-based

interventions and policy reforms aimed at enhancing educational quality and equity in secondary

education settings.