Chapter 12 – Drugs, Microbes, Host – The Elements of Chemotherapy

1. Factors in choosing antimicrobial drugs. Describe each.

When choosing antimicrobial drugs, several factors should be considered:
(1) administration- How the drug is to be administered (orally, subcutaneous, IV drip, topical, etc.).
(2) absorption & distribution- How the drug is absorbed and distributed in the body.
(3) delivery- How well the drug is delivered to its site of action, i.e. extracellular or intracellular.
(4) efficacy & selectivity- How effective the drug is in killing the infectious agent (or preventing its
growth) without harming host cells.
(5) metabolism & excretion- The metabolism and excretion of the drug from the body.

2. Differentiate the two types of antimicrobial spectrum.

Narrow spectrum drugs target specific types of bacteria, while broad spectrum drugs target a wide
range of bacteria, including both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria. Narrow spectrum drugs are
often preferred when the infecting organism is known, to minimize the impact on the body's normal
flora. Broad spectrum drugs are useful when the infecting organism is unknown or when multiple types
of bacteria are suspected.

3. Differentiate the classes of drugs

Microbicidal drugs kill microorganisms, such as bacteria or fungi, whereas microbistatic drugs inhibit
their growth without necessarily killing them. Microbicidal drugs are often preferred for serious
infections to ensure complete eradication of the pathogen, while microbistatic drugs may be sufficient
for less severe infections or when the immune system can eliminate the remaining microorganisms after
growth inhibition.

4. Explain how drug resistance are being developed.

Drug resistance develops when microorganisms, like bacteria or viruses, adapt to drugs intended to kill
or inhibit them. This can happen through genetic mutations, horizontal gene transfer, selective pressure
from overuse or misuse of drugs, incomplete treatment, use in agriculture, and biofilm formation,
leading to the survival and proliferation of resistant strains.

5. Describe anti-fungal drugs.

Antifungal drugs are medications used to treat fungal infections by either killing fungi (fungicidal) or
inhibiting their growth (fungistatic). They work by targeting various aspects of fungal cell structure or
function. Common classes include polyenes (e.g., amphotericin B), azoles (e.g., fluconazole),
echinocandins (e.g., caspofungin), allylamines (e.g., terbinafine), and pyrimidine analogs (e.g.,
flucytosine). These drugs can be administered orally, topically, or intravenously, depending on the type
and severity of the infection.

Chapter 13 – Microbe-Human Interactions: Infection, Disease, and Epidemiology

1. Explain the stages of clinical infections.

➢ Period of Incubation: This is the time between exposure to the infectious agent and the onset of
symptoms. During this stage, the pathogen is multiplying and establishing itself in the body, but
the individual does not yet show any signs of illness.
 ➢ Period of Prodromal Symptoms: In this stage, the individual starts to experience non-specific
symptoms like fatigue, malaise, and mild fever. These early symptoms serve as a warning sign
that an infection is developing.
➢ Period of Invasion: This is when the infection reaches its peak. Symptoms become more specific
to the type of infection, and the individual may experience fever, inflammation, pain, and other
signs of illness as the pathogen spreads throughout the body.
➢ Period of Decline: During this stage, the body's immune response, along with any medical
interventions, starts to control the infection. Symptoms begin to improve as the pathogen is
cleared from the body, and the individual starts to recover.
➢ Period of Convalescence: This is the final stage of the infection, during which the individual fully
recovers. The body continues to repair any damage caused by the infection, and the individual
gradually returns to their normal state of health.

2. Describe the different types of reservoirs including their subtypes.

Living reservoirs and non-living reservoirs are two categories used to classify sources where pathogens
persist and can potentially infect hosts:

Living Reservoirs:
➢ Human Reservoirs: Infected individuals, including carriers, harbor pathogens.
➢ Animal Reservoirs: Pathogens persist within animal populations, potentially transmitting to
humans. Subtypes include domestic animals, wildlife, and vectors like mosquitoes.
➢ Vector Reservoirs: Certain arthropods, like mosquitoes and ticks, act as living reservoirs for
pathogens. They can harbor and transmit pathogens to susceptible hosts during feeding.
Non-living Reservoirs:
➢ Environmental Reservoirs: Pathogens survive and multiply in soil, water, and vegetation.
Subtypes include freshwater, marine environments, and soil.
➢ Fomites Reservoirs: Inanimate objects and surfaces harbor and transmit pathogens. Subtypes
include household items, medical equipment, and surfaces in public spaces.

3. Define at least two terms provided by the group.

➢ Morbidity rate measures the frequency of illness or disease within a population over a specified
period.
➢ Mortality rate measures the frequency of death within a population over a specified period.

4. Differentiate the two types of transmission of disease.

➢ Direct transmission occurs when a disease spreads through direct contact between infected and
uninfected individuals, like touching, kissing, or droplet transmission.
➢ Indirect transmission happens when a disease spreads through intermediary objects or vectors,
such as contaminated surfaces, food, water, or air.

5. Differentiate the two types of vectors.

➢ Mechanical Vectors: These vectors are organisms that passively carry pathogens on their bodies
from one host to another without being infected themselves. The pathogens are usually external
contaminants, such as bacteria or viruses, that adhere to the vector's body or appendages.
Mechanical vectors do not play a role in the replication or development of the pathogens they
carry. Examples include flies carrying pathogens on their legs or cockroaches transporting
bacteria on their bodies.
 ➢ Biological Vectors: Biological vectors are organisms that can transmit pathogens to new hosts
after becoming infected with the pathogen themselves. The pathogen may replicate and
undergo developmental stages within the vector before being transmitted to a new host.
Biological vectors are an integral part of the pathogen's life cycle. Examples include mosquitoes
transmitting malaria parasites or ticks transmitting Lyme disease bacteria.

Chapter 21 – Miscellaneous Bacterial Agents of Disease

1. In tabular form, differentiate the different bacterias with its name, gram stain, disease caused,
aerobic/anaerobic, and its mode of transmission.

Bacteria Gram stain Disease caused Aerobic/Anaerobic Mode of

transmission
Spirochetes Gram negative Syphilis, Lyme Anaerobic Sexual contact,
disease, tick bites
Leptospirosis
Treponemes Gram negative Syphilis Anaerobic Sexual contact
Borellia Gram negative Lyme disease Aerobic Tick bites
Vibrio cholerae Gram negative Cholera Aerobic Contaminated
water/food
Vibrio Gram negative Gastroenteritis Aerobic Contaminated
parahaemolyticus seafood
Vibrio vulinificus Gram negative Sever wound Aerobic Contaminated
infections, seafood
septicemia
Campylobacter Gram negative Campylobacteriosis Microaerophilic Contaminated
jejuni water/food
Helicobacter Gram negative Gastritis, peptic Microaerophilic Oral-oral, fecal-
pylori ulcers, stomach oral
cancer
Rickettsias Gram negative Rocky Mountain Aerobic Arthropod
Spotted fever, vectors (ticks,
typhus, Q fever fleas, lice)
Chlamydiaceae Gram negative Chlamydia Aerobic Sexual contact
infection
Mollicutes No cell wall Pneumonia Aerobic Respiratory
pneumonia droplets
Mollicutes No cell wall Urogenital Aerobic Sexual contact
genitalium infections
Ureaplasma No cell wall Urogenital Aerobic Sexual contact
urealyticum infections