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 Biology
for Cambridge IGCSE™
COURSEBOO
K

Mary Jones & Geoff Jones

 Contents
How to use this series

How to use this book

Introduction

1 Characteristics and classification of living

organisms
1.1 Characteristics of organisms
1.2 The biological classifiction system
1.3 Keys
1.4 Kingdoms
1.5 Groups within the animal and plant
kingdoms
1.6 Viruses

2 Cells
2.1 Animal and plant cells
2.2 Bacterial cells
2.3 Specialised cells
2.4 Sizes of specimens

3 Movement into and out of cells

3.1 Diffusion
 3.2 Osmosis
3.3 Active transport

4 Biological molecules
4.1 Carbohydrates, fats and proteins
4.2 The structure of DNA

5 Enzymes
5.1 Biological catalysts
5.2 Factors that affect enzymes

6 Plant nutrition
6.1 Making carbohydrates using light energy
6.2 Leaves
6.3 Factors affecting photosynthesis

7 Human nutrition
7.1 Diet
7.2 The human digestive system
7.3 Digestion
7.4 Absorption and assimilation

8 Transport in plants
8.1 Xylem and phloem
8.2 Transport of water
8.3 Translocation of sucrose and amino acids
9 Transport in animals
9.1 Circulatory systems
9.2 The heart
9.3 Blood vessels
9.4 Blood

10 Diseases and immunity

10.1 Transmission of pathogens
10.2 The immune response

11 Respiration and gas exchange

11.1 Respiration
11.2 Gas exchange in humans

12 Coordination and response

12.1 The human nervous system
12.2 Sense organs
12.3 Hormones
12.4 Coordination in plants

13 Excretion and homeostasis

13.1 Excretion
13.2 Homeostasis

14 Reproduction in plants
14.1 Asexual and sexual reproduction
14.2 Sexual reproduction in flowering plants
 14.3 Advantages and disadvantages of different
methods of reproduction

15 Reproduction in humans
15.1 The human reproductive systems
15.2 Sexually transmitted infections

16 Chromosomes, genes and proteins

16.1 Chromosomes and cell division
16.2 Inheriting genes
16.3 Genes and protein synthesis

17 Variation and selection

17.1 Variation
17.2 Selection

18 Organisms and their environment

18.1 Energy flow and food webs
18.2 Nutrient cycles
18.3 Populations

19 Human influences on ecosystem

19.1 Human pressures on ecosystems
19.2 Conservation

20 Biotechnology and genetic modificatio

20.1 Biotechnology
 20.2 Genetic modification

Acknowledgements

Copyright
 How to use this book
Throughout this book, you will notice lots of different features that
will help your learning. These are explained below.

LEARNING INTENTIONS
Learning intentions set the scene for each chapter, help with
navigation through the coursebook and indicate the important
concepts in each topic.

In the learning intentions table, the summary table and

the exam-style questions, Supplement content is indicated
with a large arrow and a darker background, as in the
example here.

GETTING STARTED
This contains questions and activities on subject knowledge you
will need before starting this chapter.

SCIENCE IN CONTEXT
This feature presents real-world examples and applications of
the content in a chapter, focussing on topics that go beyond the
syllabus. There are discussion questions at the end, which look
 at some of the benefits and problems of these applications, and
encourage you to look further into the topics.

EXPERIMENTAL SKILLS
This feature focuses on developing your practical skills. They
include lists of equipment required and any safety issues, step-
by-step instructions so you can carry out the experiment, and
questions to help you think about what you have learnt.

KEY WORDS
Key vocabulary is highlighted in the text when it is first
introduced, and definitions are given in boxes near the
vocabulary. You will also find definitions of these words in the
Glossary at the back of this book.

Questions
Appearing throughout the text, questions give you a chance to check
that you have understood the topic you have just read about. The
answers to these questions are accessible to teachers for free on the
Cambridge GO site.

ACTIVITY
Activities give you an opportunity to check and develop your
understanding throughout the text in a more active way, for
example by creating presentations, posters or role plays. When
 activities have answers, teachers can find these for free on the
Cambridge GO site.

COMMAND WORDS
Command words that appear in the syllabus and might be used
in exams are highlighted in the exam-style questions. In the
margin, you will find the Cambridge International definition. You
will also find these definitions in the Glossary at the back of the
book with some further explanation on the meaning of these
words.

Supplement content: Where content is intended for students who

are studying the Supplement content of the syllabus as well as the
Core, this is indicated using the thicker line, as on the left here.
You may also see the teal text with an arrow, as on the left here, in
boxed features such as the Getting Started or the Self-evaluation
checklists.

REFLECTION
These activities ask you to think about the approach that you
take to your work, and how you might improve this in the
future.

SELF/PEER ASSESSMENT
At the end of some activities and experimental skills boxes, you
will find opportunities to help you assess your own work, or that
of your classmates, and consider how you can improve the way
you learn.

These boxes tell you where information in the book is extension

content, and is not part of the syllabus.

SUMMARY

There is a summary of key points at the end of each chapter.

PROJECT
Projects allow you to apply your learning from the whole
chapter to group activities such as making posters or
presentations, or taking part in debates. They may give you the
opportunity to extend your learning beyond the syllabus if you
want to.

EXAM-STYLE QUESTIONS
Questions at the end of each chapter provide more demanding
exam-style questions, some of which may require use of
knowledge from previous chapters. The answers to these
questions are accessible to teachers for free on the Cambridge
GO site.

SELF-EVALUATION CHECKLIST
The summary checklists are followed by ‘I can’ statements
which relate to the Learning intentions at the beginning of the
chapter. You might find it helpful to rate how confident you are
for each of these statements when you are revising. You should
revisit any topics that you rated ‘Needs more work’ or ‘Almost
there’.
I can See Needs Almost Confident
Topic... more there to move
work on
Core
Supplement
 Introduction
This is the fourth edition of our Cambridge IGCSE™ Biology
Coursebook, and it provides everything that you need to support
your course for Cambridge IGCSE Biology (0610/0970). It provides
full coverage of the syllabus for examination from 2023 onwards.
The chapter order generally follows the same sequences as the
topics in the syllabus with some exceptions where appropriate.
The various features that you will find in these chapters are
explained in the previous two pages.
Many of the questions you will meet during your course test if you
have a deep understanding of the facts and concepts you have
learnt. It is therefore not enough just to learn words and diagrams
that you can repeat in answer to questions; you need to ensure that
you really understand each concept fully. Trying to answer the
questions that you find within each chapter, and at the end of each
chapter, should help you to do this.
Although you will study your biology as a series of different topics, it
is important to appreciate that all of these topics link up with each
other. You need to make links between different areas of the
syllabus to answer some questions.
As you work through your course, make sure that you keep
reflecting on the work that you did earlier and how it relates to the
current topic that you are studying. The reflection boxes throughout
the chapters ask you to think about how you learn, to help you to
make the very best use of your time and abilities as your course
progresses. You can also use the self-evaluation checklists at the end
of each chapter to decide how well you have understood each topic
in the syllabus, and whether or not you need to do more work on
each one.
Practical skills are an important part of your biology course. You will
develop these skills as you do experiments and other practical work
related to the topics you are studying.
1.3 Keys
If you want to identify an organism whose name you do not know,
you may be able to find a picture of it in a book. However, not every
organism may be pictured, or your organism may not look exactly
like any of the pictures. If this happens, you can use a
dichotomous key to work out what your organism is.
‘Dichotomous’ means branching (dividing) into two.
A dichotomous key is a way of leading you through to the name of
your organism by giving you two descriptions at a time and asking
you to choose between them. Each choice you make then leads you
on to another pair of descriptions, until you end up with the name of
your organism. Here is a key that you could use to identify
the organisms shown in Figure 1.7.

1 jointed limbs.......................................2
no jointed limbs..................................earthworm
2 more than 5 pairs of jointed limbs......centipede
5 or fewer pairs of jointed limbs.........3
3 first pair of limbs form large claws ......crab
no large claws......................................4
4 3 pairs of limbs ...................................locust
4 pairs of limbs ...................................spider
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
glycerin, gr. 1/100, has also been of benefit. For the paræsthesiæ and
anæsthesia of the early stage the faradic brush has been applied,
and for the motor weakness the faradic current, with the effect of
relieving but not curing these symptoms. During the attacks of
neuralgia morphine may be employed.

Inflammation.—The most important trophic disturbances are those

which consist of an actual disintegration of tissue. These are very
numerous. Herpes zoster, certain forms of eczema and pemphigus,
lepra anæsthetica, scleroderma, acute ulceration of the fingers,
perforating ulcer of the foot, acute bed-sores, keratitis with
anæsthesia of the cornea, sympathetic ophthalmia, and various
forms of joint disease, are examples of such trophic diseases.88 For
the discussion of the skin and eye diseases mentioned the reader is
referred to special articles on those subjects. In regard to lepra
anæsthetica, it may be mentioned that in this disease lesions have
been found both in the sensory nerves and in the posterior cornua of
the spinal cord.89
88 Leloir, “Tropho-neuroses,” Nouveau Dictionnaire de Médecine et Chirurgie
practiques, 1885.

89 Virchow, “Nerven Lepra,” Geschwülste, ii. 521; Tschirijew, Travaux du Laboratoire

de Vulpian, 1879.

I have reported90 a case of acute ulceration of the ends of the fingers

and toes occurring in an anæmic girl aged twelve, and persisting for
more than a year, associated with cyanosis of the hands and feet,
and with a tendency to rapid ulceration of any part of the body which
happened to be exposed to pressure. The hair of the eyebrows,
eyelids, and to a less extent that of the scalp, fell out during the
disease. There was no local asphyxia and no appearance of
gangrene; hence the case was not one of Raynaud's disease. Its
symmetrical distribution, the lack of any constitutional organic
disease or of any local cause for the production of the ulceration,
and the anæmic and nervous condition present, all pointed to a
disturbance of the central nervous system. It did not yield to
treatment, either local or general or electrical. Mills has seen a
similar case.91
90 Journal Nerv. and Ment. Disease, Feb., 1886, clinical cases.

91 Mills, Amer. Journ. Med. Sci., Oct., 1878.

Perforating ulcer of the foot begins on the sole, beneath any of the
metatarso-phalangeal articulations, preferably the first or the fifth, or
under the heel, as a small pustule under the epidermis. This
ruptures, and the ulcer which results begins to extend in a direction
vertical to the surface, involving the deeper tissues or even opening
into the joint and destroying the bone. It appears rather like a sinus
than an ulcer, and is remarkable from the fact that it is not painful
and is insensitive to touch, although it may prevent the patient from
walking on account of extreme tenderness. The epidermis around
the sinus is thickened and insensitive, and there may be anæsthesia
of the entire sole of the foot, and even of the leg, although this is due
to the neuritis present, which is also the cause of the ulcer, rather
than to the ulceration. The circulation is sluggish in the affected
extremity; it becomes cyanotic on exposure to cold, and seems
peculiarly liable to become œdematous. The œdema may go on to
suppuration, and involve the articulations, and ankylosis of the
smaller joints may follow. This, too, is to be traced to the neuritis.
The skin of the foot becomes pigmented, and may be dry or covered
with offensive sweat. As the patient cannot walk while the ulcer
remains, the condition demands treatment. Rest, moist warm
applications, antiseptic lotions, scraping out the sinus, and other
surgical means appropriate to the treatment of ulcers and sinuses do
not often prove of benefit, and in obstinate cases recourse has been
had to amputation of the foot. Electrical treatment has been tried in
vain.

Such perforating ulcers may occur symmetrically on both feet, and

may be numerous. They also occur rarely on the hands. They have
been observed not infrequently in locomotor ataxia, occurring either
early or late in the disease,92 and have appeared in patients suffering
from dementia paralytica. The only constant lesion found is a
degeneration of the peripheral nerve supplying the affected part.
92 For bibliography see Ross, Diseases of Nervous System, 2d ed., i. p. 256, and
Blum, Berliner klin. Wochen., 1875, Nos. 13-15.

Acute bed-sores (decubitus) develop in many cases of spinal and

cerebral disease, but not in all. It is argued that anæsthesia of a part
or simple pressure upon a part or irritation of an anæsthetic part will
not explain their occurrence, and that they must be traced to a
destruction of trophic centres in the cord or brain. No amount of
attention to the position and cleanliness of the patient is thought to
be sufficient to prevent them in some cases, and their progress is
often so rapid as to remove them from the category of simple
ulceration. Their most frequent seat is upon the buttocks, over the
sacrum, on the heels, and over the scapulæ; but it is believed that in
the conditions in which they appear in these places pressure on any
part may cause one. They begin within a few hours after the
occurrence of the lesion as irregular mottled patches of redness, in
which there soon appear small or large vesicles filled with dark
serum. These rupture, leaving little areas of ulcerated surface, which
soon unite to form a large ulcer with softened, infiltrated, and bloody
base and ragged edges. The tissues around and within the ulcer
have a tendency to slough and to become gangrenous, and the
process goes on rapidly until a considerable area of the surface is
completely destroyed, together with the deeper structures, fat,
muscles, and fasciæ, down to the bone, which may become
necrosed. Acute cystitis is so frequently associated with acute bed-
sore that it is traced to the same nervous cause, though here, again,
another explanation is possible. The constitutional disturbance
produced by these two affections may be increased by a true
septicæmia, to which the patient succumbs; or metastatic abscesses
may be formed, and pyæmia cause death; or, lastly, the ulcer on the
back may lay bare the vertebræ and erode their ligaments, thus
opening a way for the extension of suppuration to the meninges of
the spinal cord. The duration may be from a few days to two weeks,
and the prognosis is very grave.
Chronic bed-sores develop in a similar manner, although all the
processes described occur more slowly and are much less severe.
They do not show the tendency to extend so widely or so deeply, nor
to become gangrenous. They remain stationary after attaining a
certain size, and the tissues seem to lack all tendency to
reproduction and repair. When the central lesion which they follow
begins to pass away they heal; sometimes local treatment is
successful; but in many cases they persist for years, always
threatening the life of the patient from the possibility of their sudden
aggravation or from the occurrence of the complications already
mentioned in connection with the acute process.

Since neither form of decubitus occurs after lesion of the anterior

cornua of the spinal cord, nor in sclerosis of the posterior or lateral
columns, nor in those cases of locomotor ataxia in which extensive
invasion of the posterior cornua is present, while they are particularly
frequent as a complication of general myelitis, hemorrhage in the
cord, and syringo-myelitis, it is argued that the trophic centres whose
destruction is the cause of these bed-sores lie in the central gray
matter of the cord, near to the central canal. In unilateral lesion of the
cord the bed-sore occurs on the anæsthetic side of the body—i.e. on
the side opposite to the seat of the lesion—a fact which may indicate
a decussation of the trophic nerve-fibres in the cord,93 but which has
also been urged in proof of the theory that the sore is always due to
irritation of an insensitive surface.
93 Recklinghausen believes that these cases of disturbance of nutrition can be
explained by injury of anæsthetic parts in which vaso-motor disturbances of central
origin exist (Handbuch d. Path. d. Ernahrung, pp. 236, 237).

The treatment of bed-sores belongs to the domain of surgery, the

same methods being pursued as in the case of any large ulcer. The
application of electricity to the sore has been tried, but the results are
not sufficiently encouraging to warrant its recommendation.

Joint affections of neurotic origin are discussed in the articles upon

Locomotor Ataxia, Hemiplegia, and Hysteria.
It is evident from this review that the nervous centres have some
influence upon the activity of the cells of which the body is made up,
and that they control the processes of growth, function, repair, and
reproduction. The facts are too numerous, too varied, and too
positive to admit of any other explanation. Trophic disturbances must
therefore be considered as a set of symptoms referable to various
lesions of the nervous system. It is evident from the preceding
discussion that they may be produced by disease of the peripheral
nerves; by disease of the ganglionic cells, which nourish those
nerves; by disease of the spinal cord, especially in the region of the
central gray matter; and, finally, by disease of the brain. Whether in
the last condition the effect is a direct one, or is produced
secondarily by an irritation of the spinal centres, cannot yet be
determined. There are no trophic centres as yet localized in the
cerebrum, but the pathological facts already mentioned warrant the
conclusion that such centres will not long elude search. Certain facts
observed in cases of infantile hemiplegia point to the motor area of
the cortex as the seat of trophic centres for the motor mechanisms;
since it is found that when the motor cortex is destroyed in early life
the bones and muscles which it controls fail to develop properly.
Trophic centres for sensory mechanisms are not yet discovered.
Certain investigations of Luciani recently published94 point to the
cerebellum as the part of the brain which governs the general
nutrition of the body, but these need confirmation.
94 Alienist and Neurologist, July, 1885.

CONCLUSION.—While an attempt has been made here to consider

vaso-motor and trophic neuroses separately, it must be admitted that
in very many conditions the two are coincident. This follows
inevitably from what has been stated regarding the localization of the
vaso-motor and trophic centres in the spinal cord, and regarding the
course of the vaso-motor and trophic nerves from the spinal centres
to the periphery. These two classes of centres and nerves lie side by
side in the central and peripheral organs, and it is less surprising that
they should be jointly affected than that one should ever be involved
alone. In any case of lesion of the peripheral nerves or of the central
nervous system they may be expected. In all cases they are to be
regarded as symptoms of such lesions rather than as distinct
diseases.

INDEX TO VOLUME V.

A.

Abdomen, state of, in lead colic,

684

in tubercular meningitis,

726

727
Abscess of the brain,

791

792

of the spinal cord,

808

Achromatopsia, hysterical,

247

Aconite and aconitia, use of, in neuralgia,

1224

1227
 hypodermically in exacerbations of cerebral syphilis,

1015

Acoustic sensory disturbances in nervous diseases,

40

41

Acrodynia,

1254

Acute affections produced by heat,

387

alcoholism,

586
 cerebral anæmia,

776

encephalitis,

791

myelitis, spinal,

810

poisoning by alcohol in lethal doses,

596

simple meningitis,

716

spinal meningitis,

749

pachymeningitis,

747
Æsthesodic system of encephalon, localization of lesions in,

81

of spinal cord, localization of lesions in,

69

Affective mental disease,

153

Age, influence on causation of acute spinal meningitis,

750

of catalepsy,

315

of cerebral anæmia,
777

of chorea,

441

of chronic lead-poisoning,

680

686

688

of disseminated sclerosis,

883

of embolism and thrombosis of cerebral veins,

951

of epilepsy,

470
 of family form of tabes dorsalis,

871

of general paralysis of the insane,

77

of hæmatoma of the dura mater,

707

of hysteria,

216

of hystero-epilepsy,

293

of insanity,

116

117
 of intracranial hemorrhage and apoplexy,

927

of labio-glosso-laryngeal paralysis,

1173

of migraine,

406

1230

of myxœdema,

1271

of neuralgia,

1217

of paralysis agitans,

433
 of progressive unilateral facial atrophy,

694

of syphilitic affections of nerve-centres,

1000

of tabes dorsalis,

856

of the opium habit,

650

of thrombosis of cerebral veins and sinuses,

983

of tubercular meningitis,

725

of tumors of the brain,

1029

spinal cord,

1090

of writers' cramp,

512

relation of, to limitation of the myelitis in infantile paralysis,

1147

Agraphia in hemiplegia,

957

Akinesis in nervous diseases, definition of,

42-44
Alalia (see

Speech, Disorders of

).

Alexia in nervous diseases,

31

Albuminuria in chronic lead-poisoning,

682

689

Alcohol, influence on causation of acute meningitis,

716

of cerebral hyperæmia,

765
 of intracranial hemorrhage and apoplexy,

929

933

of tabes dorsalis,

854

of writers' cramp,

512

use of, in alcoholism,

642

644

in cerebral anæmia,

789
 in heat-exhaustion,

388

in insomnia,

380

381

in the chloral habit,

677

in the opium habit,

673

675

in thermic fever,

397
Alcoholic abuse as a cause of epilepsy,

472

insanity,

175

202

630-633

LCOHOLISM

573

Classification,

573

Definition,
573

Diagnosis,

637

of acute alcoholism,

637

of chronic alcoholism,

638

of dipsomania,

639

of hereditary alcoholism,

639

Etiology,

575