STATISTICS (Week 1-3) Qualitative - deals with characteristics and

descriptors that can’t be easily measured, but

Basic Statistical Concepts
can be observed subjectively
What is Statistics?
- It is the Science of collecting, organizing,
Four Levels of Data Management
presenting, analyzing, and interpreting
data to assist in making more effective 1. Nominal – lowest level of data management
decisions. - for identification and
classification
Two Branches of Statistics
1. Descriptive Statistics - using the data 2. Ordinal – use to reflect some rank or order of
gathered on a group to describe or reach individual or objects
conclusions about the same group
3. Interval – zero is arbitrary
(E.g. class average, range of scores in an exam) (eg. Temperature)
2. Inferential Statistics - a researcher gathers
data from a sample and uses the statistics 4. Ratio – highest level of data measurement
generated to reach conclusions about the - zero is absolute (e.g. height)
population from the sample drawn.
Statistics vs Parameter
Two Types of Variable - Parameter measures the characteristic
of a population.
Variable – characteristic of interest about an
- Statistic measures the characteristic of a
object under investigation
sample.
Independent
Sampling - the process of selecting certain
- Manipulated members or a subset of the population to make
- Causes the change statistical inferences from them and to estimate
Dependent characteristics of the whole population.

- the variable that the investigator Reasons for sampling

measures to determine the effect of the 1. The sample can save money
independent variable 2. The sample can save time
3. For a given resource, the sample can
broaden the scope of the study.
4. Since the research process is sometimes
DATA
discouraging, sampling can save the
– the set of values collected from the product.
variables 5. If getting the population is impossible,
sampling is the only option.
Quantitative - deals with numbers and things you
can measure.
1. Discrete
 Countable
 Data are obtained by counting
(Example: the number of children in a
family)
2. Continuous
 Can assume an infinite number of 1. Probability Sampling Techniques - every
values in an interval between any member of the population has equal chance to
two specific values be selected. (S3C)
(E.g. temperature)
a. Simple Random Sampling
- most basic random technique
- the basis for other random sampling
techniques
- every item of a population has the chance to be
selected
- every sample of a fixed size has the same
selection as every other sample of that size.
b. Systematic Random Sampling
c. Cluster Sampling
d. Stratified Sampling
- more efficient from simple random
- you are confident that there is a representation
of items across the entire population
2. Non-probability Sampling Techniques - the
researcher selects samples based on the
subjective judgement. (ConJuSQou)
a. Convenience Sampling
- convenient for the researcher since the
samples are easy.
- inexpensive
b. Judgmental or Purposive Sampling
- the opinions of the preselected experts are
essential
- you cannot generalize the results of their
opinion
c. Snowball Sampling
d. Quota Sampling
Survey Error
1. Coverage error - occurs if there
are groups of items excluded from
the sampling frame, and they have
no chance to be selected.
Coverage error results in a
selection bias.
2. Nonresponse error -
Nonresponse to sample surveys is
one of the most serious problems
that occur in practical applications
of sampling methodology. It arises
from the failure to collect data on
all items in the sample and results
in nonresponse bias. Follow-up is
required for nonresponses after a
specific period because not
everyone will respond to your
surveys as others will do.
3. Sampling error - happens when
there are variations or chance
differences from sample to
sample.
4. Measurement error - three
sources of measurement error are
ambiguous wording of questions,
the Hawthorne effect, and
respondent error.
CENTRAL TENDENCIES
Median
- the measure of the location or centrality
of the observations
- rank your data from smallest to largest
and look for the middle value
- not affected by outliers
Mean
- their average
- e most common measure in a central
tendency
- X-bar represents it
- summing all the values of data or
observation and divided by the number of
observations
a) Sample Mean- The sample mean
is the sum of the values in a
sample divided by the number of
data points in the sample.
b) Population mean= population divided by
the population size, N.
Mode
 - the value that occurs most frequently
- Like the median and unlike the mean,
extreme values do not affect the mode
Range
- get the difference between the largest
observation and the lowest observation
- sets the boundaries
Quartile
- divides the number of data points into
four equal parts, or quarters
- 1st quartile is the middle number
between the smallest number and the
median of the data set.
- Quartile 2 is sometimes called the
median
- Quartile 3 is the largest number
Interquartile range
- more resistant to outliers
- it contains information only about the
difference between the upper and lower
quartiles
- can be computed by using the formula
Q3 - Q1.
Variance
- the average squared deviation or
difference of the data points from their
mean
a) Sample Variance - the sample
variance is the sum of the squared
differences around the mean
divided by the sample size minus
1.
b) Population Variance - the
population variance is the sum of
the squared differences around
the population mean divided by
the population size, N
Difference:
1. Sample variance came from your sample size,
while population variance came from the
population.
2. They also differ in the computation of the
denominator. If you compute for the sample
mean, sample variance, and even sample
standard deviation, we use n-1 in the
denominator instead of n. The reason is that
using n in the denominator sample formulas
results in a statistic that tends to underestimate
the population.
Standard Deviation
- measures the spread of your data set
from the mean
- If the data points are far from the mean,
the more spread out the data, and its
standard deviation is high.
- If the SD is lower, it means the data points
are close to their average value.
a) Sample Standard Deviation - measures
the spread or dispersion of the sample
data set. It is represented by (S)
b) Population Standard Deviation -
measures the spread or dispersion of the
population data set. It is represented by
(σ)
The Coefficient of Variation (CV)
- measures the variation in percentage
rather in terms of units of data.
- measures the spread of the data relative
to the mean by computing the relative
variability
 - the ratio of the standard deviation to the
mean (average)
Coefficient Of Correlation
Shapes
- indicates the relative strength of
- measures of shape are tools that can
describe the shape of a distribution of
data.
a) Skewness can be seen on the tail
of your curve. It could be
rightskewed or left-skewed
b) Kurtosis represents the peak of a
distribution
i. Leptokurtic distributions - if
the peak of distributions is
high and thin.
Strength: is positively related to the correlation
coefficient.
ii. Platykurtic distributions - if
the peak of distributions is
flat and spread out.
iii. Mesokurtic distributions -
these are the shape of
normal distribution.
Covariance
- measures the strength of the
linear relationship between two
numerical variables (X and Y).
the linear relationship between
two numerical variables. This
correlation means that as one
variable changes in value, the
other variable also changes either
increases or decreases.
1. sample coefficient correlation
of the sample data is
represented by r. When you use
sample data, the coefficient of
correlation is unlikely to be
exactly
+1, 0, or -1 as compared to the
population data.
- A perfectly linear relationship,
either extreme +1 or extreme -1,
had a strong strength. Though in
actual practice, you cannot see
this type of perfect relationship in
the data set.
- The zero coefficient presents no
strength of the relationship.
- Not perfectly linear are those
correlation coefficients whose
 value is in between 0 and +1/-1.
There is a relationship, and the
strength of the relationship
depends on how closely the data
points to the line.
-
Direction: You can determine the
direction of your graph based on the sign
of the correlation coefficient.
- In positive coefficients, as the
value of one variable increases,
the other variable increases, and
there is an upward slope
- In negative coefficients, as the
value of one variable increases,
the value of the other variable
decrease, and there is a
downward slope of the graph.