UNIT A.1.

5: USING WORKSHOP TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT

Introduction
Tools and workshop equipment are very important in engineering and in this unit,
you will be introduced to different kinds of tools, workshop equipment and learn how
to use workshop tools and equipment considering safety precautions and
maintenance.
A 1.5.1 Identify workshop tools.
A 1.5.2 Identify workshop equipment
A 1.5.3 Use of workshop tools
A 1.5.4 Use of workshop equipment
A.1.5.1 Precision measuring instrument
A.1.5.1.1: VERNIER CALIPERS

The Vernier caliper is a very useful precision measuring instrument.

It reads in steps of 0.05 mm (1/20 mm) or, in some instruments, 0.02 mm (1/50
mm).

TYPES OF VERNIER CALIPER

The special Vernier measuring instruments consists of:

1. Vernier caliper
2. Vernier Height Gauge
3. Vernier Depth Gauge
4. Vernier Tooth gauge

VERNIER CALIPER

Fig. 1 Shows the Vernier Caliper

- It is a precision instrument which is used for measuring external as well as

internal diameters of shafts, thickness of parts and so on to accuracy of
0.02mm.
- Depending on the design, it can also be used to measure the depth of slots
and holes.
PRINCIPLE
The principle of Vernier is that when two scales or divisions slightly different in size
are used, the difference between them can be utilised to determine the accuracy of
measurement.

CONSTRUCTION

It consists of;
1. A beam on which the fixed graduations (known as the main scale) is
engraved.
2. Fixed jaw which is part of the beam.
3. Sliding jaw which has a Vernier scale engraved on it.
4. Clamping screws which lock the sliding jaw to facilitate the undisturbed
Vernier reading.
5. The auxiliary head which carries the fine adjustment screw.

FIG.2 Shows the main scale and Vernier graduation.

READING A VERNIER CALIPER

- The smallest division on the main scale is either 0.5mm or 1mm.

- The Vernier scale may have 25 or 50 divisions.
- The ratio of the smallest division on the main scale to the number of divisions
on the Vernier scale is known as least count of the Vernier caliper.
- Mathematically,
Least count = smallest division on main scale
Number of divisions on Vernier scale
= 0.5 or 1
25 50
= 0.02mm 0.02mm
- Also
The least count may also be obtained as follows:
 Since 25 divisions on the Vernier scale will coincide with 24 small divisions
(each division = 0.5mm) on the main scale, therefore;
1 division on the Vernier scale = 24 X 1 = 24 mm
2 25 50
Difference between the smallest division on the main scale and one (1)
division on the Vernier scale
= 0.5 – 24
50
= 1 – 24
2 50
= 25 – 24
50
= 1/50

= 0.02 mm
The least count is usually marked on the Vernier scale.

ACTUAL READING

- Before using the Vernier caliper, it should be checked for zero reading. The
zero line on the Vernier scale should coincide with the zero on the main scale.

FIG. 3

1. First of all, note the centimeters, millimeters and half millimeters on the main
scale which the zero of the Vernier has moved from the zero of the main
scale.
2. In the second diagram, the zero of the Vernier has moved away from the zero
of the main scale by a distance 1cm + 1mm + unknown division mm mark.
3. The lines which coincides are main scale 1.7 or 14th line from 1cm mark
Vernier scale 11th line mark or division
4. The main scale 14 division coincides with Vernier scale 11th division, hence
th

the reading is 11 (divisions of the Vernier scale) X 0.02 = 0.22mm

5. Main scale reading = 1.10cm or 11mm
Vernier scale reading = 0.022cm or 0.22mm
Total reading = 11 mm + 0.22mm = 11.22mm

NOTE
a) The same procedure as discussed above can be used for measuring with 50
divisions Vernier caliper scale.
 b) The dial Vernier calipers, in which the readings are directly from a dial
indicator, are also available.

APPLICATIONS

Used to measure the length, inner diameter and outer diameter.

Vernier calipers with a depth gauge can be used to measure the depth of a groove
of hole.

RELEVANT INFORMATION

The Vernier allows the reading of dimensions less than the graduation on the main
instrument.

1. CHECK:

a) Loosen the setscrew.

b) Wipe the measuring faces and sliding surfaces with waste cloth, and check
whether they are flawed.

c) Close the jaws and view them against a light source, to check whether there
is clearance between both measuring faces.

FIG. 4 Check the clearance

d) With the jaws closed, see whether the zero (0) graduations coincide.

2. HOLDING AN OBJECT:

a) Place an object in a stable state.

b) Hold the jaw of main instrument by left hand and hold the slider with the
thumb hooked under the thumb hook.
 c) Move the slider to make the clearance between both the measurement faces
slightly larger than the object itself.

d) Apply the measuring face of the main instrument to the object, and slowly
press the measuring face of the slider against the work with the thumb of
your right hand, holding it as deep as possible. (Fig. Ⅰ—3)

FIG.3
Holding an object
5). With the small parts,
hold the object with
your left hand, and
operate the Vernier
calipers with the
right hand only.
(Fig. Ⅰ—4)

FIG. 5 How to hold small parts

3. READ THE GRADUATION:

a) With the object in place, read the graduation from the front of the
graduation line of to be read.

b) When the graduation cannot be read with eyes set in a correct position,
temporarily fix the slider with the setscrew and slowly remove the Vernier
calipers from the work, to read the graduation.

c) Read the graduation of the main instrument in millimeters by the zero

graduation on the vernier, and then read a fraction of less than 1mm from
the graduation of vernier where a graduation of main instrument coincides
with that of vernier at a straight line.
※At the point where
a vernier graduation
coincides, the
graduation lines
on both sides
come inside the
graduation lines
of the main
instrument as
shown in
Fig.5

FIG. 5 COINCIDENCE
(EXAMPLE) Reading the instrument

(1)

FIG. 6 Example for reading (1)

A―Main instrument =1 mm
B―Vernier, each division =0.05 mm

①Value of main instrument indicated by the zero graduation of vernier

=13.00 mm

②Value of vernier where graduations of main instrument and vernier coincide

=0.45 mm

③Measured value 13.00 + 0.45 = 13.45 mm

Note that on the vernier, the “4 division line is the only one that coincide with a
division on the main instrument, and this gives a reading of 0.45 mm on the vernier.
If the instrument is gradually opened a little wider, the next graduation coincides to
give a vernier on 0.50 mm, and so on in steps of 0.05 mm.
(2)

FIG. 7 Example for reading (2)

①Value of main instrument indicated by the zero graduation of vernier

=6.00 mm

②Value of vernier where graduations of main instrument and vernier coincide

=0.35 mm

③Measured value 6.00 + 0.35 = 6.35 mm

4. HOW TO MESURE OF INSIDE AND DEPTH

1). For INSIDE measurement, apply the inside measuring faces to a work as shown
in Reference Fig.Ⅰ—8 and Fig.Ⅰ—9 and read the minimum value of a-a in the
direction at right angles to a groove in case of groove width or the maximum value
of a’-a’ in case of hole diameter.

FIG. 8 How to set a Vernier calipers

Fig. 9 shows how measure the inside diameter using the Vernier caliper.

FIG.10: Depth measurement

2). For DEPTH measurement, bring the reference face of depth bar
into close contact with the object as shown in Reference Fig. 10 and move the slider
to lower the depth bar vertically.

3). Never measure rotating works

4). Do not forcibly press a work into the vernier calipers with the slide fixed by the
screw.

5). In addition to vernier calipers, there is a depth gauge as a special measuring

instrument for depths (Fig. 11 and Fig12)The depth gauge is used by placing on the
surface from which the measurement is to be taken and then sliding the thin steel
scale to the depth of the hole being measured.

FIG. 11 Depth gauge (1) FIG. 12 Depth

gauge (2)

VERNIER HEIGHT GAUGE

 FIG. 13
- It is mainly used for measuring heights of parts to an accuracy of 0.02mm.
- It is also used for scribing lines in layout work.
- The principle of this instrument is similar to the Vernier caliper.

CONSTRUCTION
It consists of:
1. A special base with accurately finished bottom.
2. A graduated beam, called the main scale.
3. A sliding vernier head carrying the vernier scale and a clamping screw.
4. An auxiliary head having the fine adjustment and clamping screw.
5. A measuring and scribing jaw.
- The vernier height gauges, commonly used, have the measuring range from 0
– 300mm.
- Before using the instrument, it should be checked for zero error. For this, the
vernier height gauge is placed on the surface plate and the vernier head is
brought down till the measuring jaw touches the surface plate. In this
position, the zero on the main scale should coincide with the zero on the
vernier scale.
- In order to measure the height, the work is placed between the surface plate
and the measuring face.
- The final adjustment depending upon the sense of correct feel is made by fine
adjustment screw.
- The measurement is read in the similar way as the vernier caliper.
- For scribing lines, the scriber is set at a specified height and moved along the
work piece to be marked.
 NOTE:
 The vernier height gauges with the lower and upper measuring limits,
e.g. 20 to 250, 30 to 300, 40 to 500, 60 to 800 and 60 to 1000 mm, are
also available.
 In using such an instrument, the zero error is checked by placing a
corresponding gauge block (having the height equal to the lower
measuring limit) between the surface plate and the measuring jaw.
 The height of the work is obtained by adding the lower measuring limit to
the reading obtained on the vernier height gauge.
VERNIER DEPTH GAUGE
- It is used to measure the depth of holes, recesses, and distances from plane
surface to a projection.
- It can measure to an accuracy of 0.02mm.
- It works on the same principle as that of a vernier caliper.
CONSTRUCTION
It consists of;
1. A sliding vernier head having a vernier scale, clamping screw and a base at
the bottom.
2. A graduated blade known as main scale.
3. An auxiliary head with the fine adjustment and clamping screw.

FIG. 14
NOTE:
- In using this instrument, the base is held firmly against the upper surface and
the blade is lowered into the hole until it contacts the surface of the hole.
 -The final adjustment depending upon the sense of correct feel is made by the
fine adjusting screw.
- The instrument, after tightening the clamping screws, is removed from the
hole and read in the same way as the Vernier caliper.
VERNIER GEAR-TOOTH CALIPER
- It is used for measuring the chordal thickness of the gear tooth at the pitch of
the circle of a gear.
- The vernier gear-tooth caliper, as shown below, consists of two vernier
calipers perpendicular to each other.
- The horizontal vernier caliper which measures the tooth thickness is similar to
an outside vernier caliper whereas the vertical vernier caliper is adjusted for
measuring the distance from the top of a tooth (or addendum circle) to the
pitch circle of a gear.
- The tables which give these distances and the chordal tooth thickness for
gears of different diametric pitches and different number of teeth are
available.

FIG. 15
Assignment

(1)

(1) Reading………………….. 2 MARKS

(2)

(2) Reading………………….. 2 MARKS

(3)

(3) Reading………………….. 2MARKS

(4)

(4) Reading………………….. 2 MARKS

Fig 16
(5)

(5) Reading………………….. 2 MARKS

(6)

(6) Reading………………….. 2MARKS

(7)

(7) Reading………………….. 2 MARKS

(8)

(8) Reading………………….. 2 MARKS

Fig. 17
A.1.5.1.2: MICROMETER

FIG. 18

The name micrometer is derived from two Greek words; micros – small, and
metron – measure.
The micrometer is sometimes not as a Micrometer Screw Gauge, a device
incorporating a calibrated screw used widely for precise measurement of small
distances in Engineering.
The colloquial word for micrometer is shortened to mike or mic.

TYPES OF MICROMETER

1. Outside micrometer: used to measure external dimensions such as wires,

spheres, shafts and blocks.
2. Inside micrometer: used to measure the diameter of holes.
3. Depth micrometer: used to measure depth of slots and steps.

SPECIALISED TYPES OF MICROMETER

Each type of micrometer can be fitted with specialized anvils and spindle tips for
particular measuring tasks. For example, the anvil may be shaped in the form of a
segment of screw thread, in the form of a V- block, or in the form of a large disc.

Universal Micrometer sets: Come with interchangeable anvils, such as flat,

spherical, splined, disc, blade, pilot, and knife-edge. The term universal micrometer
may also refer to type of micrometer whose frame has modular components,
allowing one micrometer to function as outside, depth, step, etc.

Blade micrometer: has a matching set of narrow tips (blades). They allow for
example, the measuring of a narrow O-ring groove.
Pitch diameter micrometer: has a matching set of thread-shaped tips for
measuring the pitch diameter of screw threads.

Limit micrometers: have two anvils and two spindles, and are used like a snap
gauge. The part being checked must pass through the first gap and must stop at
the second gap in order to be within specification. The two gaps accurately reflect
the top and bottom of the tolerance range.

Bore micrometer: has typically a three-anvil head on a micrometer base used to

accurately measure inside diameters.

Tube micrometers: have a cylindrical anvil positioned perpendicularly to a spindle

and is used to measure the thickness of the tubes.

Micrometer stops: these are micrometer heads that are mounted on the table of a
manual milling machine, Bed ways of the lathe, or other machine tool, in place of
simple stops. They help the operator to position the table or carriage precisely.
Stops can also be used to actuate kickout mechanisms or limit switches to half an
automatic feed system.

Ball micrometers: have ball-shaped (spherical) anvils. They may have one flat and
one ball anvil, in which case they are used for measuring tube wall thickness,
distance of a hole to an edge, and other distances where one anvil must be placed
against a rounded surface. They differ in application from tube micrometers in that
they may be used to measure against rounded surfaces which are not tubes, but the
ball anvil may also not be able to fit into smallest tubes as easily as a tube
micrometer. Ball micrometers with a pair of ball can be used when single-tangential-
point contact is desired on both sides. The most common example is in measuring
the pitch diameter of screw threads (which is also done with conical anvils or the 3-
wire method, the latter of which uses similar geometry as the pair-of-balls
approach).

Bench micrometers: Are tools for inspection use whose accuracy and precision are
around half a micrometer (20 millionth of an inch, a fifth of a tenth in machinist
jargon.)

Digit micrometers: are the types with mechanical digits that roll-over.

Digital micrometers: are the types that use an encoder to detect the distance and
displays the result on a digital screen.

V micrometers: are outside micrometers with a small V-block for an anvil. They are
useful for measuring the diameter of a circle from three points evenly spaced around
it (versus the two points of a standard outside micrometer). An example of when
this is necessary is measuring the diameter of 3-flute end mills and twisted drills.
CONSTRUCTION OF THE EXTERNAL MICROMETER

FIG. 19
It consists of
1. The Frame:
- Where the size of the micrometer is indicated.
- It is made of forged steel.
- It is made in a C-shaped body
- It holds the anvil and the barrel in constant relation to each other.
- It is thick because it needs to minimize flexion, expansion and contraction,
which would distort the measurements.
2. Fixed Anvil:
- The shiny part that the spindle moves toward, and that the sample rests
against.
3. Spindle:
- The shiny cylindrical part that the thimble causes to move towards the
anvil.
- Has external threads, and it runs through the sleeve and the thimble.
4. Sleeve (Barrel or Stock):
- The stationary round part with the linear scale on it.
- Where the main readings are obtained.
- It has Datum Line.
- It is located between thimble and the frame
5. Lock nut:
- The knurled part that can be tightened to hold the spindle stationary.
6. Thimble:
- The part that one’s thumb turns.
- It is knurled
- It has graduated markings.
- It is located between sleeve and the ratchet.
 7. Ratchet Stop:
- A device on end of the handle that limits applied pressure by slipping at a
calibrated torque.

READING OF A MICROMETER

1. The micrometer relies for its measuring accuracy on the accuracy of the
Spindle Screw Thread.
2. The spindle is rotated in a fixed nut my means of the thimble, which opens
and closes the distance between the ends of the spindle and anvil.
3. The pitch of the spindle thread i.e. the distance between two consecutive
thread forms is 0.5mm. This means that, for one revolution, the spindle and
the thimble attached to it will move a longitudinal distance of 0.5mm.
4. The sleeve, around which the thimble rotates, has a longitudinal line
graduated in mm from 0 to 25 mm on one side of the line and subdivided in
0.5mm intervals on the other side of the line.
5. The edge of the thimble is graduated in 50 divisions, every fifth line being
numbered 0, 5, 10, up to 45, then 0.
6. Since one revolution of the thimble advances the spindle by 0.5mm, one
graduation on the thimble must equal 0.5/50mm = 0.01mm.
7. A reading is therefore the number of 1mm and 0.5mm division on the sleeve
uncovered by the thimble plus the hundredths of millimeter indicated by the
line on the thimble coinciding with the longitudinal line on the sleeve.

FIG. 20
8. In figure 20 A the reading is:
a) The thimble has uncovered 9mm on the sleeve.
b) The thimble graduation lined up with the longitudinal line on the sleeve is
44 i.e 44/100 = 0.44mm
c) Hence, sleeve reading = 9.00mm + Thimble reading 0.44
= 9.44 mm
9. Similarly in figure 20 B,
a) The thimble has uncovered 16mm and 0.5 mm
b) The thimble is lined up at graduation 27 = 27/100 = 0.27mm
c) Hence, the total reading is 16mm + 0.5mm +0.27mm = 16.77mm
10. Greater accuracy can be obtained with external micrometers by providing a
Vernier Scale on the sleeve.
11. The Vernier consists of five divisions on the sleeve, numbered 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 0.
These occupy the same space as nine divisions on the thimble.
12. To take a reading from a Vernier micrometer, note the number of 1mm and
0.5mm divisions uncovered on the sleeve and the hundredths of a millimeter
on the thimble as with an ordinary micrometer. You may find that the
graduation on the thimble does not exactly coincide with the longitudinal,
hence the need for the Vernier scale.

FIG. 21
13. With reference to figure 21;
a) Figure 21 A
 Sleeve reading is 6.500mm
 Thimble reading is 0.260mm
 Vernier scale reading is 0.000 mm
6.760mm
b) Figure 21B
 Sleeve reading is 6.500mm
 Thimble reading is 0.260mm
 Vernier scale reading is 0.002mm
6.762mm
c) Figure 21C
 Sleeve reading is 6.500mm
 Thimble reading is 0.260mm
 Vernier scale reading is 0.004mm
6.764mm
EXERCISE

Fig. 22
A.1.5.1.3 Dial Indicator gauge

Fig.23
The Dial indicator is a mechanical mean, having gears and pinions or levers for
magnification system. They can responses to linear measurements even when they
are too small.

 The Dial Indicators can be used as comparators.

 Basically, comparators are the precession measuring instruments used to
compare the work piece measurements with the standard measurements.
 When this Dial Indicator is used in any measuring equipment for
comparison purpose then this equipment is called Dial Gauges.
 A Dial Indicator must be mounted on any other base/Equipment, otherwise, it
will be useless.
 The accuracy of the dial indicator is up to 0.001 mm are available
Construction of Dial Indicators

There is a classification of dial indicators based on their dial shape. They are sector
shape Dial Indicator and Circular shape Dial Indicator.

But sector type is a quite limited range, so this sector type Dial Indicator is used for
extremely accurate measurements.

The circular type of Dial Indicators can be classified into two types based on their
Mechanisms

1. Gear and Pinion type Dial Indicator

2. Lever Type Dial Indicator

Fig.24

Main Parts of Dial Indicator

 Dial with the main scale

 Indicator(Needle)
 The plunger (spindle)
 Mini dial (to represent the number of revolutions of the indicator.)
 Locking screw
 Magnification Mechanism(Lever/Gear and Pinion)
Working Principle of Gear and Pinion Mechanism in Dial indicator

The Principle of this gear and pinion is that the movement of the Plunger (spindle)
will be multiplied thru the series of gears and pinions and indicated on the main
scale on the dial by the indicator (Needle).

See the picture of the mechanism of the gear and pinion type of Dial Indicator.

Fig. 25

The plunger will be the one which is moving linearly with respect to the change in on
the work piece while taking measurements.

So the plunger will consist of a rack and it meshes with a pinion(P1) on the gear(G1)

This Gear (G1) will mesh with the series pinions and gears to multiply the movement
to increase the accuracy of measurement.

The final Pinion (P3) is connected to the Indicator(Needle) this indicator will show
the deflection on the main scale.

This is how the gear and pinion type dial indicator works.

Why is hairspring provided in dial indicator?

Usually, the gears with the backlash are the concern. To avoid the backlash there is
a Hairspring is provided at the gear. and there is another use of this hairspring, that
is to control the movement of the plunger to regain its original position.

Working Principle of Lever Mechanism in Dial Indicator

The principle of the lever mechanism type of Dial Indicators is quite simple. The
plunger and the indicator are connected by the levers as shown in figures.

In simple Type lever mechanism, the indicator is connected by a single lever (AC) is
connect and pivoted at B point

Fig. 26
Simple Lever Mechanism
In the compound lever Mechanism, there are multiple levers connected. So this
structure is difficult to construct because of the fork joints are shown in the figure at
C

Fig.27
Compound Lever Mechanism
A.1.5.2: Power tools.

There are three types of power tools namely:

 Electric tools
 Pneumatic tools and
 Hydraulic tools

Electrical tools have electrical motors for example electric drill and drill press.

Pneumatic tools operate by compressed air. They include air hammers, air impact
wrenches, air ratchets and air jacks.

Hydraulic tools work because of pressure on a liquid. These tools include hydraulic
jacks, shop cranes, hydraulic presses and automotive lifts.

Electrical drill.

Fig. 28

A hand-held corded electric drill

 Fig.29
A drill or drilling machine is a tool primarily used for making round holes or
driving fasteners. It is fitted with a bit, either a drill or driver, depending on
application, secured by a chuck. Some powered drills also include
a hammer function.
Drills vary widely in speed, power, and size. They are characteristically corded
electrically driven devices, with hand-operated types dramatically decreasing in
popularity and cordless battery-powered ones proliferating.
Drills are commonly used in woodworking, metalworking, construction, machine
tool fabrication, construction and utility projects. Specially designed versions are
made for medicine, space, and miniature applications.

There are many types of drills: some are powered manually, others use electricity
(electric drill) or compressed air (pneumatic drill) as the motive power, and a
minority are driven by an internal combustion engine (for example, earth drilling
augers). Drills with a percussive action (hammer drills) are mostly used in hard
materials such as masonry (brick, concrete and stone) or rock. Drilling rigs are used
to bore holes in the earth to obtain water or oil. Oil wells, water wells, or holes
for geothermal heating are created with large drilling rigs. Some types of hand-held
drills are also used to drive screws and other fasteners. Some small appliances that
have no motor of their own may be drill-powered, such as small pumps, grinders,
etc.

Fig.30
Anatomy of a pistol-grip corded drill.

Fig. 31
Corded hand drill in use

The most common form of corded drill is the pistol-grip. A specialty form is a right-
angle drill, used to drill in tight spaces. Power in corded drills is typically supplied by
a universal motor, used for its high power to weight ratio.
For much of the 20th century, many attachments could commonly be purchased to
convert corded electric hand drills into a range of other power tools, such as orbital
sanders and power saws, more cheaply than purchasing dedicated versions of those
tools. As the prices of power tools and suitable electric motors have fallen such
attachments have become much less common. A similar practice is currently
employed for cordless tools where the battery, the most expensive component, is
shared between various compatible devices.

Fig.32

Radial arm drill press

 Fig.33

1. PORTABLE ELECTRIC HAND DRILL

FIG. 34
- It is used for quickest drilling operation.
- The small types of portable electric drills are usually pistol shaped.
- The current is passed to a small electric motor contained in the main
casing and the armature is extended to drive the spindle and gear
assembly carrying the chuck.
- A trigger or button switch is provided to control the current.
 - The chuck principle is similar to that of hand brace except that in some
types a toothed key is used which engages with the teeth on the chuck
to open and close the jaws.
- A small portable electric drill is used to drill holes up to 6 mm diameter.
- The large portable electric drills are similar in construction except that
power of the motor is passed through additional gears to reduce the
chuck spindle speed. This is necessary because low cutting speeds are
required for larger diameter drills.

DRILLING FAULTS

FAULT POSSIBLE CAUSE

1. Oversized hole produced 1. Cutting edges are of unequal

length
2. Cutting angles are unequal
3. Machine spindle loose or bent
4. Chuck loose

2. Drill corners being broken off 1. Wrong lubricant

2. Lubricant not reaching the
cutting edges
3. Cutting speed too high
4. Hard spots in the material

3. Drill broken 1. Dulled cutting edges

2. Clearance angles too small
3. Pressure on drill too high
4. Work or drill insecurely held
 5. Flutes chocked by cuttings

4. Rough hole produced 1. Dulled cutting edges

2. Point incorrectly ground
3. Lubricant lacking or incorrect

PRECAUTIONS WHEN USING DRILL BITS

a) For personal safety
1. Check that electrical cables are sound. There must be no loose or bare
wires and the machines must be properly earthed.
2. Use the shortest possible length of cable to reach the work properly.
3. See to it that a cable is not likely to cause someone to trip over it
4. See to it that the cable does not become soaked in water or oil.
5. Check that the work is securely clamped or is too big to move when the
drill breaks through.
6. Check that the drill is firmly held by the chuck. Wipe oil from the hands
and hold the machine firmly – be ready for it being twisted out of the
hands on break through.

b) For good work

1. Check that the drill is correctly sharpened.
2. Check that the drill is secure in the chuck and the chuck secure in the
machine.
3. Check that the work is properly clamped.
4. When large holes are to be drilled, drill a smaller pilot hole first to ensure
accuracy and a better finish.
5. Select the correct speed for the size of drill.
6. Exert a steady force on the drill – let the drill feed itself through the hole.
7. Check the drill for correct location – ‘draw’ if necessary.
8. Use the correct lubricant. Clear the cuttings at intervals.
9. Be ready for the drill breaking through.
10. Do not allow the drill to cut into the machine plate or other clamping
devices.
Work Holding

1. When the work piece is small and light enough to be moved it also
means the cutting action will most likely move the job. This is
dangerous. In these cases the job should be either:
1.1 held in a vice
1.2 clamped to a bench
1.3 clamped to a large object
1.4 Secured so it can’t move.

2. In each of the securing situations the operator must make sure the
cutting action does not damage anything.
Care of Portable Power Tools
1. Always inspect tools for damage before and after use
2. Tag damaged tools and report or repair them before they are used
3. Store tools and their leads in a way that prevents damage
4. Follow manufacturer or workplace procedures for the handling of portable
power tools.
Care of Air Tools
1. Air has no lubrication properties and so oil can be added to compressed air to
reduce wear in tools. This is done using a lubricator.
2. Air also contains foreign particles and moisture which can damage tools. The
amount of these in compressed air can be reduced with filters.
3. Not all tools in a pneumatic system need to run at maximum system pressure.
Pressure to a tool is reduced with a regulator.
4. When a system has a lubricator, filter and regulator is known as an air service
unit.
5. Some air tools are made with a self lubricating material like Teflon in the
bearing surfaces and so don’t need a lubricant in the air supply.
6. There are also some air tools that have provision for lubrication by an oil can.
These also don’t need a lubricant in the air supply.
 FIG. 35
Air service unit

Safety Reminders:
1. Wear safety glasses, safety boots, and protection for your hair and avoid
loose clothing.
2. Horseplay in the workshop is likely to lead to accidents.
3. Protect your hearing with ear plugs or muffs over them in a noisy workshop.
4. Lift heavy weights in the right way.
Special Rules for Power tools
1. Portable power tools are dangerous if not used safely.
2. Use guards where fitted.
3. Ensure the cutting tool is the right one for the job and the power tool.
4. Maintain the safe working speed for the cutting tool.
5. Hold rotating spindles and wheels well away from your body and clothing.
6. Remember the torque of the power tools, which can cause injury if a jam
occurs. You could have your wrist twisted or be thrown off balance and fall.
7. Your own personnel protective equipment should include:
• Protective goggles
• Gloves
• Ear protection
• Helmet (optional)
More Safety Rules for This Section
1. Safely manage the power supply leads lines. Check the condition of electrical
cables. Don’t use electrical cables while they are rolled up. Don’t leave cables
lying on the floor.
2. Make sure an earth-leakage protection-device is fitted to the power supply.
Electrical tools that are not double-insulated should have their resistance
tested regularly and after repairs.
3. Disconnect leads before making adjustments to the power tool.
4. Switch off power before removing cable.
5. Do not use electrical tools in wet conditions.
6. Be careful when you are using compressed air.
7. Make sure the work piece is clamped rigidly so it cannot move under the
cutting forces.
8. Check the condition of all tools and power (electric, pneumatic and hydraulic)
leads.
9. Do not use any faulty equipment, report it to the appropriate person.
10.Wipe/clean up any fluid spills from hydraulic equipment.

PROCEDURE FOR DRILLING

HOLDING THE WORK
 Securely clamp your work piece into the vice and the vice clamped to the
machine table, unless the work piece is too heavy to move during operation.
 If the work is loose, it will spin when the drill breaks through the underside of
the work piece, and cause damage, possible injury and ruin the work.
 Care should be taken when drilling sheet metal. The sheet metal should be
clamped to waste material.
 The force on the machine must be eased off as the hole nears completion.
 When holes have to be drilled at awkward angles, the work may be clamped
to a tilt plate which is then clamped to the machine table.
MARKING OUT FOR DRILLING
 Mark out the location of the hole to be drilled using two firm thin scribed lines
at 90˚ to each other
 Centre punch the intersection of the two lines by a center punch.
 Scribe a circle of the hole diameter
  Lightly, punch deeper the centre of the circle to help the drill to start
 Before the drill cuts to the full diameter, the depression made is checked for
being central in the marked circle, if not; the drilled hole is corrected by
`drawing’ the point from its existing centre. This is done by cutting a groove
with a half round chisel or diamond chisel from the widest uncut part of the
metal inside the circle from the edge of the circle to the drilled centre.
 The drill point is then drawn along the groove to the correct centre and
cutting commenced. This is a trial and error process until the depression cut
is found to be centralized in the circle.
 The drilling operation is then continued and the hole completed

A.1.5.2.2: DRILLS AND DRILLING

DEFINITION

1. A drill is an accurately finished, hardened and tempered metal cutting tool.

2. Drilling is the operation of producing a through or blind hole.

FIG. 36: Drilling a blind and a through hole

3. Boring is the operation in which the size of an existing hole is enlarged or

increased, brought to an accurate size, and made round and parallel.
4. Reaming is the slight enlargement of a hole, to provide a better tolerance on
its diameter and to improve its surface finish.
 FIG. 37
5. Tapping is an operation performed by a tap and is used to provide internal
screw threads on an existing hole.

FIG. 38
6. Counterboring provides a stepped hole, in which a larger diameter follows a
smaller diameter partially into the hole. A Counterboring hole is used to seat
bolt heads into a hole so that the heads do not protrude above the surface.

FIG. 39
7. Countersinking is similar to Counterboring, except that the step in the hole is
cone-shaped for flat head screws and bolts.

FIG. 40
8. Centering also called centre drilling, this operation drills a starting hole to
accurately establish its location for subsequent drilling. This tool is called a
centre drill.
 FIG. 41
9. Spotfacing is similar to milling. It is used to provide a flat machined surface
on the work part in a localized area.

FIG.42

TYPES OF DRILL BITS

The most common types of drills are:

1. Flat Drill – it is a simple type of drill and has two cutting edges beveled
at 600 as shown in the figure 8

FIG. 43

2. Straight Fluted Drill – used for making holes in brass, copper and other
soft metals. Its only disadvantage is that the chips pack in the flutes.

FIG. 44
3. Twist Drill – it is the most commonly used variety of drill and is made
with two, three or four cutting lips. The two lip drill is used to drill holes
into solid metal while the three and four lip drill is used for enlarging holes
previously drilled. The twist drills have cylindrical body on which the
grooves are cut.
 FIG. 45

CLASSIFICATION OF DRILL BITS.

Drills are classified based on:

1. Construction – solid, tipped solid or composite.

2. Methods of holding or driving – straight shank, taper shank, taper shank
square, shell core drills, threaded shank, beaded shank bits.
3. Number of flutes- two flutes, three flutes, or four flutes.
4. Hand of cut – right hand cut, or left hand cut.
The Drill Sleeve is used to hold the drill bits.

FIG. 56
The Drift Punch is used to remove the drill bit from the drilling machine especially
the pillar machine spindle.

Fig. 47
CONSTRUCTION

The three main component parts of a twist drill are:

1. Shank – is either tapered or straight.

2. Body – has flutes, flutes length, helix angle, lands, lead of helix, web etc
3. Point angle – forming cutting angle, lip length.
The drill is made from;

1. Carbon Steel – it is usually blue in colour and is suitable for most general
work.
2. Alloy Steel (High Speed Steel –HSS) – they are brighter in colour. They can
take larger cuts at higher speeds.
3. Cobalt Steel Alloys – they hold their hardness at higher temperatures.
4. Tungsten Carbide – are extremely hard materials that can drill in virtually
all materials while holding an edge longer than other bits. They are made as
attachments by being brazed at the tip of a bit.
DRILL COATINGS

1. Black Coating – it is inexpensive, provides heat resistance and lubricity as

well as corrosion resistance.
2. Titanium Nitride (TiN) – a hard ceramic material. It extends the life span
of the cutting of the High Speed Steel Bit by three or more times.
3. Titanium Aluminium Nitride (TiAN) – is another coating frequently used.
It is considered superior to TiN and can extend tool life five or more times.
4. Titanium Carbon Nitride (TiCN) – is another coating and is also superior
to TiN.

FIG.48

1. Shank – this is a portion which is ‘clamped’ to provide the drive. Straight

shank for drill up to 12.7mm (1/2”), the shank is equal to body diameter.
Above 12.7mm, shank is tapered or reduced.
2. Body –
2.1 Flutes – helical grooves cut around the body which forms the cutting
edges.
2.1.1 Allows coolant to flow to the cutting edge to cool the tool.
2.1.2 Allows the chips (swarf) to be withdrawn from cutting edge.
 2.1.3 Helps to provide the correct cutting angle.
2.2 Margin – narrow raised section of the body provides full body to hole
support to help keep it aligned as the drills.
2.3 Body clearance – reduced section of the drill between the flutes and
the margin. Used to reduce friction between drill and work piece.
2.4 Land – this is a portion of the metal left between the flutes. The
accuracy of their diameter determines the size of the drill.
2.5 Web – thin section in the centre of the drill which forms a ‘core’ for
the drill. This feature increases as it extends to the shank. Forms the
chisel edge of the drill.

FIG. 75
3. Point – the chisel edge of the drill.

FIG. 49
 - Spiral or rate of twist in the drill – controls the rate of chip removal in a
drill. A fast spiral drill is used in high feed rate applications under low spindle
speeds, where removal of a large volume of swarf is required.
- Point angle – is determined by the material the drill will be operating in.
harder materials require a larger point angle, and softer materials require a
sharper angle. The correct point angle for the hardness of the material
controls wandering,chatter, hole shape, wear rate, and other characteristics.
- Lip angle – determines the amount of support provided to the cutting edge.
A greater lip angle will cause the drill to cut more aggressively under the
same amount of point pressure as a drill with a smaller lip angle. Both
conditions can cause binding, wear, and eventual catastrophic failure of the
tool. The proper amount of lip clearance is deermined by the point angle.

Fig. 50

CUTTING ANGLES

Cutting angles of a twist drill are:

Fig.51
 1. Cutting angle or angle of lip – the two lips must be of same length and
the angles of both lips must be equal. The cutting angle for ordinary work is
590 and varies with the metal to metal.
1.1 If the cutting angle is more, the drill will not cut the metal easily and
will not hold its position centrally because of being too flat.
1.2 If the cutting angle is less, more power will be required to turn the drill
and drill will cut at a slower rate due to the longer cutting edges.
1.3 If the angles on the cutting edges are different, then one cutting edge
will wear quickly and the hole will be larger than the drill. This results
in the wobbling of spindle and the drill wears out quickly.
2. Lip clearance angle – it is the angle formed by grinding away the heel (it is
the part of the point behind the cutting edge. The cone shaped cutting end is
the point from the lips and varies from 12 to 15 degrees. This angle may be
increased for drilling soft materials under heavy feeds. In cases of drilling the
hardest material, this angle is 90 and if it is reduced further, the drill cannot
cut into the metal and may break in the centre along the web.
3. Rake angle – it is the angle between the flute and the work. It is usually 70
to 750. This helps to secure the lip over the correct space to curl the chips. If
this angle is more, then there will be no edge for cutting and if it is less, the
cutting edge is too thin and may break under the strain of the work.

TOOL GEOMETRY[3]
Workpiece material Point angle Helix angle Lip relief angle
Aluminum 90 to 135 32 to 48 12 to 26
Brass 90 to 118 0 to 20 12 to 26
Cast iron 90 to 118 24 to 32 7 to 20
Mild steel 118 to 135 24 to 32 7 to 24
Stainless steel 118 to 135 24 to 32 7 to 24
Plastics 60 to 90 0 to 20 12 to 26

A.1.5.2.3: What are pneumatic tools

 Pneumatic tools are powered by compressed air. Common types of these air-
powered hand tools that are used in industry include buffers, nailing and
stapling guns, grinders, drills, jack hammers, chipping hammers, riveting
guns, sanders and wrenches.
How do you use pneumatic tools safely?
 Review the manufacturer's instruction before using a tool.
 Wear safety glasses or goggles, or a face shield (with safety glasses or
goggles), and, where necessary, safety shoes or boots and hearing
protection.
 Post warning signs where pneumatic tools are used. Set up screens or shields
in areas where nearby workers may be exposed to flying fragments, chips,
dust, and excessive noise.
 Ensure that the compressed air supplied to the tool is clean and dry. Dust,
moisture, and corrosive fumes can damage a tool. An in-line regulator filter
and lubricator increases tool life.
 Keep tools clean and lubricated, and maintain them according to the
manufacturers' instructions.
 Use only the attachments that the manufacturer recommends for the tools
you are using.
 Be careful to prevent hands, feet, or body from injury in case the machine
slips or the tool breaks.
 Reduce physical fatigue by supporting heavy tools with a counter-balance
wherever possible.

Fig.52

How should you handle air hoses?

 Use the proper hose and fittings of the correct diameter.
  Use hoses specifically designed to resist abrasion, cutting, crushing and
failure from continuous flexing.
 Choose air-supply hoses that have a minimum working pressure rating of
1035 kPa (150 psig) or 150% of the maximum pressure produced in the
system, whichever is higher.
 Check hoses regularly for cuts, bulges and abrasions. Tag and replace, if
defective.
 Blow out the air line before connecting a tool. Hold hose firmly and blow
away from yourself and others.
 Make sure that hose connections fit properly and are equipped with a
mechanical means of securing the connection (e.g., chain, wire, or positive
locking device).
 Install quick disconnects of a pressure-release type rather than a
disengagement type. Attach the male end of the connector to the tool, NOT
the hose.
 Do not operate the tool at a pressure above the manufacturer's rating.
 Turn off the air pressure to hose when not in use or when changing power
tools.
 Do not carry a pneumatic tool by its hose.
 Avoid creating trip hazards caused by hoses laid across walkways or curled
underfoot.
 Do not use compressed air to blow debris or to clean dirt from clothes.

Fig.53
What should you avoid with compressed air?
 Cleaning with compressed air is dangerous.
 Do not use compressed air for cleaning unless no alternate method of
cleaning is available. The nozzle pressure MUST remain below 207 kPa (30
 psi). Personal protective equipment and effective chip guarding techniques
must be used.
 Two acceptable methods of meeting the "below 207 kPa (30 psi)"
requirement are illustrated below.

Fig.54

Fig.55

Pneumatic tools offer many advantages over traditional electric tools. The motor in
pneumatic tools is simpler with far less parts that can wear out and there is no
presence of a spark, making them excellent for use in environments where an
electric tool is undesirable. Due to their low maintenance requirements and
durability, pneumatic air tools are an industry favorite worldwide for service and
production equipment. Check out all of our air compressor tools, including air impact
wrenches, Air hammers, nailers, sanders and more.
 Fig.56

Air Tool Accessories

Fig.57

Air Compressors

Fig.58

Air Nailer
Pneumatic tools offer many advantages over traditional electric tools. The motor in
pneumatic tools is simpler with far less parts that can wear out and there is no
presence of a spark, making them excellent for use in environments where an
electric tool is undesirable. Due to their low maintenance requirements and
durability, pneumatic air tools are an industry favorite worldwide for service and
production equipment.
Fig.59

Fig.60

Fig. 61
 Fig. 62

Air Die Grinders, Cut Off Tools and Accessories

Fig. 63
Air Drills

Fig. 64
Miscellaneous Air Powered Tools

Fig.64
Air reciprocating saws and replacement blades
 Fig.65
Air Sanders and Polishers

Fig. 66

Air Concrete Nailers

Fig.67

Fig.68
Air Needle Scalers & Flux Chippers
 Fig.69
Air Angle Grinders

Fig.70

A.1.5.4.1: Hydraulic tools

 Fig.70

A hydraulic jack is a device that is used to lift heavy loads by applying a force via a
hydraulic cylinder. Hydraulic jacks lift loads using the force created by the pressure
in the cylinder chamber.
How hydraulic jacks work
A hydraulic jack creates pressure by moving oil through two cylinders via a pump
plunger. The pump plunger is drawn back, which opens the suction valve and draws
oil into the pump chamber. As the plunger is pushed down, the oil is transported
through an external discharge valve and into the cylinder chamber. The suction
valve then closes, resulting in pressure being built up within the chamber; causing
the piston in the chamber to rise and lift your heavy object. This process can be
repeated many times, allowing your load to be lifted higher, and higher
 1. Hydraulic Lifts

Look for the load figure or marks on the telescopic beam.

A 1 tonne hydraulic lift will raise only 0.5 tonne at full extension.

Fig.71

safe and correct use of equipment

Use of lifting equipment, particular attention should be paid to the following:-

Avoid lifting and handling hazards.

o When lifting heavy objects seek assistance. Use appropriate lifting
equipment and ensure that correct lifting practice is followed.
o Use trolleys of sound construction and adequate capacity to move
components.
o Secure loads when transporting on trolleys.
o Ensure that only competent persons (that is, those trained and
authorized) operate lifting equipment. Consider possible danger to
persons in the vicinity.
 Use the correct type of sling.
o Chain Slings
 Used for lifting loads having sharp edges such as rolled steel
joists or for lifting hot metals.
 Fig.72

o Wire Rope Slings

 These are the most widely used. They should not be used for
lifting hot materials, nor should they be allowed to become
rusty.

o
Fig.73
o
o Fibre Rope Slings
 These are generally used for lifting light articles, particularly
those with machined surfaces.

Fig.74

 Know the safe Working Load (SWL) of lifting tackle in use. Chain slings and
wire rope slings always have the SWL marked on them.
o Always:

Fig.75
 o Examine slings before use.
o Reject slings which are defective.
o Check the SWL.
 Protect slings and the load to be lifted. Avoid sharp bends on wire rope slings.
 Chain blocks – chain blocks are geared to reduce the manual effort
necessary to lift may be stopped where required and the suspended load will
stay safely in position when the hands are removed from the chain. Lowering
is usually effected by reversing the direction of the pull on the hoisting chain.
Chain blocks should not be slung hook to hook. A sling or lashing should be
used.

o When using the chain blocks:

 Ensure that the SWL of the block is adequate for the load to be lifted.
 Attach the head fitting to a suitable anchorage.
 Pull the operating chain to determine the hoisting and lowering sides of the
chain.
 Attach the load to the hook using the correct slings and/or shackles.
 Pull down the relevant side of the operating chain to hoist or lower the load.

o
Fig.76
o
  Jig Cranes
o Jig cranes are marked with the safe working load. Check the SWL of
the hoist: it may differ from that of the jig, if so work to the lower
figures.
.

Fig.77

Hydraulic press

Fig.78

.
How does a hydraulic press work?

A hydraulic press contains two cylinders which are connected to one another. Each
cylinder contains hydraulic fluid and one cylinder is larger than the other. The larger
cylinder is known as the Ram and the smaller one is known as the Plunger.

Liquids do not compress easily, which is why they are used in a hydraulic press. The
hydraulic press works by pressing a small amount of force onto the Plunger which
presses the fluid below. This pressure is then distributed evenly which in turn raises
the Ram. The pressure between the Plunger and the Ram then works to crush the
item placed between them.

This works due to Pascal's Law which dictates that the pressure in the larger
cylinder (the Ram) will stay the same as the pressure in the smaller cylinder (the
plunger).

What are the benefits of a hydraulic press?

Due to the way hydraulic presses work, they also provide a multitude of different
benefits when compared to a mechanical press. Here are just a few benefits of a
hydraulic press.

 Lower cost. A hydraulic press is typically much cheaper than a mechanical

press due to their simple nature. The original cost is lower and the maintenance
cost is also lower due to a smaller amount of breakdowns and it is easier to
replace the moving parts within a hydraulic press.
 Overload protection. If you have a 30-ton hydraulic press, this will only ever
exert 30 tons of pressure. Or if you set the pressure level for less, it will only
release this level of pressure. Once that level is reached, a relief valve is opened
which will not allow the hydraulic press to surpass that level.
 Less noise. Because hydraulic presses use less moving pieces, the noise level
is reduced. As you have complete control with a hydraulic press, this means you
can also control the noise level.

A 1.5.4.6 Lubrication facilities

Lubrication is a process which aims at reducing friction between two moving

pieces. When two surfaces come in contact with one another, a fluid must be
injected to separate them. The word « greasing » applies when grease is used to
lubricate.

What are the main purposes of lubrication?

Lubrication allows to:

  Reduce friction (rubbing or deformation)
 Prevent pieces from wear
 Absorb/reduce shocks
 Protect from corrosion
 Isolate components from contamination
 Clean/get rid of contaminants.

There are two main facilities that we use for in the Motor industry. These are;

 Grease gun
 Oil cane

Grease gun

It is manually operated and has a provision for attachment to the grease nipple of
the parts of the vehicle which can be greased. This is only applied to part of
vehicle which swivel (pivotal points),

Oil cane

The oil cane is commonly used during assembly. A jet is directed to the component
you are assembling. Sometimes you have to smear the oil for example in cylinder
bore and mains and crank bearings.

A 1.5.4.7 Air pressure facilities.

These installation from which air operations may be or are being conducted. The
source of this compressed air is compressor. It draws air and compress it and then
through the pipes it is distributed.’ There are many equipment that use air in the
workshop which we have discussed already.

A 1.5.4.8 Cleaning facilities

While working with large and potentially dangerous machinery in a workshop, it is

important to keep the area clean and up to standards. Not only is it important to
legally maintain these standards, but an unpolluted workspace prevents potential
injury as well. Oil and grease are particularly stubborn substances to remove, and
can be unsafe when walking around a workshop. With our line of scrubbers, you can
scour these tough messes with ease, keeping your environment safe and clean.
When prospective customers enter your workshop or even when they park outside,
the first thing they will notice is the appearance. First impressions are everything
and the cleanliness of a business is no exception. A tidy workshop will ensure that
your clients are focusing on the automobiles. In contrast, a dirty area will turn
customers off and question the competency of your business. Investing in quality
cleaning workshop equipment is crucial in attracting and keeping client

Cleaning facilities like brooms, pressure washer, and disinfectant. Bucket with a
squeezer, mops, and cobweb remover

How to clean and disinfect.

 Wear disposable gloves to clean and disinfect.

 Clean surfaces using soap and water, then use disinfectant.
 Cleaning with soap and water reduces number of germs, dirt and
impurities on the surface. Disinfecting kills germs on surfaces.
 Practice routine cleaning of frequently touched surfaces.
o More frequent cleaning and disinfection may be required based on
level of use.
o Surfaces and objects in public places, such as shopping carts and point
of sale keypads should be cleaned and disinfected before each use.
 High touch surfaces include:
o Tables, doorknobs, light switches, countertops, handles, desks,
phones, keyboards, toilets, faucets, sinks, etc

How to disinfect

 Follow the instructions on the label to ensure safe and effective use of
the product.
Many products recommend:
o Keeping surface wet for a period of time (see product label).
o Precautions such as wearing gloves and making sure you have good
ventilation during use of the product.

Always read and follow the directions on the label to ensure safe and
effective use.

 Wear skin protection and consider eye protection for potential splash hazards
 Ensure adequate ventilation
 Use no more than the amount recommended on the label
 Use water at room temperature for dilution (unless stated otherwise on the
label)
 Avoid mixing chemical products
  Label diluted cleaning solutions
 Store and use chemicals out of the reach of children and pets

You should never eat, drink, breathe or inject these products into your body or apply
directly to your skin as they can cause serious harm. Do not wipe or bathe pets with
these products or any other products that are not approved for animal use.

A 1.5.4.9 Surface table.

A surface plate is a solid, flat plate used as the main horizontal reference plane for
precision inspection, marking out (layout), and tooling setup. The surface plate is
often used as the baseline for all measurements to a workpiece, therefore one
primary surface is finished extremely flat with tolerances below 0.0115 mm per 2960
mm for a grade 0 plate.

Surface plates are a common tool in the manufacturing industry and are often fitted
with mounting points so that it can be an integrated structural element of a machine
such as a coordinate-measuring machine, precision optical assembly, or other high
precision scientific & industrial machine. Plates are typically square or rectangular,
although they may be cut to any shape.

Surface plates must be calibrated regularly to ensure that chipping, warping, or

wear has not occurred. A common problem is wear to particular areas, such as that
caused by the frequent use of a tool in one place (such as a height gauge), that
causes an uneven surface and reduces overall accuracy of the plate, this may be
greatly accelerated if abrasive dust is present. Tools and workpieces may also cause
damage when dropped on the surface plate. Also, damage can be caused
when swarf and other debris have not been removed. This will result in erroneous
measurements. Damage to the plate can only be corrected by resurfacing which
requires specialized techniques and equipment depending on the grade of the plate.
UNIT A1.6 Maintaining tools and equipment

Introduction

Tools and Equipment have always been the most crucial asset for workers. These
are the tools and equipment that make your job possible. In return, you remain in
debt to protect and maintain these tools and equipment, as maintenance and
protection of the same make them serve you for a longer time. Most of the tools’
and equipment maintenance practices are very simple and easy to comprehend.

In this unit we are going to discuss different ways of protecting tools and equipment
and the importance of maintenance of them.

A 1.6.1 Apply tools maintenance procedures

A 1.6.2 Apply equipment maintenance procedure

A 1.6.3 Apply recommended maintenance procedures on tools and

Equipment.

A 1.6.4 Apply recommended safety procedures.

A 1.6.1 Apply tools maintenance procedures

A 1.6.1.1 Identification of recommended method of reclaiming each

Tool.

There are different kinds of method used to reclaim each tool. This depends on the
type of tool. For example, mushroomed hammer head and defective handle. All one
need to do is to grind the mushroomed head and replace the handle. The method
used on each tool will vary one from the other.
Some tools need to be sharpened and others are grinded. Some tools either be
grinded or sharpened.

How to Dress a Bench Grinding Wheel?

Before you start dressing a bench grinder wheel, make sure you check your grinding
wheel dressing tool and grinding wheel for cracks by visual inspection and
performing the ring test (we discussed this in the article about grinding wheels and
grinding). After you are certain that the grinding wheel doesn’t have any cracks in it
and isn’t dangerous, check the tool rest next. It should be as close to the grinding
wheel as possible, just enough to have it run freely. Ideally would be leaving 1/16 of
an inch between the tool rest and the wheel.

As the grinding wheel wears down, you’ll need to adjust the rest and move it closer.
This is important, because if you leave a lot of space between the rest and the
wheel, you are risking damaging your tools and more importantly, a serious injury.
Namely, your dresser might get caught by the wheel and get pulled under it, causing
your fingers or hand to raise and get hurt on the high-speed wheel. Also, spin the
wheel with your hand just to see if it’s solid and not wobbly.

Another very important note: do not wear long sleeves while dressing the grinding
wheel as your shirt or a jacket can get caught in it. Same goes for long hair (if you
have it, pull it back) and gloves – believe it or not, gloves can be an extremely
dangerous piece of equipment when working on a bench grinder (unless you’re
using a dresser with a longer handle) as they can get trapped between the wheel
and the tool rest. Always take extra precautions like turning your grinder on while
standing next to it and not in front of the wheel.

After you’ve taken all necessary precaution measures and got geared up, you’re
ready to begin. The procedure is more or less completely the same for all discussed
bench grinder dresser types: diamond dressers, dressing sticks and star dressers.
Truing and dressing is performed by holding it against the rotating grinding wheel
surface and moving it back and forth across the wheel face.

Turn on the grinder and allow the wheel to reach full RPM. Start by positioning the
dresser off centre to one end of the wheel. If you’re using a star dresser, you’ll place
its legs behind the rest, apply the head of the dresser containing discs or cutters
with force on the surface of the grinding wheel and you’ll run the tool back and
forth. In case you are using a wide-face diamond dresser, you’ll apply its whole face
with a light pressure against the whole surface of the wheel and move it back and
forth just a bit. The dressing stick is also placed against the wheel face and moved
back and forth. As for the single point diamond dressers, they are placed in a holder,
point set at 10 to 15-degree angle pointing toward the direction of wheel rotation
(make sure you turn the tool frequently 20-40 degrees to maintain a sharp point).

The whole process of dressing is not labour-intensive and will take about five
minutes. Wheels should be trued & dressed just enough to establish concentricity or
to expose new sharp abrasive grains to the workpiece. The process is over after you
get a nice flat surface of the wheel that looks brand new.

IMPORTANT: Don’t forget to adjust the tool rest back to 1/16 of an inch away from
the grinding wheel after you’re done dressing it.

Fig.79

Grizzly Industrial T28523 - 8" Slow-Speed Bench Grinder 1/3 HP

All slings (new, altered, modified, or repaired) should be inspected by a competent

person before they are used in the workplace to make sure they are built to
specifications, not damaged, and will be appropriate for the work being performed.
For record keeping purposes it is useful if each chain has a metal tag with an
identification number and load limit information. Information about the chain length
and other characteristics and an inspection schedule should be recorded in a log
book.

A competent person must also inspect chain slings periodically, and at least once a
year. Inspection frequency is based on how often the sling is used, the types of lifts
being performed, the conditions in which the sling is being used, and past
experience with service life of similar slings and usage. If the sling is used in more
severe conditions, then the inspection should be performed every 3 months.
Inspections must be recorded.

In addition to the inspections by a competent person, the user should inspect chain
slings and accessories before each use and before placing into storage. Check for
visible faults in links and hooks and distortion of fittings.
How should chain slings be checked during inspection?

 Clean sling before inspection.

 Check identification tag
 Hang the chain up or stretch the chain out on a level floor in a well-lighted
area. Remove all twists. Measure the sling length. Discard if a sling has been
stretched.
 Make a link-by-link inspection and discard if:

a) Wear exceeds 15% of a link diameter.

Fig.80

b) Cut, nicked, cracked, gouged, burned, weld splattered, or corrosion pitted.

Fig.81

c) Deformed, twisted or bent chain links or components.

Fig.82

d) Stretched. Links tend to close up and get longer.

 Fig.83

 Check master link, load pins and hooks for any of the above faults. Hooks
should be removed from service if they have been opened more than 15% of
the normal throat opening, measured at the narrowest point, or twisted more
than 10° from the plane of the unbent hook.
 Manufacturers' reference charts show sling and hitch capacities. Record
manufacturer, type, load limit and inspection dates.

How should you use chain slings safely?

 Always know how to properly use the equipment, slinging procedures before
attempting the lift operation.
 Inspect the slings and accessories before use for any defects.
 Replace broken safety latches.
 Find out load weight before lifting. Do not exceed rated load of the sling.
 Check whether chain slings fit freely. Do not force, hammer or wedge chain
slings or fittings into position.
 Keep hands and fingers from between load and chain when tensioning slings
and when landing loads.
 Ensure the load is free to be lifted.
 Make a trial lift and trial lower to ensure the load is balanced, stable and
secure.
 Balance the load to avoid overstress on one sling arm or the load slipping
free.
 Lower the working load limit if severe impact may occur.
 Pad sharp corners to prevent bending links and to protect the load.
 Position hooks of multi-leg slings facing outward from the load.
 Cordon off the area.
 Reduce the load limit when using chain in temperatures above 425°C (800°F).
 Store chain sling arms on racks in assigned areas and not lying on the
ground. The storage area should be dry, clean and free of any contaminants
which may harm the sling
What should you avoid when using chain slings?

 Avoid impact loading: do not jerk the load when lifting or lowering the sling.
This motion increases the actual stress on the sling.
 Do not leave suspended loads unattended.
 Do not drag chains over floors or attempt to drag a trapped sling from under
a load. Do not use a sling to drag a load.
 Do not use worn-out or damaged slings.
 Do not lift on the point of the hook.
 Do not overload or shock load a sling.
 Do not trap slings when landing the load.
 Do not splice a chain by inserting a bolt between two links.
 Do not shorten a chain with knots or by twisting other than by means of an
integral chain clutch.
 Do not force or hammer hooks into place.
 Do not use homemade connections. Use only attachments designed for the
chain.
 Do not heat treat or weld chain links: the lifting capacity will be reduced
drastically.
 Do not expose chain links to chemicals without the manufacturer's approval.
 Do not stand in line with or next to the leg(s) of the sling that is under
tension.
 Do not stand or pass under a suspended load.
 Do not ride on sling.
Drill Maintenance:

With use, drill loses its efficiency of cutting and its proper maintenance is required
from time to time.

The various important points to be borne in mind in this connection are described
below:

The drill wears starts by rounding off the corners and at the cutting edges or lips
and the chisel edge. Thus a conical surface of narrow width having no relief is
formed adjacent to these edges (Refer Fig. 18.34) and it tends to rub in the hole
rather than cutting; requiring more power and thrust to be forced in and generates
more heat and wear.

The increase in wear at corners travels back along the margins, resulting in a loss in
size. This worn section would be removed (as shown in Fig. 18.34) at the earliest
whenever wear is observed on tip, chisel edge, and margin. Generally maximum
wear land allowed on lip is about 0.2 mm and it can be easily observed.

Fig. 84

Removal of worn portion will shorten the drill and increase web thickness as the
latter increases towards the shank of drill. The chisel edge, which does no cutting
but only pushes the metal out of way, will require more force and generate more
heat if it is long.

It is therefore essential to reduce the web thickness after removing the worn,
chipped and burned portion of drill. It is important that web thinning cut should
extend far enough up the flute so that an abrupt wedge is not formed at the
extreme point.
After these two operations, it is also necessary to regrind the surfaces of the point.
The two conical surfaces intersect with faces of the flutes to form the cutting lips,
the back surface of which must be relieved in order to permit the edge to penetrate.

Chip Breakers:

Long continuous chips are nuisance and hazardous to operators at high speed. Drills
are therefore provided with suitable chip breakers to produce smaller chips.

Various types of chip breakers are:

(i) Over curling type,

(ii) Groove type,

(iii) Crisp chip breakers,

(iv)Oxford chip breakers.

Chip breaker drills require extra energy for breaking the chips. Sometimes these
affect the stability of drill and produce out-of-round holes.

Speeds and Feeds of Twist Drills:

A drill is said to be dull, if it penetrates the work very slowly or not at all, it becomes
very hot, a squealing noise is made, the finished hole has a rough surface.

In drilling operation, correct speeds and feeds are determined by the judgement of
the operator, who should know the following facts:

(a) The cutting edge breaks off when the feed is too heavy or the drill has been
given too much clearance.

(b) The rapid dulling of the drill especially at the outer ends of the lips (corners) is
evidence of too much speed and too much clearance.

(c) When the drill splits, either drill feed is too much or clearance is not sufficient.

(d) When a drill squeaks, it is usually an indication of a crooked hole or dullness

caused by the margin of the drill becoming worn.

Average cutting speeds with drill are as under:

Feeds vary with size of hole being drilled; being 0.04 to 0.006 mm/rev. of 1.5 to 2.5
mm diameter holes, and 0.30 to 0.40 mm/rev. for 40 mm diameter holes.

Cutting lubricants in drilling, reaming and tapping operations are:

How to Sharpen Drill Bits:

STEP 1

Examine your dull bits. Your goal is to remove only enough metal to get a sharpened
edge. Many bench grinders have two grinding wheels, one coarse one and one fine.
If the bits are really ravaged, start with the coarse wheel, and switch to the finer
one later in the process; if your bits don’t look too bad, begin with the finer grinding
wheel.

STEP 2

Don your goggles and turn on the bench grinder. Get a firm grip on your drill bit and
hold the cutting edge precisely parallel to the front of the grinding wheel. Slowly,
carefully, move the bit until it contacts the wheel. Do not turn or rotate it; simply
keep it straight and held at the original factory angle of 60 degrees.

ADVERTISEMENT
 Fig. 85

STEP 3

Hold the bit at this angle against the wheel for no more than four to five seconds.
Remember: Your objective is to simply grind the dull surface away, not wear down
the bit. Focus on grinding the heel of the bit, where the tip meets the twisted
shaft—not the edge—to achieve the ideal angle. If the angle isn’t steep enough, the
drill bit won’t bore smoothly.

STEP 4

Pause after four to five seconds of grinding and dip the drill bit into the ice water to
cool the metal. Failure to do so will cause the drill bit will become too hot to hold
and even wear down the metal faster, shortening the effective life of the bit. Once
the bit is cool to the touch, inspect it to see if it’s honed to a good point on the side
you just worked.

STEP 5
When satisfied with the point on the first side, turn the drill bit 180 degrees and use
the same grind-and-cool process for the opposite side of the tip. Aim for that 60-
degree angle, and an angle and point that’s the same width on both sides of the drill
bit, to enable the tool to bore straight holes. To help ensure equal sharpening, some
people opt to sharpen a little on each side, holding the drill bit in their dominant
hand and flipping it 180-degrees after every few seconds of grinding.

STEP 6

Once the drill tip meets in a finely honed point, and both edges are sharp and the
same width, give the bit a test run. Hold the tip perpendicular against a piece
of scrap wood and twist the bit by hand. Even with this light pressure, a well-
sharpened drill bit should create the beginnings of a hole. If not, re-examine your tip
and return to the grinding wheel. Again, strive for that ideal 60-degree slope on the
point, with equal widths on either side. Don’t be disheartened if you return to the
wheel several times—that’s part of the learning curve.

STEP 7

Once you’re confident in the sharpness of the bit, insert it in your drill, grab that
scrap wood, and begin drilling. It should “bite” the wood right away with minimal
pressure and, when you extract the drill bit from the wood, it should fling wood
chips as it emerges.

Fig. 86

Top Tips for Keeping Drill Bits Sharp

Once you’ve successfully mastered how to sharpen drill bits, maintain a cutting edge
with these three best practices.

 For every inch or so that you drill, pull out the bit and blow off any flakes or
chips of wood. Otherwise, these chips will get packed into the flutes of the
 bit, becoming very hot. The hotter a drill bit gets, the faster it dulls, requiring
more frequent sharpening.
 Make the stop-and-cool technique a habit, especially when drilling hardwood.
Simply keep a con
A 1.6.3 Apply recommended maintenance procedures on tools equipment

A 1.6.3.1 Maintenance of Drilling Machines

Drilling machines are some of the simplest and most accurate machine tools. The
drilling machine is made up of a spindle that imparts rotational movement onto the
drilling tool which then drives it into the workpiece.

The drilling machine is a single purpose machine with its key function being to make
holes. These machines have powerful motors and are highly efficient. They are
designed for precise and consistent tasks.

However, the rapid movement also means they are prone to break downs and
errors. Wear and tear cannot be avoided, however with proper maintenance your
drilling machine’s production life can be extended significantly.

Maintenance Procedures

Test lubricant frequently– Lubrication reduces friction around moving parts.

Scheduling regular lubrication extends the drilling machine productive life. It is also
important to check that you use the right lubrication.

Check for wear and tear– Vibration, friction, high temperature and shock contribute
greatly to the breakdown of drilling machines. Checking for wear and tear allows you
to detect and replace faulty parts as soon as they are noticed.

Clean the machine– Drilling machines have many seals and filters. Regular
inspection ensures they are in working condition. Filters should also be changed
regularly, and breathers kept clean to prevent creation of a vacuum which might
suck contamination into the cab. Workers using the machine should also ensure all
the holes in the machine are cleaned.

Sharpen the drilling components– Drilling machinery that has sharp, cutting, and
slicing components must be sharpened. Dull cutting components compromise
production and reduce efficiency.

The sharpness of a machine part also affects the shape and accuracy of the
materials that are cut. Ensure all drill bits, end bills, precision cutters, and lathe tools
are kept sharp.

Check alignment specifications– Drilling machines often have multiple components.

Losing alignment can greatly affect the quality of work. You can check alignment by
performing a test job and subsequently measuring the resulting parts. If the
specifications are inaccurate, you will need to realign the machine.

Good records of maintenance and repair schedules– Some parts such as fluids,
electrical systems and tracks have to be checked frequently for preventive measures.
Keeping proper records allows you to have the tools and spare parts necessary on
hand to avoid extended downtime.

Maintenance records are also important for your employees’ safety. Preventive
maintenance schedules diminish the machine downtime significantly.

Hydraulic press

 Follow the prescribed preventive maintenance schedule supplied with your

press – Different presses with varying capabilities require special
maintenance. While most hydraulic presses share the same core needs for
maintenance, it is always best to start by following the specific schedule
supplied in your machine manual.
 Check hydraulic lines and fittings regularly for leaks – Small leaks can lead to
large problems and large messes. If a leak is detected, tighten or replace the
hose or fitting and monitor the correction.
 Check for proper oil level and operating temperature – Improper oil levels can
lead to pump inefficiency due to cavitation, where air enters the liquid being
pumped. Oil that runs too hot can lead to premature breakdown. Monitoring
oil temperature also serves as a warning that circuit components may not be
performing optimally. Press systems that traditionally run cool and suddenly
change to run hot likely have a failing component that is passing oil and
adding heat to the system.
 Ensure oil cleanliness – Contaminated oil can cause significant component
damage, unplanned downtime, and complete system failure. Basic hydraulic
systems often run with simple return-line filtration circuits (10-micron filters),
but higher-performing systems using proportional or servo valves require
cleaner filtration (6-micron filters) in conjunction with in-line pressure and
return-line filters. The type of system and required cleanliness should be
specified by the manufacturer. Periodic oil sampling is suggested and can be
analyzed by a third party or dedicated oil-testing service. Often, your local
hydraulic-component distributor can perform this duty or suggest a reliable
company.
 Mind the fasteners – Whether the press frame is all-welded construction or a
tie-rod model, it relies on numerous nuts and bolts for proper operation.
Monitor cylinder attachment monthly. Once the bolts have been checked to
the proper torque, baseline marks can serve as at-a-glance indicators for
 future monitoring. Many presses carry marks on all attachment bolts when
the bolts have been certified to the proper torque. Also, monitor bolster-plate
fasteners and tie-rod pre-tensioning nuts.
 Monitor the safety system on a daily basis – Press systems with light curtains,
interlocking gates, safety mats, etc., should be tested prior to operation. If a
safety device has been found defective or unreliable, lockout the press and
perform service immediately. Also, test the E-stop safety circuit daily.
 Record press data – Data logging, though not often used, is one of the best
tools for monitoring press-system performance. Recording items such as
operating pressures during rapid-advance, pressing and rapid-retract portions
of the press cycle can provide valuable data as to press-system efficiency.
Your equipment manufacturer should capture this data during equipment
testing and report it to you. Ideally, record this data when the press is
commissioned and refer back to it periodically. If you see increases in
operational pressures, components are performing below optimum levels and
may have begun to fail.
 Be proactive in replacing press components – Most presses are constructed of
several hydraulic components either from a single manufacturer or from
multiple companies. Each manufacturer has an expected service life for each
component. Replacing components proactively before a failure occurs
prevents unexpected downtime and costly repairs. Hydraulic components
(especially pumps) can fail and contaminate the hydraulic system. It is far
easier and less costly to replace components on a regular basis than to wait
for a component to fail and possibly contaminate the system.

Maintenance procedure for lifting equipment

Safe and successful lifting operations depend, in large part, on the continued safety
of the lifting equipment and accessories that are used. Failures in this kind of
equipment can result in significant or even fatal injuries. Health and safety law
therefore places a number of specific obligations on those providing, controlling and
using lifting equipment to properly manage these risks.

In addition to the requirements for safe design and construction, all lifting
equipment should also be checked and maintained as necessary to keep it safe for
use, so:

 users may need to undertake simple pre-use checks (eg on lifting chains and
slings), or make checks on a daily basis (eg for lift trucks)
 in some cases, inspections and checks should be made on a regular basis,
often weekly, but this may be on a monthly or quarterly basis (eg the checks
undertaken by an operator on their crane)
  employers should ensure that lifting equipment is thoroughly examined
(normally once or twice a year but, in some cases, this may be more or less
frequent)

These checks are necessary to verify that the lifting equipment can continue to be
safely used. This page concentrates on thorough examination and inspection, and
the reporting and record-keeping obligations.

What is a 'thorough examination.'

This is a systematic and detailed examination of the equipment and safety-critical

parts, carried out at specified intervals by a competent person who must then
complete a written report. This report must contain the information required
includes :

 the examination date

 the date when the next thorough examination is due
 any defects found which are (or could potentially become) a danger to people

Where serious defects are identified, the competent person carrying out the
examination must immediately report this verbally to the duty holder. This should
then be followed by the written report, a copy of which must also be sent to the
relevant enforcing authority.

What is a 'competent person'?

The term 'competent person' is not defined in law but the administration Approved
Code of Practice and guidance (paragraph 294 on competent persons) states that:
'You should ensure that the person carrying out a thorough examination has such
appropriate practical and theoretical knowledge and experience of the lifting
equipment to be thoroughly examined as will enable them to detect defects or
weaknesses and to assess their importance in relation to the safety and continued
use of the lifting equipment.'

Although the competent person may often be employed by another organisation,

this is not necessary, provided they are sufficiently independent and impartial to
ensure that in-house examinations are made without fear or favour. However, this
should not be the same person who undertakes routine maintenance of the
equipment - as they would then be responsible for assessing their own maintenance
work.

When should thorough examinations be carried out?

In order to verify that lifting equipment and accessories remain safe for use, and to
detect and remedy any deterioration in good time, thorough examinations are
required throughout the lifetime of the equipment, including examinations:

 Before use for the first time - unless the equipment has an EC Declaration of
Conformity less than one year old and the equipment was not assembled on
site. If it was assembled on site, it must be examined by a competent person
to ensure that the assembly (eg a platform lift installed in a building) was
completed correctly and safely
 after assembly and before use at each location - for equipment that requires
assembly or installation before use, eg tower cranes
 Regularly, while in service - if the equipment is exposed to conditions that
cause deterioration which is likely to result in dangerous situations. Most
lifting equipment will be subject to wear and tear and so will need regular in-
service examination. Some may be exposed to significant environmental
conditions which may cause further deterioration. You have a choice:
o arrange for thorough examination to be carried out at the intervals
specified by LOLER (every 6 or 12 months, depending on the
equipment - see below), or
o conduct examinations in accordance with an examination scheme,
drawn up by a competent person
 following exceptional circumstances - liable to jeopardise the safety of lifting
equipment, which may include:
o damage or failure
o being out of use for long periods
o major changes, which are likely to affect the equipment's integrity (eg
modifications, or replacement / repair of critical parts)

What are the specified intervals for regular thorough examinations?

Unless there is an 'examination scheme' specifying other intervals, thorough

examinations should be conducted every:

 6 months, for lifting equipment and any associated accessories used to lift
people
 6 months, for all lifting accessories
 12 months, for all other lifting equipment

What is covered by a thorough examination?

This depends on the professional judgement of the competent person undertaking
the examination, but needs to include all matters which affect the safety of the
lifting equipment, including likely deterioration with time.

For most common lifting equipment and accessories, there are industry standard
procedures and criteria which a competent person would follow when undertaking
thorough examinations and making judgements as to the continued safety of the
equipment. Methods used include:

 visual examination and functional checks

 measurements of wear
 (in some cases) traditional NDT (non-destructive testing) and load testing

Some disassembly or internal examination of parts may also be required.

Where an examination scheme has been drawn up, this should identify and specify:

 the parts to be thoroughly examined

 the methods of examination and testing
 the intervals for examination (and testing of the different parts, where
appropriate)

The scheme should also include details of any other inspection regimes for the
equipment. Examination schemes may be drawn up by any person with the
necessary competence. This does not need to be the same competent person who
conducts the thorough examination in accordance with the scheme.

Although examination schemes do not need to be preserved in the form of a

document, it should be possible to produce a written copy when required (eg on
request by the relevant enforcing authority). These should be secured from loss or
unauthorised modification.

Testing of lifting equipment

Most lifting equipment does not need routine testing as part of the thorough
examination - in fact some overload tests can cause damage to lifting equipment.
Where testing is deemed necessary, it may not need be undertaken at every
thorough examination. The need for, and nature of, testing should be based on an
assessment of risk - taking account of information from the manufacturer and other
relevant information - as determined by the competent person.

Maintenance and inspection of lifting equipment.

Maintenance of lifting equipment to ensure it remains safe for use is a requirement
of PUWER. In some cases - to assist with this, and detect any deterioration so it can
be remedied in good time - lifting equipment may need to be inspected between
thorough examinations. Such inspections need to be undertaken by suitably trained
and competent people, which can often be the lifting equipment operator or
maintenance personnel.

The nature, need for and frequency of such inspections should be determined
through risk assessment, taking full account of any manufacturer's
recommendations. Further recommendations on inspection relating to cranes are
given in BS 7121 British Standard Code of Practice for the Safe Use of Cranes. The
various parts of this standard can be obtained from BSI.

Lifting accessories do not normally need formal inspection, provided that proper pre-
use checks are made and they undergo their standard thorough examination.

Reports and defects

Records should be kept of all thorough examinations and inspections, and of the EC
Declarations of Conformity for all lifting equipment and lifting accessories.
Examination and inspection records do not need to be kept in hard copy form but
you should be able to provide a written copy when necessary (eg upon request by
the relevant enforcing authority or when lifting equipment leaves your undertaking -
under hire, use elsewhere, or second-hand sale). The records should also be
protected from unauthorised alteration. Details of the periods for which they must
be kept in a table.

Where, following thorough examination or inspection of lifting equipment, a defect is

identified - which in the opinion of the person undertaking the examination or
inspection - is (or could become) a danger to people, you as user (employer or self
employed person) should be notified immediately. You must then take effective
action to manage risk by ensuring the lifting equipment is not used until the defect is
remedied. Such defects must be confirmed in writing in the report, even if it is
remedied immediately (eg by destruction of a sling). The person making the report
must also notify the relevant enforcing authority with a copy of the report. Enforcing
authorities may follow up such reports to check that risks are being adequately
managed.

In some cases, a defect may be identified which does not require the immediate
cessation of use of the lifting equipment. In these cases, you must remedy the
matter, or not further use the equipment, within the time period specified on the
report.
Preventive Maintenance (PM) helps anticipate change, and wear and tear. Corrective
actions are taken continuously to ensure reliability and performance. PM involves
regular systematic inspections, modification and replacement of components as well
as performance testing and analysis.

A successful preventive maintenance program extends construction equipment life

and minimizes unscheduled downtime caused by equipment breakdown. Benefits
from a proper PM program include:

 Improved equipment and system reliability

 Reduction of unexpected breakdown
 Decrease in expensive parts replacement
 Extended equipment life
 Improved resale value
 Better parts inventory management

Preventive maintenance is more than regular maintenance like lubricating and

changing and filters. A proper preventive maintenance (PM) program is all-inclusive.
It’s an intentional approach to equipment management from the time equipment is
purchased until the end of its useful life.

Your Preventive Maintenance program can include any or all of these customer
support services:

 Total Maintenance and Repair Agreements

 Machinery Inspection Programs
 Site Inspections
 Field Service
 In-Shop Service
 Diagnostic Technology
 S-O-S Fluid Analysis including Fuel, Oil and Coolants
 Failure Analysis
 Product Link On-Board Analysis
 Condition Monitoring
 Electronic Information Collection
 Machine Inspection Data
 Historical Repair Data
 Component Rebuilds
 Component Tracking
 Specialized Repair Tooling & Equipment
 Equipment Management Software
 Customer Training Seminars
  Training and Safety Videos

IDENTIFY MAJOR CAUSES OF MACHINERY BREAKDOWN

Part of an effective PM program is identifying potential causes of machinery

breakdown. By identifying potential causes of failure before they occur, you can save
hundreds or thousands of dollars and maintain consistent work flows.

There are three types of machinery failure. Their causes and solutions are listed
below.

 Sudden failure is when machinery breaks without warning. Usually, the

reason is obvious. The part is then fixed or replaced, and the equipment is
returned to service.
 Intermittent failure happens sporadically. This stoppage happens
randomly, and it can be difficult to identify the cause. Intermittent failure is
frustrating, costly in downtime and usually can be prevented by anticipating
the cause and addressing it during maintenance.
 Gradual failure is entirely preventable by doing routine maintenance and
inspections. Wearing parts and components are noted to be near the end of
their lifespan and are replaced before failure occurs.

These three types of machinery failure are almost always due to one of three main
causes:

 Thermally induced failure is where extremes in temperature cause break-

downs in the equipment. This usually happens during large temperature
fluctuations such as when a machine is being started in cold weather and is
being warmed up. It also occurs when equipment is overheated. Extremely
hot or cold periods can be prepared for during maintenance, and thermal
failure can often be prevented.
 Mechanically induced failure is easy to recognize. It’s also easy to prevent
by making sure machinery components are maintained by replacing parts
when needed, lubricating as required and tightening fasteners, as well as
ensuring moving parts are properly aligned. Mechanical failure often happens
due to overexertion, vibration, shock, collision and operator abuse.
 Erratic failure is the most difficult to predict and detect. This occurs at
random times and under varying conditions. Most erratic machinery failures
are the result of sudden overloads on hydraulic or electrical systems. With
electronic components, many erratic failures come from software or hardware
malfunctions that are preventable by using diagnostic equipment during
regular machinery maintenance.
Anticipating failure is at the heart of all preventive maintenance programs. Thorough
knowledge of your machinery’s systems is the key to anticipating what’s likely to fail
if proper maintenance is ignored.

The first part of any preventive maintenance checklist should be done from outside
the vehicle.

 Electrical lines: Inspect any exposed wires to ensure their insulation is

intact.

 Hydraulic lines: Inspect these lines for any signs of leaks that could cause
equipment failure.

 Hydraulic oil: The oil that is carried through the hydraulic lines needs to be
inspected, too. Look at the oil levels, and check the hoses, cylinders and
fittings for any leaks.

 Fuel tank: The cap should be in place on a fuel tank, and the tank itself
should be inspected to ensure there are no dents in the metal that could
weaken the tank and lead to leaks.

 Lift/pulling arms: If the equipment has any lift arms, they should be
inspected and checked for rust, leaky hydraulics and other weak points.

 Body: Inspect the body of the equipment for rust, damage or other potential
problem points.

 Grease lines: If your equipment has grease lines, check them for leaks.

 Check for leaks: Other places that leaks could occur might be in coolant
lines, fuel lines or tires.

 Work tools: For any smaller work tools, make sure to inspect their cutting
edge or teeth to see if they need sharpening.

The above procedure cuts across all major units or equipment including power tools.
MAINTENANCE OF THE PRECISION MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

The Importance of Measuring Tool Maintenance

Why is the proper care of measuring tools so important? Some of the benefits
include the following.

 Increase accuracy: If measuring tools don’t receive proper care and

maintenance, they’re more likely to take inaccurate readings. Some of these
tools take exact measurements, so even small changes can impact the
accuracy of measurements. Damaged instruments may also be off by
relatively large amounts. If you don’t realize your measurements are off,
these inaccuracies could get in the way of the success of a job. A wide variety
of factors can impact the accuracy of a measuring tool, from improper storage
temperature to excessive vibrations to physical damage due to dropping it.
Because damage or improper maintenance can affect accuracy, it’s crucial
that you’re careful to maintain them properly. Measuring tools also fall out of
calibration naturally over time, so regular gage calibration is essential.
 Extend life: Caring for precision tools properly also helps extend their life.
With proper care, many measuring instruments can serve you well for a long
time. Without adequate maintenance, however, your tools will break sooner,
and you’ll have to replace them earlier. Improper care increases the risk of a
tool failing in the middle of a job or gradually becoming less effective,
reducing the efficiency and accuracy of your work.
 Lower costs: Following the right care and maintenance procedures can help
you reduce your costs over the long term. It can help you avoid costly
breakdowns, more extensive repairs and downtime. It also means you’ll have
to replace your tools less often, meaning you get more out of your
investments in quality instruments.

Tips for Maintaining Precision Tools

Every measuring tool has different maintenance needs, and you should receive
guidelines in the user manual for each device you purchase. It’s crucial to follow
these recommendations to keep your tools in optimal condition. In the following
sections, we’ll look at some overarching recommendations for the care of measuring
tools, as well as some more specific examples.

Storage

Storage is a critical element of measuring tool care, as these devices can spend
significant amounts of time in cupboards or cabinets where they may get
damaged. Be sure to follow the recommendations for how to store each tool you
use. Different types of gages and tools made of different materials often have
different storage requirements.

Many measurement devices come in cases, and it’s often a best practice to store
your tools in these cases. If your tool didn’t come with a case, purchase one that
meets the storage requirements of your instrument. Make sure it’s the right material,
size and shape and that it has the right features. Often, these containers will have
padding. For some types of gages, you may want to place them on a clean, dry cloth
inside a case. Keeping your tools in a case helps to protect them from airborne
contaminants and accidental physical damage.

Another crucial measure to take to prevent physical damage is to separate your

devices so that they don’t bump into and damage each other. You can separate
those using dividers or cases. Don’t stack devices on top of each other unless they’re
in cases that will protect them from damaging each other.

It can also be helpful to take time to organize your devices in a cart, tray, inspection
station or other location. Doing so can help make it easier to follow proper storage
procedures and enable you to access your tools more efficiently.

You also need to ensure that you store your devices in the proper temperature and
humidity and that other conditions are suitable for your tools as well. In general, you
want to keep gages in a cool, dry place, but some devices may also come with more
specific recommendations.

Be sure to keep the storage area at an appropriate temperature and keep your
devices away from sources of heat, including sunlight. If your gages get exposed to
sunlight or other sources that produce too much heat, they may expand as they
heat up and then contract as they cool, potentially damaging them and decreasing
their accuracy.

You also need to take steps to keep the humidity of the storage space at a suitable
level and to take care of any moisture issues that may arise. Doing so is crucial,
since excessive moisture can lead to corrosion. Air conditioning or a dehumidifier can
help you control humidity and reduce ambient moisture. Placing silica gel packets in
the drawers where you store your tools can help take care of any other excess
moisture.

Over time, vibration can cause measuring tools to fall out of calibration, so store
your instruments away from any equipment that may cause vibration or movement.

Cleaning
Another essential aspect of gage maintenance is keeping your instruments
clean. Like with measuring tool storage, there are different cleaning
recommendations for different types of gages and materials. Be sure to follow the
guidelines for your specific tools to ensure you thoroughly clean them and avoid
damaging them. Conscientiously cleaning your devices is crucial, as any residue that
remains on your device may impact the accuracy of your measurements.

The material your device is made of plays a significant role in the cleaning method
you should use. If an instrument is mostly aluminium, for example, avoid using
alcohol, as it can cause aluminium to deteriorate. For brass, it’s best not to use
anything except for a clean cloth that you’ve dampened with distilled water.

Some general cleaning tips include:

 Not leaving your instruments in contact with dirt or oil for long periods, as oils
can cause corrosion
 Avoiding touching gages with your bare hands, as skin oils can be damaging
 Using a soft, non-abrasive cloth to clean your instruments and ensuring the
cloth is clean before using it

Scheduled Cleaning

As part of your routine gage maintenance, you should have a regular cleaning
schedule in place for your devices. Various factors influence how often you should
plan to clean your instruments.

 The environment in which you use it: Some situations may cause measuring
tools to require cleaning more often. If you use your tools in a dusty
manufacturing environment, for example, you may need to clean them more
often than if you work in a relatively controlled lab environment.
 The task for which you use it: The job you use the tool for can also impact
how often it requires cleaning. For example, pressure gage maintenance may
involve cleaning it more often if you use it with liquids, as opposed to solid
items. Also, if the measurements are so precise that small amounts of dirt or
residue could throw them off, you’ll need to clean your instruments more
frequently.
 Legal requirements: In certain industries, rules and regulations may require
you to clean tools more often. For example, food-related businesses must
adhere to higher cleanliness standards than many other industries.

It’s a smart rule of thumb to inspect and, if needed, clean instruments before each
use. Before using a device, look for foreign matter on it, as this material could affect
the readings.
Spot Cleaning

At times, you may need to do some maintenance beyond your typical scheduled
gage cleaning. This type of upkeep is spot cleaning, and is a more vigorous method
you use when your routine maintenance doesn’t remove all foreign matter. Spot
cleaning may involve using stronger cleaners, repeating cleaning processes until you
remove all contaminants or other techniques.

Handling

Another critical element of precision instrument care is handling measuring

instruments correctly during use. Taking care to avoid accidental damage and use
your tools correctly can help to extend their life and ensure accurate readings.

When using a measuring tool, it doesn’t have the protection of its case or storage
space, so it’s especially crucial to handle it carefully. Take care to avoid sudden
shocks or rough treatment such as dropping, throwing or banging the device against
hard surfaces. Placing rubber mats in workspaces can help protect tools from
damage should someone accidentally drop them.

It’s also essential that you only use your instruments for their intended purposes.
Never use measuring tools as hammers or to pry open other objects. Calipers, for
instance, have ID jaws that come to sharp points. They appear to be ideal for
cutting open boxes, but using calipers in this way cause burrs to form on the jaws.
Even though these burrs may be too small to see with the naked eye, they can still
affect the accuracy of the instrument.

As mentioned earlier, you may also want to avoid touching instruments that are
especially sensitive with your bare hands, as the oils on your skin can cause
corrosion. For some tools, minimizing the time you spend holding it or only touching
it at certain points may be enough. For the most sensitive instruments or those you
need to handle more frequently, you can use lint-free gloves or accessories, such as
tweezers, lifters and forks, made specifically to handle sensitive instruments.

Another reason to avoid handling measuring tools for long periods is the heat your
body produces. Holding an instrument for an extended period can cause it to heat
up, potentially throwing off the accuracy of the unit. You should also avoid setting it
on hot or cold sources and keep it away from sources of cold air or heat.
Throughout the entire process of using the instrument, be careful to keep it at the
proper temperature.

Training is vital for ensuring the proper handling of measuring equipment at all
times. Employees should receive sufficient training for each type of instrument they
will use, so they know how to take accurate measurements without damaging the
tools.

Maintenance

You will also need to periodically conduct preventive gage maintenance, including
regular lubrication and calibration. It’s helpful to create a schedule for when you will
perform maintenance so you can ensure the necessary tasks get done. You may also
want to create a system for keeping track of what maintenance tasks you complete
at which times and the conditions of your various instruments. You may want to do
some upkeep yourself and outsource other assignments to third parties.

One essential aspect of gage maintenance is lubrication, as it will prevent damage

caused by corrosion and oxidation. It’s crucial that you lubricate each device as
frequently as is recommended for each device and that you use the right lubricants
in the right amounts. For many types of precision measuring tools, lightly oil them
after each use. Be sure to remove any excess oil from the surfaces of the instrument
using a clean, dry cloth. If a device is visibly wet with oil, it may attract particles that
can cause internal wear of certain parts.

Be sure to use the right types of oils, and don’t use penetrating oils or other
substances made for purposes besides light lubrication. WD-40, for example, may
leave a film on your instrument that can affect its calibration. Even a thin layer can
throw off the accuracy of some sensitive instruments.

Calibration is another crucial part of proper gage maintenance. Many types of

measuring devices require regular calibration to ensure they perform correctly and
take accurate measurements. Calibration involves comparing a measurement made
by your instrument with the value of the same measurement, as defined by an
accepted standard. This comparison serves to check the accuracy of the tool. If the
device’s measurement differs from the standard to a significant degree, you will
need to repair the instrument so it is accurate. For some devices, you may want to
work with a professional calibration company that can ensure your devices have the
correct calibration.

You should calibrate your instruments according to the schedule recommended for
each device. All measurement devices drift out of calibration over time, so it’s vital to
recalibrate them regularly. In addition to your scheduled recalibrations, you may also
need to recalibrate your instruments in certain other situations, such as:

 When it’s undergone a shock such as a fall

 When it’s experienced harsh conditions
 When it’s producing readings that seem incorrect
Ensure Accurate Calibration With MicronPA

To ensure proper care and maintenance of your measuring tools, it’s crucial to work
with partners who can provide the maintenance-related services you need. One such
partner is MicronPA.

We can perform calibrations to help you ensure your equipment is taking accurate
measurements. We have received accreditation from the American Association for
Laboratory Accreditation and are ISO/IEC 17025:2005(E) registered, and we are
fully qualified to provide calibration services to organizations across a range of
industries. We offer in-house and on-site calibration services, and our technicians
will make necessary minor repairs and adjustments to bring your devices into spec
at no extra charge. For every calibration, we provide a calibration label that identifies
the equipment number, calibration date, the due date of next gage calibration, the
identity of our laboratory and the person who conducted the calibration. Additionally,
we’ll provide a long-form certificate that documents and validates all work, and we
also offer online reporting and storage of calibration records.

We also offer a quick turnaround time, pickup and delivery options and calibration
training. We have a wide range of calibration capabilities, including mechanical and
electronic calibration, and we base all our calibration procedures on ANSI, ASTM,
ASME or NAVAIR procedures.

To learn more about measuring tool care and maintenance and the calibration
services we offer, contact us today.

A 1.6.4 Apply recommended safety procedures

A 1.6.4.1 Ear protection.

By following a these smart noise protection tips from hearing specialists, you can
help prevent hearing loss and be happier and healthier in all areas of your life.

1. Take everyday noise protection care – Wearing high-quality industrial

earplugs or ear muffs helps protect your ears and your hearing.
2. Avoid loud environments – You don't have to be musician or jackhammer
operator to experience hearing loss on the job. While concerts and
construction zones are two environments that regularly cause hearing
damage, it can happen in any loud work environment around machinery,
large vehicles, etc. Many unions require construction workers to have their
hearing tested multiple times each year. While you may or may not need to
 do this, protecting your ears and avoiding intense volumes will help in noise
protection.
3. Wear noise-cancelling headphones – Many workers put on iPods and other
music devices to drown out the sound of background noise. Instead of
cranking up your favourite tunes to dangerous levels, wear noise-cancelling
earplugs. This reduces the overall noise pollution without exposing your ears
to additional strain.
4. Quit smoking and keep your blood sugar in check – Smoking doesn't just
damage your breathing, lungs and heart. It literally suffocates cells
throughout your body, including those inside your ear canal. If you smoke,
get your blood sugar levels checked regularly by your doctor to address any
imbalances as it can be very damaging for your ears. Do take an expert’s
advice by visiting a hearing clinic near you.
5. Never stick anything inside your ear canal – It’s important to choose a safe
noise protection device that doesn’t go too far into your ear canal. Similarly,
you don’t want to be sticking anything in your ears to remove earwax, such
as cotton swabs and other stick-like devices. Not only can these sticks and
other similar tools damage your hearing by puncturing your ear drum, they
also can inadvertently create an uncomfortable build-up by pushing wax and
debris further inside your ear canal. If you suspect any hearing damage
consult a professional ear specialist and have you ears checked and tested.
6. Use noise protection like ear plugs when needed – If you have hearing loss –
or are at risk of it – you should be using noise protection devices like ear
plugs at work, on the street and in any other noisy places.

A 1.6.4.2 Eye protection.

How can I protect my eyes from injury?

There are four things you can do to protect your eyes from injury:

1. Know the eye safety dangers at your work.

2. Eliminate hazards before starting work by using machine guards, work
screens or other engineering controls.
3. Use proper eye protection.
4. Keep your safety eyewear in good condition and have it replaced if it becomes
damaged.

Selection of protective eyewear appropriate for a given task should be made based
on a hazard assessment of each activity. Types of eye protection include:
 Non-prescription and prescription safety glasses — Although safety glasses
may look like normal dress eyewear, they are designed to provide significantly
more eye protection. They have lenses and frames that are much stronger
than regular eyeglasses. Safety glasses must meet standards. Safety glasses
provide eye protection for general working conditions where there may be
dust, chips or flying particles. Additional side protection can be provided by
the use of side shields and wraparound-style safety glasses.

Safety lenses are available in glass, plastic, polycarbonate and Trivex™

materials. While all four types must meet or exceed the minimum
requirements for protecting your eyes, polycarbonate lenses provide the
highest level of protection from impact.

Fig. 87

The shield provided by goggles protects eyes from chemical splashes and ocular
exposure to blood borne pathogens.

 Goggles — Goggles provide impact, dust and chemical splash protection. Like
safety glasses, safety goggles are highly impact resistant. In addition, they
provide a secure shield around the entire eye and protect against hazards
coming from any direction.

Goggles can be worn over prescription glasses and contact lenses to provide
protection from flying objects and chemical splashes and in dusty
environments.
 Face shields and helmets — Full face shields are used to protect workers
exposed to chemicals, heat, or blood borne pathogens. Helmets are used for
welding or working with molten materials. Face shields and helmets should
not be used as the sole means of protective eyewear. They need to be used
in conjunction with safety glasses or goggles. Wearing safety glasses or
goggles under face shields also provides protection when the shield is lifted.
 Special protection — Other types of protection, such as helmets or goggles
with special filters to protect the eyes from optical radiation exposure, should
be used for tasks such as welding or working with lasers.
One way to ensure that safety glasses provide adequate protection is to be sure they
fit properly. Also, eye protection devices must be properly maintained. Scratched
and dirty devices reduce vision, cause glare and may contribute to accidents.

Protective eyewear works best when you know how to use it properly. Combined
with machine guards, screened or divided work stations, and other engineering
controls, using the correct protective eyewear can help keep you safe from any type
of eye hazard.

Can contact lenses be worn safely for industrial jobs?

Fig. 88

While contact lenses cannot provide significant protection from ocular hazards in the
workplace, the improved vision many patients experience can have a positive impact
on workplace safety.

Contact lenses can't provide significant protection from eye hazards in the work
place. However, there is no evidence that the wearing of contact lenses increases
the risk of eye injury.

Contact lenses may actually contribute to worker safety and productivity because
they often provide improved vision in the workplace. Individuals who wear contact
lenses usually obtain a wider field of vision than with eyeglasses and often have less
visual distortion, especially with higher power lens prescriptions. In addition, wearing
contact lenses instead of eyeglasses can provide a better, more comfortable fit of
eye safety equipment, such as goggles and full face respirators.

The American Optometric Association believes that workers should be permitted to

wear contact lenses in most eye hazardous environments. However, eye protection
must be worn over contact lenses exactly as would be required of all workers
performing the same job.
Contact lenses may be worn safely under a variety of environmental situations. In
some cases, such as when hazardous chemical fumes are present, a determination
of contact lens wear may need to be made on a case by case basis. Check with your
employer on their safety policy regarding the wearing of contact lenses. Your
optometrist can assist your employer and you in determining whether you can safely
wear contact lenses in your workplace.

What should be done in an eye emergency?

Seek medical attention as soon as possible following an injury, particularly if you

have pain in the eye, blurred vision, loss of vision or loss of field of vision. There are
several simple first aid steps that can and should be taken until medical assistance is
obtained.

First aid for eye emergencies:

Chemicals in the eye

 Immediately flush the eye with water for at least 15 minutes. Place the eye
under a faucet or shower, use a garden hose, or pour water into the eye from
a clean container.
 If you are wearing contact lenses, do not wait to remove the lenses. Begin
flushing the eye immediately. This may wash the lens out of the eye.
 Do not try to neutralize the chemical with other substances.
 Do not bandage the eye.
 Seek immediate medical attention after flushing.

Particles in the eye

 Do not rub the eye.

 Try to let your tears wash the speck out or irrigate the eye with an artificial
tear solution.
 Try lifting the upper eyelid outward and down over the lower eyelid to remove
the particle.
 If the particle does not wash out, keep the eye closed, bandage it lightly and
seek medical care.
Blows to the eye

 Gently apply a cold compress without putting pressure on the eye. Crushed
ice in a plastic bag can be placed gently on the injured eye to reduce pain and
swelling.
 In cases of severe pain or reduced vision, seek immediate medical care.

Cuts and punctures to the eye or eyelid

 Do not wash out the eye.

 Do not attempt to remove an object that is stuck in the eye.
 Cover the eye with a rigid shield, like the bottom half of a paper cup.
 Seek immediate medical care.

A 1.6.4.3 Body protection

The Regulations’ definition of PPE excludes ordinary working clothes and uniforms
which have no specific protection for the wearer. However, body protection may be
required for extended periods of work outdoors to protect against the weather, and
to ensure high visibility during work where there is mixed vehicle and pedestrian
traffic

PPE for the body may also be required where workers are exposed to extremes of
temperature (whether outdoors or indoors), as well as chemical or metal splash,
spray from pressure leaks or spray guns, impact or penetration, contaminated dust,
excessive wear, entanglement of own clothing or the risk of drowning.

When choosing body protection the following factors should be considered:

 Thermal comfort, for example, due to sweating;

 Cost and practicality of cleaning;
 Emergency procedures, such as buoyancy or the need to be identified or
spotted in hazardous situations;
 Level of hygiene control required;
 Level of personal contamination;
 Personal preference;
 Restriction of movement;
 Storage;
 Temperature and humidity fluctuation;
  Whether the worker is involved in a process that is wet or dry.

A 1.6.4.4 Foot and leg protection

A wide range of safety footwear is available providing protection against many

hazards to the feet or legs including crushing, slipping, piercing, temperatures,
electricity, chemicals, cutting, and chopping. Depending on the hazard various PPE
options may be appropriate including safety boots and shoes with protective toe
caps and penetration-resistant mid-sole; gaiters; leggings; and spats.

A 1.6.4.5 Hand and arm protection

Most work requires a degree of manual dexterity and consequently the hands are
exposed to a wide range of hazards Risks include cuts, abrasions, heat, cold,
chemical contamination, vibration, burns, infection, skin irritation and dermatitis.

Before selecting hand and arm protection, the hierarchy of control measures must
be followed. Gloves and gauntlets provide the main form of hand protection against
a range of industrial hazards, but other forms of PPE such as mitts, wrist cuffs or
armlets may also be used.

In the case of manual handling where there may be a risk of piercing by abrasive,
sharp or pointed objects, gloves should be provided where these hazards cannot
otherwise be removed, isolated or reduced to an acceptable level. Such gloves are
usually made from leather, chain mail, rubber, knitted Kevlar or stout canvas.
However, gloves should not normally be worn where there is a risk of them being
caught in machinery.

Where chemical exposure is a hazard, and the risk extends to contact with the arms,
gauntlets should be specified rather than gloves.
A 1.6.4.6 Head and scalp protection

There are five primary purposes of head protection, to protect:

 The head in falls;

 Against falling objects, impact with fixed objects, or wielded weapons;
 The head by offering thermal insulation;
 Against entanglement and laceration to the head;
 Against scalping/entanglement particularly on machinery where injuries are
still numerous. Hair-nets and caps are also used for hygiene reasons.

The safety helmet

There are many different designs of safety helmets, but fundamentally they have the
same purpose and that is to protect the wearer from head injury arising from falling
objects. It is important to select a helmet which is designed to a recognised
standard, and therefore will have been tested to ensure proper protection of the
user. Most countries have established national or international standards relating to
safety helmets. Safety helmets are typically of polycarbonate construction and
designed to protect against impact, for example from falling objects. Many
international standards also meet requirements for use at low or high temperatures,
electrical insulation and molten metal splash. The helmet should have an adjustable
headband to ensure good fit and comfort. Safety helmets have a shelf life, which is
usually 2 to 3 years, and the helmet should not be used beyond its expected life
span and a replacement regime should be established. Helmets which have received
an impact, even from dropping the helmet, should be withdrawn from use. Helmets
are sometimes adulterated with names and logos.

This can sometimes affect the integrity of the helmet because of the solvents which
are sometimes present in inks, markers and labels used for personalisation of
helmets. Only forms of marking which the maker approves should be used.
Chinstraps are also essential to prevent the helmet from falling off in windy
conditions or during activities which might cause the helmet to fall off.
UNIT A 1.7: PERFORMING BENCHWORK IN THE WORKSHOP

INTRODUCTION

Marking out is a means of transferring shapes and lines onto material to provide a
guide for cutting, bending, shaping and various other processes. Accurate marking
and punch marking are necessary preparatory operations for subsequent
working operations, such as cutting, forming and joining in single-piece production.
Careful and accurate scribing, easily visible during the entire manufacturing process
is essential for the dimensional accuracy of the finished product. Marking out and
measuring are important in ensuring materials will fit together properly. In this unit,
you will be introduced to different types of marking out tools.

A 1.7.1. Identify marking out tools.

A 1.7.2. Use marking out tools.

A 1.7.3. Perform Bench work.

A 1.7.1. 1 Punches

There are two basic types of punches; solid (1) which are the most common, and
hollow (2) which are usually designed for punching holes in leather, paper, and
other similar materials. Solid punches are used to mark metal, drive pins, align
holes and to do other similar jobs.

Fig. 89
Mechanical engineering workshops extensively use various types of punches. Few of
the basic types include centre punch, prick punch, pin punch and drift punch.
Workshops use punches for:

 locating centres for drawing circles

 punching holes in sheet metals
 starting holes for drilling removing damaged rivets bolts or pins transferring
location of holes in patterns.

Classification and Use of Punches

Punches are usually classified according to the shape of their points.

Prick punch

The prick punch is useful for placing reference marks on metal. You can use this to
transfer dimensions from a paper pattern directly on to the metal. For this, you will
need to place the paper pattern directly on the metal and orient it correctly.

Now, go over the outline of the pattern with the prick punch. Tap it lightly with a
small hammer so that the punch makes slight indentations on the metal at major
points on the drawing. Use these indentations as reference marks for cutting the
metal.

PRECAUTIONS

Be careful never to strike a heavy blow with the hammer as it may cause the prick
punch to bend or even damage the work material excessively.

Centre punch

A centre punch is useful when making large indentations in metal, such as necessary
to engage a twist drill. Usually, a centre punch is heavier than a prick punch and has
a point ground to an angle of 60º.

Precaution

Take care that you do not strike with so much force as to cause the end to protrude
through or dimple the metal around the indentation.

Drive punch

The drive punch is used for driving out damaged rivets, bolts and pins that are
bound up in holes. The drive punch has a flat face instead of a point. The width of
its face defines this type of punch, for example, 1/8-in or 1/4-in. The sides of a drive
punch will taper all the way down to the face, but sometimes you may need to use a
punch with a straight shank. This is called the pin or drift punch.
In practice, you first use a drive punch to drive the pin or bolt that is to be removed
until the hole blocks the progress of the punch. You then use a pin punch to drive
the bolt or pin the rest of the way until it is ejected from the hole.

PRECAUTION

Be careful not to use a prick or a centre punch to remove bolts or pins from holes,
as the point of the punch will spread the object making it even more difficult to
remove.

When necessary to fit a drill-locating hole in a template, you must use a transfer
punch. The transfer punch is typically about 4-inches long and has a point that
initially tapers, then runs straight for a short distance. The tip of the transfer punch
is similar to that of a prick punch. True to its name, the transfer punch is useful for
transferring the location of holes through a pattern or a template on to the metal.

Hollow punch

Fig. 90

Taper punch

Fig. 91

Surface Plate

A surface plate is a solid, flat plate used as the main horizontal reference plane for
precision inspection, marking out (layout), and tooling setup.] The surface plate is
often used as the baseline for all measurements to a workpiece, therefore one
primary surface is finished extremely flat with tolerances below 11.5 μm.
Types of Surface Plate
According to Material used, there are three types of Surface Plates

1. Granite Surface Plate

2. Cast Iron Surface Plate
3. Glass Plate

Granite Surface Plate

 Granite surface plate have more rigidity for the same depth with the absence
of corrosion.

 They provide a high modulus of rigidity and are moisture free.

Metallic objects like manufactured components/jobs can easily slide on their
surface.

Fig. 90

Cast Iron Surface Plate

Cast-Iron surface plates used after rough machining is done followed by seasoning
for suitable period. Then, heat treatment for relive the internal stress.

Fig. 91
Glass Surface Plate
These are comparatively light in weight and free from burr and corrosion.
Accuracy varies in the range 0.004 to 0.008 mm.

Combination Square

This is one of the most useful and convenient tools for laying out small work. It is
used as a square for measuring or laying out 90° or 45° angles. A spirit level is
mounted in the stock. Available in 300mm lengths.

Fig. 92

Trammel Points

These are used for scribing large arcs and circles. They are manufactured in various
types with two straight, removable legs tapered to needle points and attached to
separated heads or holders. The heads or holders slide on wood or steel beams and
are held in place by thumb screws. Either of the points can be removed and often
one point has adjustment for fine settings. A special clamp for a pencil can be
attached to one of the points.
 Fig. 93

Dividers

This is made with each straight leg tapered to a needle point. Dividers are
manufactured in various sizes and types and are used to space off equal distances,
to divide lines into equal parts and to scribe arcs and circles. Spring loaded screw
dividers are also available. Supplied in lengths from 150mm to 500mm. Spring
dividers are also available in sizes from 75mm to 300mm.

Fig. 94
Vernier

Named after its inventor, the vernier scale is incorporated in many measuring
instruments, the most commonly used of which is the sliding caliper gauge. It can be
used for taking both internal and external measurements. These gauges are made
from fine quality alloy steels and are very accurately finished.

Fig. 95

Scribing block

Fig. 96

Scriber

A scriber is sometimes called the metal worker’s pencil. It is made of high carbon
steel and used for marking lines.
It is a piece of hardened rod with a pointed needle on one or both side. It is used to
draw parallel lines of desired length. A scriber is used for scratching lines on sheet
metal during the process of laying out a job.

They are in different shapes as shown below.

Fig. 97

Steel Square

The flat Steel Square is used to layout right angles (90°) and can also be used as a
scale. It is an invaluable tool for accurate layout work in pattern drafting. The long
arm is known as the body or blade; the short arm is known as the heel or tongue.
These squares come in various sizes.

Fig. 98

Straight edge

The Straight Edge is used as a guide for a scriber or pencil when marking or drawing
a straight between two points. It is also used in conjunction with square to draw
lines at right angles.
 Fig. 99

Odd leg calliper

Odd leg callipers are used to draw lines parallel to an edge. They consist of one
calliper leg and an leg with an adjustable scriber point. Odd leg callipers can also be
used to lay out the centre of round stock.

A1.7.3 Perform Bench work

 Selecting a project
 Designing the project
 Applying the tools
UNIT A1.8 USING FASTENERS

1.8.1 Identify types of fasteners

1.8.2 Apply torquing techniques

1.8.3 Apply fasteners

1.8.1 Identify types of fasteners

Mechanical fasterners

Size of fasteners

The size of the fastener is identified by the shank diameter and length, normaly
designated as follows:
 Fig. 100

Note that identification class numbers correspond to bolt strength. Therefore

increasing identification number relates to increasing bolt strength.

Hex nut strength identification

 Fig. 101

Note:

 Increasing number of dots represents increasing strength

 Increasing numbers represent increasing strength

Bolts

Fig. 102

 These are bolts with a hexagonal head with threads for use with a nut or
tappered hole abreviated as HHMB Or HXBT.

Fig. 103

 These are bolts with a smooth rounded head that has a small square section
underneath
 The carriage bolt is used extensively in security fixings, such as locks and
hinges, where the bolt must be removable from one side only.
 Fig. 104

 Bolt with a wood thread and pointed tip abbreviated as Lag

Fig. 105

 J shaped bolts are used for tie down or as an open eye bolt

Fig. 106

 Bolts in U shape for attaching to pipe or other round surfaces. They are also
available with a square bend.

Fig. 107

 These are also known as stripper bolts are used to create a pivot point
 Fig. 108

 Elevator Bolts are often used in conveyor systems. They have a large flat
head

Fig. 109

 Sex Bolts (a.k.a, barrel nuts or Chicago bolts) have a female thread and are
used for through bolting applications where a head is desired on both sides of
the joint.

Fig. 110

 Hanger Bolts have wood thread on one end and machine thread on the other
end.

Nuts
 Fig. 111

A – Hex: A six sided nut. Also referd to as a finished Hex Nut.

B – Heavy Hex: A heavier pattern version of a standard hex nut.

C – Nylock nut: A nut with a nylon insert to prevent backing off. Also refered to as

Nylon insert lock

D – Jam: A Hex nut with a reduced height.

E – Nylon insert jam lock: A Nylock nut with a reduced height.

F – Wing: A Nut with wings for hand tightening.

G – Cap: A nut with a domed top over the end of the fastener

H – Acorn: Acorn nuts are a high crown type of cap nut, used for appearance.

I – Flange: A nut with a built in washer like flange.

J – tee: A nut designed to be driven into wood to create a threaded hole

K – Square: A four sided nut.

L – Prevalling torque lock: A non reversible lock nut used for high temperature
 Applications

M – K-Lock or Kep: A nut with an attached free - spinning external tooth lock

Washer.

N – Coupling: Coupling nuts are long nuts used to connect pieces of threaded rod or

other male fasteners.

O – Slotted: Slotted nuts are used in conjunction with a cotter pin on drilled shank

fasteners to prevent loosening.

P – Castle: Castle nuts are used in conjunction with a cotter pin on drilled shank

fasteners to prevent loosening

Dowels

There are many types of pins used as fasteners. At its simplest, a dowel pin is just a
solid cylinder of material, which is inserted through a hole.

 Steel dowel pins are often used in precision engineering applications for
accurate location and alignment.
 Dowels have chamfers at each end to enable insertion and to guide alignment
as seen in the diagram below.

Fig. 112

Nonmechanical fasteners

1. Glue (Adhesive): Chemical adhesives and sealants may provide added holding
force and sealing ability when two components are joined.

 When using a chemical adhesive or sealant, follow the manufacturer’s

instructions. Note that some adhesives molecularly bond to the surface of
 materials, causing destruction on removal. Some can be harmful on contact
with skin. In almost all cases, the material safety data sheet (MSDS) for these
products is published on the company’s Web site.

2. Soldering

Soldering is a joining process used to join different types of metals together

by melting solder. Solder is a metal alloy usually made of tin and lead which is
melted using a hot iron.

Types of Soldering

There are three types of soldering which use increasingly higher temperatures, and
in turn produce progressively stronger joints as discussed below:

1. Soft soldering (90 °C - 450 °C)

This process has the lowest filler metal melting point of all the soldering types
at less than around 400°C.

These filler metals are usually alloys, often containing lead with liquidus
temperatures under 350°C. Due to the low temperatures used in soft
soldering, this process thermally stresses components the least, however, the
process does not make strong joints and so it is unsuitable for mechanical
load-bearing applications.

It is also not suited for high temperature use as this type of solder loses
strength and melts.

2. Hard (silver) soldering (>450 °C)

In this type of soldering brass or silver is the bonding metal used, and
requires a blowtorch to achieve the temperatures at which the solder metals.

3. Brazing (>450 °C)

This type of soldering uses a metal with a much higher melting point than
those used in hard and soft soldering. However, similarly to hard soldering,
the metal being bonded is heated as opposed to being melted.

Once both the materials are heated sufficiently, you can then place the
soldering metal between them which melts and acts as a bonding agent.
 Fig. 113

1.8.2 Applying torqueing techniques.

The torque wrench is used to measure an objects resistance to turning and to

provide precise tightening of threaded fasteners.

The objective of torqueing fasteners is to ensure that a specified clamping force

between two components is achieved. However, an estimated 90% of the applied
force to a torque wrench is required to overcome the friction of the fastener thread
surface area, with about 10% contributing to clamping force.

Types of torque wrenches.

1. Click type torque wrench

Fig. 114

1.1 A – Fixed head /Rigid case

1.1 B – Swivel ratchet head

 Click-type torque wrenches should always be backed off to a zero reading
after use and their calibration should be routinely checked.

2. Dial type torque wrenches.

Fig.115

Dial-type torque wrenches have circular dial scales with a needle that
indicates the applied torque value. These tend to be more useful when
torqueing sequences of fasteners at different torque values.

3. Beam-type torque wrench.

This type of torque wrench uses a flexible, medium alloy steel shaft (beam)
that deflects when torque is applied. It has the advantage of good accuracy
and seldom require calibrating.

How to use a torque wrench?

 First select the proper torque value for the torqueing procedure you are
using.
 Next, select the torque wrench with the correct capacity.

Impact wrenches

An impact wrench is a power tool used for loosening or tightening lug nuts,
large bolts, and frozen or rusted fasteners. They provide a very high
rotational torque that a regular power driver cannot provide. Impact
wrenches achieve this by an internal hammering mechanism that transfers
kinetic energy onto the output shaft.
Specifications

The follow specifications determine the functionality of an impact wrench.

 Output torque: Amount of torque generated at the output shaft.

 Drive size: The size of the socket drive on the impact wrench.
 Impacts per second: The number of times the impact hammer hits the
anvil causing rotational motion in the output shaft.

Fig. 115
Application

Impact wrenches are widely used in automotive/heavy equipment industries.

The most common use that we all come across is the removal lug nuts when
we change the vehicle tires. Other uses of impact wrench include assembly of
automobiles, heavy equipment assembly, and maintenance, manufacturing of
machine tools, large construction projects etc.

Torque multiplier

Torque multipliers are used to dramatically increase the amount of controlled

torque which can be applied to a nut or bolt. Torque multipliers allow workers
to rapidly and accurately assemble or repair heavy products, machinery,
vessels, or structures.

To use a torque multiplier, you must select one with an output capacity above
the required torque. Be sure to follow the manufacturers operating manual to
avoid personnel injury and damage to the equipment.

Impact wrenches are powered either by electric motor or compressed air.

Fig. 116
Torqueing sequence

Fig. 116

1. Diagonal / Criss crossing

2. Circular

A B

Fig. 117
 Fig. 118

Exercise:

1. Identify the components above

2. Describe the correct tightening sequence in each case

3. Select an appropriate torque wrench

4. Obtain correct torque values in each case

5. Demonstrate the correct procedure of torqueing

Torqueing value

In the absence of specific torque values, the following chart can be used as a
guide to the maximum safe torque for a particular size/grade of fastener.

There is no torque difference for fine or coarse threads. Torque values are
based on clean, dry threads. Reduce value by 10% if threads are oiled before
assembly.
STANDARD TORQUE VALUES – METRIC SYSTEM

Fig. 119
1.8.3 APPLY FASTENERS

 Separate joints
 Permanent joints
 Floating joints

Separate joints

The distinction between a bolt and a screw is not clearly defined. However, bolts are
designed to pass through an unthreaded hole in a component and be fastened with
the aid of a nut, although such a fastener can be used without a nut to tighten into a
threaded component such as a nut-plate or tapped housing.

Screws in contrast are used in components which contain their own thread, or to cut
its own internal thread into them. This definition allows ambiguity in the description
of a fastener depending on the application it is actually used for, and the terms screw
and bolt are widely used by different people or in different countries to apply to the
same or varying fastener.

 Where a fastener forms its own thread in the component being fastened, it is
called a screw.
 A screw must always be turned to assemble the joint. Many bolts are held fixed
in place during assembly, either by a tool or by a design of non-rotating bolt,
such as a carriage bolt, and only the corresponding nut is turned

Fig. 120

Permanent joints

Permanent joints are joints that provide a rigid mechanical connection of parts in an
assembly of a machine throughout the period of use. A permanent joint usually
cannot be disassembled without destroying the parts or damaging their surfaces.
The following are the main types of permanent joints:
 Riveted
 Welded
 Soldered
 Pressed
  Cemented
 Rolled
 Combined (cemented and welded)
The choice of a permanent joint is determined by the requirements of manufacture,
assembly, and operation of the machine and also economic consideration.

What are the types of permanent fasteners?

Floating joints
A floating joint is mainly designed to absorb any "off-centering" or "loss of parallel
accuracy" between a cylinder and the driven body. A floating joint has the following
merits:
 Centering is unnecessary
 Installation time is drastically reduced
 And a high level of machining accuracy is also unnecessary.

Fig. 121
UNIT A1.9 RIGGING

1.9.1 Identify different types of lifting and support equipment.

Fig. 122
Types of jacks

1. Floor jack

Fig. 122

Floor jack is commonly known as the tool for lifting vehicles like cars, on one side in
order to change a tire or the vehicles undercarriage.
Jacks are available in a variety of sizes and they lift weight according to their size

Maintenance tips

 Always make sure that the piston and the pump are pulled in and store the
jack on its base and not on its side to avoid leakage
 Keep the jack away from moisture
 Always check the jack before operation. Check for damage, cracks and
leakage if it is a hydraulic jack
 Always clean the jack after use
 Change oil from time to time and purge off air

Bottle jack

Fig. 123

Mechanical Jack
Types of mechanical jacks

Fig. 124
 Fig. 125

Ratchet jacks

Fig. 126
Screw jacks

Fig. 127
Tank jack
Simplex tank jacks offer an economical means of supporting and leveling vertical,
bottom or side opening filter and storage tanks. Screw operation provides infinite
adjustment for exact tank leveling and gravity flow.

Fig. 128

Sprader jack

Fig 129

The spreader jack has a closed height of only 3 inch with 1 inch stroke for
adjustments and can support 3 tons.
FOLK LIFTS

Fig. 130

A forklift is also known as a lift truck essentially because it’s a truck that
can lift loads using a set of forks. A forklift can be used in numerous
places such as warehouses, factories, farms, shipping yards and much
more. There are many types of forklifts which can be called a variety of
different names; in this case we will use the basic names of the forklifts
when describing their capabilities.
 Fig. 131

 Mast: The mast is the vertical support that permits raising and
lowering the load.

 Carriage: A support structure where the forks are attached or

mounted.

 Back Rest: Attached to the carriage and prevents the load shifting
backwards, it protects the mast cylinders hoses as well as
preventing any goods falling through the mast and hitting the
operator.

 Fork (Tynes): The cantilevered arms attached to the load carriage,

that engage the load.

 Lift Cylinder: Controls the amount by which the mast structure,

forks and carriage may be raised or lowered in the vertical.

 Overhead Guard: A framework/roof, providing overhead protection

for the operator from falling objects.
  Tilt Cylinder: Controls the amount by which the mast structure,
forks and carriage may be tilted beyond the vertical position,
forward or backward.

 Rating Plate: This is used to inform users of the maximum load a

forklift can legally carry.

 Counter Weight: The weight installed by the manufacturer to give

stability to the machine under load.

Types of Forklifts:

1. Industrial Reach Forklift Trucks

2. Industrial Counterbalance Forklifts
3. Rough Terrain Forklifts
4. Industrial Side Loader Forklifts
5. Telescopic Handler Forklifts
6. Pedestrian Operated Pallet Trucks

Industrial Reach Forklift Trucks:

Industrial reach forklift renowned for their extended lift height, making
them ideal in any warehousing situation with high rise storage pallet
racking. There are different types of reach forklift truck that are best
suited to a range of scenarios:

Fig.132
Industrial counter balance forklift.
Industrial counterbalance forklifts are the most common trucks used in
indoor warehouses and stores, although they can be used outdoors, on
stable, even surfaces. They offer straightforward operation and have dual
forks at the front of the truck that lift and transport the loads.
There are different types available, including three-wheel models that
provide better maneuverability, making them perfect for narrow aisles.

Fig. 133

Rough terrain forklift

For outdoor construction and with difficult terrain, a rough terrain forklift
is ideal. It has inflatable tyres with thicker threads, allowing stability on
uneven ground, as well as a more powerful engine so it can reach higher
speeds, and better manoeuvrability, making them must more robust and
durable.
This means that they are perfect for transporting heavy loads across
rugged terrain, with some models handling up to 3 tonnes per load. The
carefully calibrated counterbalance at the back of the truck prevents
overbalancing, with it being easily operated in mud, ice or even snow.

Fig. 134

Industrial side loader

Side loader forklift trucks are ideally suited to working in narrow
aisles. This is because the forks are mounted to the side of the truck and
can pick up wide or long loads that would be awkward or inaccessible with
a straight forward forklift.
There are two main types of side loader forklifts, the enclosed cab that is
most commonly used outdoors, and a stand up version that is more suited
to indoor tasks. There’s also a multi-way version, where the wheels all
rotate by 90°, allowing ease of transportation in any direction. As a result,
they are especially useful for lifting and transporting tubing, pipes and
sheet materials safely and efficiently.
 Fig. 135
.

Telescopic Handler Forklifts:

Telescopic handler forklifts are ideal for use in agriculture and all kinds of
industry that require high lifting. They offer a whole range of features
that make them much more useful in a range of situations, so much so
that they are often thought of as small cranes, rather than forklift trucks.
Telescopic handlers have the additional advantage of a single telescopic
boom that allows the truck to become a much more powerful and flexible
piece of machinery. There are a number of practical attachments
available, including a lift table, bucket, pallet fork and muck grabber.
These attachments, and the ability to extend the lifting capabilities with
front outriggers, enable the tele-handler to complete work at heights that
normal forklifts can’t reach.

Fig. 136
Pedestrian Operated Pallet Trucks:
Pedestrian operated lift trucks and pallet trucks are most commonly used
in warehouses and storage facilities for the easy transportation of pallets.
All pedestrian operated trucks have forks that slide beneath the pallet and
use a hydraulic jack to lift the load from the ground for easy
manoeuvrability.
There’s a wide variety of styles and designs available, some capable of
moving loads of 5000lbs, but the main difference is between the lift and
pallet trucks.
The pallet truck is simply for moving loads from one place to another at
ground level, but it has limited reach, while the lift truck is more complex
and is capable of transporting and lifting a palletised load onto a higher
level or for stacking loads on top of each other.

Fig. 137

Pedestrian operated lift trucks and pallet trucks are most commonly used
in warehouses and storage facilities for the easy transportation of pallets.
All pedestrian operated trucks have forks that slide beneath the pallet and
use a hydraulic jack to lift the load from the ground for easy
manoeuvrability.
There’s a wide variety of styles and designs available, some capable of
moving loads of 5000lbs, but the main difference is between the lift and
pallet trucks.
The pallet truck is simply for moving loads from one place to another at
ground level, but it has limited reach, while the lift truck is more complex
and is capable of transporting and lifting a palletized load onto a higher
level or for stacking loads on top of each other.
Identify Operators & Equipment:
Operators- Anyone who is expected to ever operate a forklift or other
"Powered Industrial Truck" such as man lifts, pallet jacks, etc., must be
trained and certified as an operator.
Equipment - There are many different types of powered industrial trucks.
Typically, these types of vehicles are known as forklifts or lift trucks. If
your employees will be expected to operate several different types of
powered industrial trucks, then training is required on the unique handling
characteristics of the vehicles.
What operators should inspect during the visual pre-use check:

 General condition and cleanliness.

 Floor - clear of objects that could cause an accident.

Fig. 138

 Overhead - no obstructions.

 Nearby objects to avoid as you drive away.

 Fire extinguisher - present and charged.

 Engine oil level, fuel level, radiator water level (LPG, gas and diesel
forklifts).

 Battery - fully charged; no exposed wires; plug connections not

loose, worn or dirty; vent caps not clogged; electrolyte levels in
cells is adequate; secured in place by hold downs or brackets.

 Bolts, nuts, guards, chains, or hydraulic hose reels not damaged,

missing or loose.
  Wheels and tires - check for wear, damage, and air pressure, if
pneumatic tires.

 Forks - forks not bent; no cracks present; positioning latches in

good working condition;

 carriage teeth not broken, chipped or worn.

 Chain anchor pins - not worn, loose or bent.

 Fluid leaks - no damp spots or drips.

 Hoses - held securely; not loose, crimped, worn or rubbing.

 Horn - working and loud enough to be heard in working

environment; other warning devices operational.

 Seatbelt and/or operator restraint device (if equipped) - belts and

restraints work properly; no visible wear or damage; anchors,
buckles, etc. function properly.

 Overhead guard - no damaged areas.

Fig. 139

Inspection during the operational pre-use check:

 Foot Brake - pedal holds, unit stops smoothly.

 Parking Brake - holds against slight acceleration.

 Deadman Seat Brake - holds when operator rises from seat.

 Clutch and Gearshift - shifts smoothly with no jumping or jerking.

  Dash Control Panel - all lights and gauges are operational.

 Steering - moves smoothly.

 Lift Mechanism - operates smoothly (check by raising forks to

maximum height then lowering forks completely).

 Tilt Mechanism - moves smoothly, holds (check by tilting mast all

the way forward and backward).

 Cylinders and Hoses - not leaking after above checks.

 Listen for any unusual sounds or noises.

 Lights - headlights and warning lights are operational.

Report any problems identified in daily check to the supervisor

immediately.

Behavioral and operational factors can contribute to forklift trucks

accidents:

 Traveling at excessive speed.

 Riding with the load elevated.

 Improper backing up techniques

Fig. 140

 Improper turning, breaking or accelerating.

 Improper warnings to others about a forklift in use nearby.

  Poor communication during shared tasks, or in shared spaces.

 Riding or giving rides on forklift or load.

 Parking the forklift improperly.

 Improper blocking of wheels on semi-trailers or railway cars.

 Horseplay; stunt driving; jerky, erratic driving.

 Inadequate servicing of the forklift.

Workplace design contribute to forklift trucks accidents:

 Narrow aisles.

 Crowded, cluttered aisles.

 Obstructions at intersections and doors.

 Volume of traffic in work area.

 Walking and working in the general area of forklift operations.

 Other workplace conditions such as noise, odours, toxic gases, dust,

or poor lighting.

 Many ramps with different surfaces.

 Condition of loading dock.

Characteristics of the load create a hazard:

 Poorly stacked or piled on the pallet.

 Pallets in poor repair.

 Load too heavy.

 Load unstable or blocking vision.

Design features increase the risk for forklift accidents:

 Malfunction of brakes.

 Malfunction of steering.
  Malfunction of clutch, shift linkage, or transmission.

Fig.141

 Malfunction of mast assembly.

 Leaks in hydraulic systems or transmission.

 Safety devices lacking, inadequate, or malfunctioning.

 Emissions from forklifts.

 Blind spots or obstructions blocking driver's view.\

 Poor layout of controls and displays.

Important points of a periodical (six months) fork inspection:

 Check fork blades for wear. Forks are constantly subjected to

abrasion by concrete floors, steel shelving, etc. This abrasion can
reduce the thickness of a fork until it cannot lift loads up to the
designed capacity.

 Check for distortion. Forks can be bent out of shape. Depending on

distortion, some forks can be straightened. The fork manufacturer is
best qualified to correct this. Your local forklift supplier can make
the arrangements.

 Check for cracks in heel and hanger. Cracks may appear on forks
where attachments are welded on or in the inside radius of the bend
area. Periodic inspection using a magnetic particle or dye penetrant
test can detect cracks. Approved grinding methods may grind out
and polish these blemishes, depending on the depth of the crack.
Contact your forklift supplier or the manufacturer for additional
information.
  Replace, when necessary, with good quality forks. When ordering or
reordering forks, make sure you are getting high quality forks that
will do your lifting jobs safely. Insist on forged forks or ones with an
upset heel.

 Use the proper forks. Custom-designed forks may be needed for:

o unusual lifting conditions
o spark-free areas
o high heat furnace areas
o special object lifting

 Contact your forklift supplier for assistance.

Fig. 142

Load the forklift truck:

 Do not exceed the recommended load limit of your lift truck. Each
lift truck has a maximum load limit. The load limit is shown on the
data plate of the lift truck.
 Fig. 143

 Position the load according to the recommended load center. The

load limit of the lift truck decreases as the load center is raised.

 Do not add extra weight to counterbalance an overload.

 Keep loads close to the front wheels to keep lift truck stable

Fig. 144

Insert the fork when loading the forklift truck:

 Keep the mast of the forklift in an upright position before inserting

the forks into a pallet
  Level the fork before inserting it into the pallet.

Fig. 145

 Insert the fork all the way under the load (use forks that are at
least two-thirds of the load length).

 Adjust the fork as wide as possible to fit the load and to provide a
more even distribution of weight.

 Space the fork evenly from the center stringer of the pallet to
balance the load.

 Do not protrude the fork past the back of a pallet when stacking in
tight areas.

Fig. 146

 Ensure that the load is secured before moving. If it is not, pile the
load again or strap the load to skid.

 Ensure that loads on pallets are stable, neat, cross-tied if possible,

and evenly distributed.

 Remove damaged pallets from service.

 Fig. 147

Load (unload) vehicles using a forklift truck?

 Keep forks pointed downhill when traveling without a load on a

ramp.

 Keep forks pointed uphill when traveling with a load on a ramp.

Fig. 148

 Stay clear of edges of docks, rail cars or ramps. Have edges clearly
marked.

 Do not tow or push railway cars or trucks with a forklift.

 Do not operate forklifts inside vehicles for long periods without

ventilation.
  Make sure that the dock plate is properly secured and can support
the load before driving over it. (Load weight should be clearly
marked.)

 Drive carefully and slowly over the plate. Do not spin wheels.

Precautions when loading railway cars.

 Cross railway track on a diagonal.

 Set handbrakes, wheel blocks and derailer before entering a railway

car.

 Do not park a forklift within three meters of railway tracks.

 Do not open railway car doors with forklift forks.

Fig. 149

Maintain control when traveling:

 Tilt loads backwards.

 Travel with forks as low as possible from the floor and tilted back
(maximum 10cm/4" above the floor).

 Match speed to driving, load and workplace conditions.

 Obey posted traffic signs.

 Decrease speed at all corners, sound horn and watch the swing of
both the rear of the lift truck and the load.

 Watch for pedestrians.

 Avoid sudden stops.

 Fig. 150

 Travel in reverse when a load blocks your vision and always look in
the direction of travel.

 Check for adequate overhead clearance when entering an area or

when raising the forks.

 Watch out for the following dangers on the floor or roadway: oil
spots, wet spots, loose objects, or holes, rough surfaces, people,
and other vehicles.

 Approach at an angle when crossing railroad tracks.

 Maintain a safe working limit from all overhead power lines.

 Do not turn on ramps.

 Do not elevate the load when the forklift truck is on an incline.

How should you steer to maintain control:

 Have the load carried by the front wheels.

  Turn with the rear wheels.

 Do not turn a lift truck steering wheel sharply at fast speeds.

 Do not overload a lift truck. It can cause a loss of steering control.

 Do not add extra weight to a counterweight to improve steering.

Fig. 153

Safety procedures should you follow when servicing a forklift truck:

 Permit only qualified persons to service and maintain equipment.

 Wear proper personal protective equipment. Wear goggles when

grinding. Wear face shields (with safety goggles), aprons, gloves
and rubber boots when handling lead-acid batteries or working
around battery-charging equipment. Wear leather gloves when
changing LPG fuel tanks.

 Disconnect all batteries before doing any work.

 Before servicing LPG forklifts:

1. Shut off the tank fuel valve.
2. Run the engine until it stops.
3. Disconnect the tank from the hose.
 Block the forklift securely when removing wheels.

 Support the forklift hood in upright position or remove to do work.

Keep the work area clean and well lit.

 Fig. 154

 Clean spilled oil or hydraulic fluid immediately.

 Check all tools before using.

 Remove all tools and parts before starting the engine.

 Handle batteries with care.

 Avoid contact with battery terminals with hoisting chains, tools and
metal objects.

 Cover the battery top with some insulating material.

 Attach a chain hoist to the counterweight before removing it from a

forklift.

 Check the bolts holding the counterweight to the body and replace
any worn or missing bolts.

 Find out why a forklift is in for repairs before starting or driving it.

 Check the operator's daily checklist before making repairs.

 Inspect by magnetic particle testing the main mast welds and forks
annually or when cracks appear.
 Inspect by magnetic particle testing all hoses, couplings, fittings
and connections to the cylinders in the main mast assembly and the
tilt control system.

 Inspect forks for distorted, twisted or bent sections. If defects are

found, test the area of concern.

Operators follow when changing fuel tanks:

Procedure for changing propane (LPG) cylinders:
1. Wear eye protection and insulated, loose fitting gloves such as
leather (dry) or insulated neoprene.
2. Close the valve on the cylinder.
3. Run the engine until it stops. This ensures that the connection hose
is empty.
4. Shut off the engine.
5. Open the connecting nut and inspect valves for leaking.
DoNOT use metal tools.
6. Disconnect the hose.
7. Disconnect the holding straps.
8. Remove the empty cylinder.
9. Replace with a full cylinder in the proper position.
Connect the holding straps.
10. Tighten the connecting nuts.
11. Open the valve for on the cylinder slowly and check for leaks

Use solution of soap and water. Smell – listen – look.

1. If the valve leaks:

2. 1st time - Tighten the nut and continue.
3. 2nd time - Change the cylinder.
4. 3rd time - Change the hose.
5. Open the valve fully (slowly).
6. Check that the hose is turned inward.
7. Secure the hose downward.
8. Secure the cylinder.
9. Start the engine and resume operation.
Crane

Fig. 155
Fig. 156
1.9.2 IDENTIFY DIFFERENT LIFTING ACCESSORIES

Chain blocks

Fig. 157
Fig. 158

Fig. 159
Fig. 160

Fig. 161
RATCHET HOIST

Types

Fig. 162

Fig. 162
SHACKLES

Fig. 163

TURN BACKLES

Fig. 164
EYE BOLT/NUT

Fig. 165

EYE HOOKS

Fig. 166

THIMBLES

Fig. 167

REPAIR LINKS FOR CHAINS

Fig. 168
PINS

Fig. 169

CLIPS

Fig. 170

PULLEYS

Fig. 171
U-BOLT

Fig. 171

SPREADER BAR

Fig. 172
SPREADER BEAMS

Fig. 173

DTS Telescopic Spreader Beam

Application

The spreader beam is used for lifting various loads up to 15 tonnes in spans from
1.2 to 6 meters.

The adjustable spreader beam is designed to use when the head room is not limited.
It adds stability to the lifting operations

Fig. 174
1.9.3 Use lifting terminologies

WLL- Working load limit

SWL – Safety working load

BL- Breaking load

PL- Proof loading

SF- Safety factor

CG- Centre of gravity

SL- Shocking load

1.9.4 USE LIFTING AND SUPPORT EQUIPMENT

Observe safety when using lifting and support equipment

 Hand signals

 Lifting and support points

 Lifting techniques
 Wood/stand blocking
 Check for breakages/cracks
 Check for loose bolts and knots

1.9.5 APPLY SAFETY AND CERTIFICATION REQUIREMENTS

Load balancing

Safe working load

Rigging certification

A certified rigger is a person who has been trained and certified to handle and move
loads. The level of certification depends upon the individual’s training, knowledge,
skill base, and ability to perform functions related to the selection, inspection, and
proper use of rigging equipment.

This person may be qualified in a craft or trade and carry an occupational title such
as iron worker, electrician, carpenter, millwright, mechanic, labourer, mason,
longshoreman, lineman, pipe fitter, boilermaker, and the like. (The persons
described in the categories above will be referred to as rigger even though they
carry another occupational title.)

Sling certification

1.10.1 FUNDAMENTALS OF WELDING

HEALTH AND SAFETY REQUIREMENTS FOR WELDING

SAFETY ATTIRE FOR PERSONAL PROTECTION

The following information provides safety concern towards protection against the
adverse effects of welding processes:

 Goggles must be worn to protect the welder’s eyes from heat, glare and
particles of hot metal.
 Overalls worn when welding should be made from a flame resistant cloth and
should be kept buttoned or zipped up to the neck so that particles of hot
metal and slag cannot lodge inside them.
 Sleeves and trousers should not have cuffs which can trap globules of hot
metal and hot slag. In addition, flame resistant head gear and a chrome
leather apron should be worn.
 Metal tongs should be used for holding or moving hot metal.
 Chrome leather gauntlet gloves and leather spats and a safety helmet
should also be worn when welding overhead or on vertical surfaces.
 Fume extraction is essential to remove the fumes given off by the hot flux
 Adequate general ventilation should also be provided.
 Site working often requires working aloft. Properly constructed
scaffold- ing should be provided with guard rails and toe boards for
safety

Note:
1. Exposure to welding arc radiation can cause burns similar to sunburn
and also cause severe irritation to your eyes. This condition is known as
‘arc-eye’. In the event of such a condition, do the following:
 Wash your eyes using a sterile eye bath and an approved eye
 lotion.
 Repeat the treatment every four hours.
 Wear dark glasses in brightly lit areas until the symptoms subside.
 Seek medical advice if the symptoms have not cleared within 36
to 48 hours

2. For site working, properly constructed scaffold- ing should be provided

with guard rails and toe boards for safety as shown in Fig. A ladder
should never be used to support the welder or any other employee
whilst working. It is only considered to be a means of access.
 Fig. 175

Scaffolding

3. Explosion risks.
 Explosions can occur when acetylene gas is present in air in any
proportions between 2% and 82%.
 Flash back. Another potential cause of explosions in any oxy-fuel
gas welding equipment. This generally occurs because of faulty
equipment or incorrect usage, mainly when lighting up the torch.
Fig. 176
WELDING

Welding is a fabrication process whereby two or more parts are fused together by
means of heat, pressure or both forming a join as the parts cool.

1.10.2 TYPES OF WELDING

There are several types of welding processes as listed below, but in this unit we shall
mainly concentrate on the two common types namely ARC WELDING and GAS
welding.

1. MIG welding
2. Stick welding
3. TIG welding
4. Plasma Arc welding
5. Electron beam welding
6. Laser beam welding
7. Gas welding
8. Arc welding

ARC WELDING / ELECTRIC WELDING

This is a process of welding in which the heat energy is obtained from electricity or
Arc welding is a type of welding process that uses an electric arc to create heat to
melt and join metals. A power supply creates an electric arc between a consumable
or non-consumable electrode and the base material using either direct (DC) or
alternating (AC) currents
Arc welding Equipment.

Below is a diagrammatic representation of the arc welding equipment.

Fig. 177

ARC welding Equipment – mains operated

Transformer rectifier D.C welding set Single operator A.C Welding set

Figure 178

Figure: 178. ARC welding Equipment – mains operated.

This equipment is designed to change the high-voltage alternating current mains

supply into safe, low-voltage, heavy current supply suitable for arc welding.

It can be seen that the output of arc-welding sets can have an alternating current
(a.c.) wave-form or be a direct current (d.c.) that flows continuously in one direct-
tion. The output potential should be between 50 volts and 100 volts for safety but
the current may be as high as 500 amperes.
The figure below shows a typical alternating current arc-welding circuit diagram
in order that you may appreciate machine operation, application, care and safety
aspects. It can be seen that, in addition to the transformer which reduces the
voltage, there is a tapped choke to control the current flow to suit the gauge of
electrode used.

Fig. 179
Circuit diagram of an alternating-current arc-welding set.

The external welding circuit

Fig. 180

Electrode holders: (a) Partially insulated type; (b) Fully insulated type
 Fig. 181
Return current clamps

The external circuit is normally set up by the welder him/or herself to suit the job
in hand and comprises of three important connections.
The welding lead.
This is a heavy duty flexible cable capable of carrying the maximum output
current for the set to which it is connected. This may be as much as 500 amperes.
It connects the welding set to the electrode holder.
The welding return lead.
This is a heavy duty cable of the same type and capacity as the welding lead. It
carries the return current from the work-piece back to the welding set, thus
completing the external welding circuit.
It is connected to the work-piece by means of screw or spring clamps as shown
in Fig. 181
The welding earth.
This is necessary on all welding circuits to maintain the work- piece and any other
associated equipment and structures connected to it at earth potential.

Electrode holders.
These should be soundly connected to the welding lead and have adequate rating
for the maximum welding current in order to prevent heating up and becoming
too hot to handle.
Electrode holders may be partially insulated or fully insulated as shown in Fig.
1.47. The protective guard (disc) of the partially insulated type of holder not only
protects the welder’s hands but also prevents short circuits should the holder be
laid down on the work-piece.

Safety and care.

The proper selection and care of welding cables is essential for safety and
efficiency. The most common faults include:
 Poor connections.
 Overlong cables leading to excessive volt-drop.
ELECTRODES
There are two main functions of an electrode in metal arc welding:
 The core wire conducts the electric current from the electrode
holder to the base metal through the arc.
 It deposits weld metal across the arc onto the base metal

Fig. 182
You may note that the flux covering melts at a slower rate than the metal core
and a cup is formed at the tip of the electrode which helps to direct the molten
metal to the required spot.

Types of electrodes

Electric arc welding electrodes are of generally following three types:

1. Carbon electrodes
2. Bare electrodes
3. Flux coated electrodes

Carbon electrodes
These electrodes are used in the carbon arc welding process. The arc is created
between the carbon electrode and the job. The arc melts a small pool in the job
and filler metal is added by using a separate rod.
Normally the carbon arc has very little use of welding. Its main application is in
cutting and gouging operations.
 Fig. 183
Carbon arc process
Bare electrodes
These electrodes are also used in some arc welding processes. An inert gas is used
to shield the molten weld metal and prevent it from absorbing oxygen and nitrogen.
Filler metal is separately added through a filler rod. Usually tungsten is used as one
of the bare wire electrode.

Fig.184
Process using bare electrode and gaseous shield
Flux coated electrodes
These are also used in the manual metal arc welding process for welding ferrous and
non-ferrous metals. The composition of coating provides the following:
1. Flux
2. The protective shield around the arc and
3. A protective slag which forms over the deposited weld metal during cooling.
 Fig. 185
Process using flux coated electrodes

Flux coated electrodes are in the following categories:

Merits of Flux coated electrodes

1. A good quality weld is made.

2. The arc remains stable.
3. The weld penetrates into the job.
4. The slag produced during welding reduces the cooling rate of the
weld metal.
5. Low oxidation.
6. Protect the weld metal to become brittle.
7. Overhead and vertical welding is easy.
8. The spatter loss is low and the bead remains controlled.
1.10.3 ARC WELDING PROCESS.
Material requirements
 Safety gogles or glasses
 Welding mask
 Gloves
 Leather jacket
 Ear protection
 Pliers
 Chipping hammer
 Wire brush
 Grinder with cutting / grinding disc/wire wheels
 Clamp
 Tape measure
 Metal ruler
 Fume extractor

The following procedures are the steps to achieving a good welding process.
Step 1: Safety. ...
Step 2: Gather necessary equipment. ...
Step 3: Clean your metal. ...
Step 4: Cut your metal. ...
Step 5: Set up your work-piece. ...
Step 6: Turn on the welder and adjust the settings. ...
Step 7: Tack-weld the work-piece. ...
Step 8: Fill in the remaining areas with 'bead' welds.
Step 9: Clean up your work piece

1.10.4 OXY-ACETYLENE WELDING

Oxy-acetylene welding is a method of joining metals by heating them to the

melting point using a mixture of oxygen and acetylene gases.

Acetylene

Acetylene is a fuel gas which produces a very high temperature flame with
the help of oxygen because it has more amount of carbon (92.3%) than any
other fuel gas. Its chemical symbol is C2 H2 and composed of:
- Carbon 92.3% (24 parts)
- Hydrogen 7.7% ( 2 parts)

OXY-ACETYLENE WELDING EQUIPMENT AND ACCESSORIES

The oxygen gas required for gas welding is stored in bottle shaped cylinders. These
cylinders are painted black color.
Oxygen cylinders can store gas to a capacity of 7 cubic millimetres with the pressure
ranging between 120 to 150 kg/cm2.

Oxygen pressure regulator

As shown in the diagram below, the regulator is used to reduce the pressure
according to the required working pressure and to control the flow of oxygen at a
constant rate to the blow pipe.

Fig. 186

Fig. 187
Note that the threaded connection is a right hand thread

Acetylene regulator

Fig. 188

This is also used to reduce the cylinder gas pressure to the required working
pressure and control the flow of acetylene gas at a constant rate to the blow pipe.
The threaded connections are left handed.

For quick identification of the acetylene regulator, a groove is cut at the corners of
the nut.

Rubber hose pipes and connections

These are used to carry gas from the regulator to the blowpipe. They are made
of strong canvas rubber having good flexibility. Hose-pipes which carry oxygen
are black in color and the acetylene hoses are of maroon color.

Hose protectors
At the blowpipes end of the rubber hoses hose-protectors are fitted. The hose
protectors are in the shape of a connecting union and have a non-return disc
fitted inside to protect from flashback and backfire during welding
 Fig. 189

Hose protector

Fig. 190

Welding torch

A set of interchangeable nozzles/ tips of different sizes is available to produces

smaller or bigger flames according to material thickness as shown in the figure
below:

Plate thickness Nozzle size

mm Number
0.8 1
1.2 2
1.6 3
2.4 5
3.0 7
4.0 10
5.0 13
 6.0 18
8.0 25
10.0 35
12.0 45
19.0 55
25.0 70
Over 25.0 90

GAS WELDING PROCESS.

Below is a list of materials necessary for the process of a gas welding project.

 Oxygen pressure regulator

 Acetylene pressure regulator
 Oxygen gas cylinder (Black)
 Acetylene gas cylinder (maroon/red)
 Oxygen gas hose(Blue)
 Acetylene gas hose(Red)
 Welding torch or blowpipe with a set of nozzles and gas lighter
 Filler rods and fluxes
 Protective clothing for the welder (e.g., asbestos apron, gloves, goggles, etc.)

The following procedures are steps to achieving a good gas welding process.

Step1. Separately purge both oxygen and fuel gas lines.

Step2. Open fuel gas valve 1/2 turn.
Step3. Ignite flame with striker.
Step4. Increase fuel gas flow until flame leaves end of tip and no
smoke is present.
Step 5. Decrease until flame goes back to tip.
Step 6. Open oxygen valve and adjust to neutral flame.
Step 7. Depress oxygen lever and make necessary adjustments.
 Neutral flame

Carburizing flame

Oxidizing flame

Fig. 191

Each flame pattern is suitable for welding specific metals as listed below:

NEUTRAL FLAME

 Mild steel
 Stainless steel
 Cast Iron
 Copper
 Aluminium

CARBURIZING FLAME

 High carbon steel

 Alloys of nickel and Monel
OXYDIZING FLAME

 zinc
 copper
 manganese steel
 cast iron

EXERCISE
Using available materials and equipment including safety requirements, perform the
following:
1. Gas welding
2. Arc welding