ChE Laws and Ethics

THE USE OF ENGLISH The Importance of English. The successful engineer must be something more than a skilled mechanic, an artisan or a designer. He must not only be able to make surveys and prepare plans and designs but he must also make reports to his clients or superiors, prepare instructions for his assistants and subordinates, write specifications, prepare agreements, both as a basis for receiving bids and for making contracts; he must originate, lay out and supervise or carry out contract works, and supervise the maintenance and operation of engineering plans. The ability to prepare clear, logical, forceful and correct English is an asset of great value to the engineer, and frequently means advancement beyond others of equal technical ability but without the ability of correct and proper expression. Obscure, incorrect and faulty language, used in engineering reports, instructions, contracts and specifications, frequently involves disputes and litigations, with the consequent loss of thousands of dollars, and in some cases misunderstandings which may cause the loss of lives and reputations. Any element in engineering education, the misuse of which may produce such dire results or the correct use of which may bring such great results, is worthy of the most careful consideration and attention. The command and intelligent use of language is often the best method of conveying to others an appreciation of the knowledge of the engineer and his ability to meet and solve engineering problems. For success the engineer must not only be technically able to solve the engineering problems which come to him for solution, but others must know and appreciate his ability. It is true that the best test of ability is the actual performance of the work in question,
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but knowledge of the ability so demonstrated is confined to the clients, employers, friends, colleagues or employees of the engineer, and a wider knowledge of that ability can be secured only by the spoken or written word. Engineering English. Engineering English should and does differ from the English of literature. Fine writing and picturesque language have little place in the writings of the engineer. The language should always be clear, definite and exact; it should often be brief, technical and to the point. In general, engineering English must be written with the particular parties in mind for whom it is intended, and their education, training, technical knowledge and point of view must be fully considered. Engineering writings may be subdivided into several classes; each more or less distinct, but such writings may frequently fall between or within more than one of these classes, and sometimes partake of the character of each. In general, letters, reports and papers may be written for: First: Non-technical readers. Second: Technical readers more or less acquainted with engineering matter but not particularly versed in the special subject treated. Third: Supervisors and assistants, those specially acquainted with [the subject matter treated. Fourth: Contracts and specifications. The Hearer or Reader. The knowledge and capacity of those to whom written or spoken language is addressed is an important element to be considered in the preparation of articles, reports or addresses. Technical matters should be explained in clear and simple language, so that the persons for whom it is written will understand the matter involved, the reasons for the plans proposed and the results to be accomplished. There are few technical matters which cannot be made so clear in a properly written paper or report that any good
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business man can understand them, and failure to prepare such papers that they can be so understood is usually due to a lack of understanding of the matter by the engineer himself. Papers on technical subjects must therefore be written with the capacity of the reader in view. When the paper is prepared for technical readers who have had a certain technical training, and are known to understand certain scientific principles, the matter may be presented in a different form and the special matters described must be so treated as to make them plain to others than the specialist. In such cases the discussion of the data and the principles on which the conclusions rest, becomes the important matter to be considered, and the explanations are needed only of those technical details that are special to the subject and are not commonly understood by the general professional man. When those addressed are specialists in the matter discussed, the data obtained and the methods of their derivation and investigation become of primary importance. Technical terms properly applied will add to the clearness of the exposition, and conclusions when drawn must be the obvious deduction from the data and the facts. In the writing of contracts and specifications, this in the execution of the work must usually be interpreted by men of varying capabilities and which may be and frequently are, subject to the interpretation of the court, the words should be as carefully chosen to express the exact meaning as are the mathematical symbols in an equation. There should be but one interpretation and that the one intended, and the exact meaning of both the common and technical words and terms used and their local or special significance should be thoroughly understood and appreciated. Ordinary words and terms must be
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used with great care, and frequently must be modified and defined so as to assure an exact interpretation of their meaning. Knowledge of Subject. The absolute prerequisite for clear and accurate technical writing is a clear and accurate knowledge of the subject which is to be discussed or described. While this is self-evident, lack of such knowledge is nevertheless an important reason for much and perhaps most of the obscurity in reports, technical papers and specifications. If a specification must be prepared or a technical detail described which is imperfectly understood by the writer, how then can it be made clear to others? It is impossible to convey a true idea which is not possessed by the writer, and the idea conveyed can never be clearer than the writer's understanding of the matter described. Accurate and complete knowledge requires study, application, effort and reflection. These, technical writers frequently fail to exercise, either from indolence, carelessness or lack of time, any one of which is a reason for obscure language, but no one of which can be considered as a valid excuse for such language. A knowledge of spelling, punctuation, grammar, rhetoric and

composition, and even a broad experience in the writing of technical English will not supply lack of knowledge of the subject matter. While these subjects are necessary elements of good English, and are indispensable for clear and exact English, and while the principles of rhetoric and composition are desirable and even essential for the best productions, they are all secondary to the idea or ideas which it is desired to convey. Failure to possess or to exercise knowledge of these subjects shows lack of cultivation and are undesirable, and in important cases highly objectionable. The exercise of such knowledge is desirable as a means to an end, but it cannot, without collateral knowledge of the subject matter, attain that end.

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For technical writing of every description, the essential feature is to have the subject well and thoroughly understood, to have something to say, and then to say it in the simplest, plainest, clearest language of which the writer is capable, keeping clearly in mind the capacity of the readers for whom the matter is intended. Knowledge of the subject is fundamental to success, and indispensable for clear technical exposition; and secondary, but yet very important, comes knowledge of spelling, punctuation, grammar, rhetoric, composition, and the meaning of words both common and technical. Logical Arrangement. While a clear statement of facts or requirements is essential to convey the ideas and meaning desired, when the matter discussed requires considerable space for its full consideration, the logical arrangement of the material becomes hardly less important. All technical writings are intended to convey to the reader knowledge of what the writer knows or desires, in such a manner that he shall clearly understand the subject discussed or the requirements described, as completely as necessary or desirable for the purpose in view. The subject should be considered with this end in view. Lit should be outlined in general and then discussed in detail, and the discussion should proceed logically from the fundamental and essential features to those that are subordinate and less important. The subject should first be analyzed and its fundamental and essential features separated and arranged in logical sequence. Each feature should be further considered, and the subordinate but essential qualifying factors arranged in a similar manner. When the entire subject has been treated in this

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manner, and an outline has been prepared, the preparation of the written matter can then proceed. The subject should first be discussed in a general way so as to give at once a concrete conception of the matter to be treated. Following this each feature can be taken up in the order determined and discussed as fully as its importance demands. The main ideas underlying the treatment should be: first, the arrangement of the entire subject in logical order both as regards main features and subordinate factors; and second, the discussion of each feature and each subordinate factor in a connected manner but at the same time so distinctly and separately as to accurately define to the mind of the reader its relative importance and its modifying effect on the entire subject. One main idea and one only should be developed in a paragraph, and the subject may and should be divided into such sections and subsections and such chapters or other subdivisions as may be necessary to accomplish the clear and logical presentation of the subject. As the subject is distinct from other subjects, so should the main divisions be separate and distinct from each other, and each should be devoted to the complete consideration of that particular feature to which it is assigned. In the same manner, each subdivision should be devoted exclusively to that one of the principal features of the main subject which is discussed therein, and each subordinate idea or qualifying influence should be assigned a section or a paragraph, as its importance warrants. With due study, reflection and practice, the development of a subject along the lines indicated is readily accomplished and if carried out with reasonable intelligence, will result in a clear exposition of the entire subject.

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The Outline. The general idea of the construction of the outline which should precede the writing of any extended technical paper can be readily acquired by the examination of the table of contents of any well written technical book or by the study of any well prepared specifications. In the preparation of an outline it must be understood that the purpose for which the paper is prepared may not require complete or even a well balanced treatment of the subject. These must receive more elaborate treatment, and matters of minor importance must be subordinated to the general purpose and more briefly treated or altogether ignored, as their importance, relative to the main object, warrants. What ideas are to be developed, what facts are to be presented, and what order of presentation will be the best and most logical and will most easily convey the meaning which it is desired to impress on the reader, are matters which depend on the purpose for which the paper is prepared and the readers to whom it will be presented. In general, the purpose and the reader must be kept continuously in mind, and all diversions which will tend to obscure the main object of the paper or distract the attention of the reader from that object, must be avoided. The outline should be regarded only as a means to an end, and should be changed or modified as the necessity for alteration may develop during the preparation of the paper. Facts and illustrations, which it may at first seem desirable to utilize, may be found, during the preparation of the paper, not to yield to satisfactory treatment, and others may be substituted to advantage. An outline should be prepared which will exhibit at a glance the plan of construction of the paper selected for study. Such an analytical outline will give the student a clear idea of the basis presumably used by the best writers in the
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preparation of their papers and will serve as a guide to the preparation of an outline for the subject at hand. Style. The education of technical men is largely scientific, and precision and efficiency are among the most important principles of their training. Such education is not complete until the value of literary ability is appreciated. The fundamental principle of expression either written or spoken is to secure efficiency in the comprehension of ideas by the person addressed, with the least possible mental effort. The engineer recognizes that in machinery, simplicity in design and the proper arrangements of parts are necessary for efficiency in power transmission. Complication in parts, unnecessary transformation and inconvenient arrangement result in needless loss of energy, and all losses in the machinery reduce the amount of energy which can be delivered for useful work, and such losses must therefore be reduced as far as possible. The same principles apply in the use of language. The mental power of the reader is to be utilized for the transmission of ideas by the mechanism of words. The amount of mental energy available for the purpose is limited. With this energy the reader must recognize and interpret the words used, arrange 'and combine the images suggested, and finally must realize the thoughts conveyed. Simplicity in language, when practicable, results in the highest efficiency in comprehension. A gesture or an exclamation frequently conveys a more accurate idea of the thought or feelings than a sentence or paragraph, and the spoken word is more efficient than the written.

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The careful choice of words, the accurate use of technical terms, correct grammatical construction, logical arrangement of ideas, clear methods of expression, the presentation of the matter in an attractive manner, are all desirable to secure and hold the attention of the reader and to convey the meaning clearly. Poor spelling, improper punctuation, ungrammatical construction and involved language draw the attention to subordinate matters and lead the reader to surmise that the conclusions presented may be as erroneous as the form in which they appear. The subject matter should not be sacrificed to the style, but the style should be utilized to develop and illuminate the subject matter. Technical matters may often be dry and, to other than technical men, uninteresting and obscure. The careful choice of words simplifies the subject, clarifies the idea and crystallizes the thought in the mind of the reader. The careful selection of expressions and the adaptation of a suitable literary style attract and retain the attention, simplify the subject matter, and often interest the reader in subjects of which he would otherwise weary. The language should be brief and exact and the words should be simple but carefully chosen. The point of view and the extent of knowledge of the reader must determine the degree of simplicity with which the subject must be treated. The Choice of Words. Accuracy of expression demands a careful choice of words. Words are never exactly synonymous in their meaning. Even when words are derived from foreign words of exactly synonymous meaning, they are adapted in the English to express ideas more or less different. In the growth and development of language words often acquire other special meanings perhaps quite foreign to that conveyed by the original signification. These changes grow from the original meanings based on physical likeness,

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association, similarity of relation, use of a part for the whole, adaptation of the mental for the physical, and idiomatic metaphors. Take for example the changes and extension in meaning of the common word head: 2 1. The original physical meaning: Head. 2. From physical likeness : The head of a river ; or the consummation of a development to come to a head. 3. From association : The head of a bed. 4. Similarity of relation : The head of a business. 5. The part for the whole : A hundred head of horses. 6. Mental for physical : A clear head. 7. Metaphorical : Over head in debt. To make h*cad against obstacles. Most common words have numerous meanings which are often difficult to differentiate even when properly used. Frequently such meanings are unauthorized by good usage, and such use should be discouraged and discountenanced as it obscures the language and makes necessary an accurate definition of the special meaning .in which it is to be understood in important papers. Take for example the following thirteen uses of the word rock and the difficulties attendant on its specific use in the limited sense as further discussed in Chapter XVII. It may have meanings in accordance with its various uses as follows: Geologically: Any mass of mineral matter, in its natural bed of which the earth's crust is composed, whether solid or fragmentary. Popular: 1. A stone of any size, even a pebble. 2. A mass of indurated stone, forming a promontory or cliff. 3. Natural crystals or candy in crystalline form.
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Figurative: 1. A foundation, support or refuge. 2. A source of peril. Technical: I. Indurated formation of different degrees of hardness. 2. A kind of soap. 3. A kind of hard cheese. 4. Ore (used among the Michigan copper mines). Slang: 1. Money or wealth. 2. Rough, uncouth (feelings or appearance). Association: Rock fish rock dove. As words are used to convey ideas, those words should be chosen which both accurately express the idea to be conveyed and are most familiar to those to whom the words are addressed. Most of the English words in constant daily use, and most intimately connected with the personal and familiar affairs of life, are of Saxon origin. They are understood more quickly and move the hearer more forcibly than similar words of Latin origin. Latin words, however, are more elaborate, more scholarly, and more exact. Words of Latin origin must be used by the technologist in the scientific discussion of technical subjects, on account of their greater exactness, and the suggestions associated with such scientific terms. The selection of words of Saxon or Latin origin for use in technical papers would therefore depend on the subject discussed the object of the writer, and the technical education of the reader. In reports and papers intended to explain technical matters to the public, or to non-technical clients, Latin terms should be avoided and simple Saxon words used so far as possible. When technical matters are presented to technical readers, the use of Latin terms is not only admissible but absolutely essential to clear exposition. Simplicity in understanding is not always assured by simplicity in language. The more exact terms are always preferable if the reader can easily comprehend their meaning.

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The Precise Use of Words. The habit of the careless use of words is unfortunately acquired by almost every person with his early use of language. In ordinary intercourse, the subject discussed is often so familiar and the conditions so well known to both parties to the conversation that the meaning of the language used is often quite obvious, even if the words used do not express the exact meaning which the speaker intends to convey. When, however, the subject is unfamiliar, and the ideas to be conveyed are intricate or involved, the words must be used with precision or the meaning to be conveyed is obscured, distorted or entirely lost. Punctuation and the Arrangement of Words in a Sentence. It is obvious that the meaning of an expression or sentence is largely controlled by the arrangement of words and by the emphasis that is given in their oral expression. In writing, the emphasis to be observed must be implied by the arrangement or indicated by punctuation. An accurate understanding of the meaning of the language used can therefore be assured only by care in the selection of words and in their arrangement or by punctuation or both. There is perhaps a tendency at the present time to eliminate all punctuation that is not essential to determine the meaning of a sentence, and in many cases with the proper arrangement of words the meaning will remain clear without punctuation. This tendency often results in the omission of punctuation where it is needed to give the meaning which it is desired to convey. When punctuation is omitted, though needed in order to assure the proper meaning of the sentence, it must be assumed by the reader and may consequently be improperly assumed. A recent heading of a newspaper article appeared without punctuation as follows : "Indiana permits pure food only at fairs."

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In this sentence the meaning must be supplied by an assumption of the punctuation and will be quite different if the comma is applied after or before the word "only." "Indiana permits pure food only, at fairs." "Indiana permits pure food, only at fairs." The true meaning without punctuation would be assured by the better arrangement of the words : "Indiana permits only pure food at fairs." Only a proper arrangement of the words or proper punctuation will make clear the meaning of this sentence. In many cases the meaning of a sentence will be entirely changed by the change in punctuation or by its assumption in an unpunctuated sentence, as for example: "Woman, without her, man would be a savage." "Woman without her man, would be a savage." A rearrangement and slight change in the wording would in this case assure an accurate understanding of the meaning to be conveyed without punctuation, as for example: "Man would be a savage without woman," or "Man without woman would be a savage." It is not our purpose to discuss the principles of punctuation or its customary use, but only to call attention to the necessity of correct application, the confusion resulting from its improper use, and the uncertainties resulting from its omission.

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The Vocabulary. It is important that the engineer should acquire a technical vocabulary and knowledge of the vernacular of the business in which he is employed or with which he may be associated. Otherwise he will not be able to understand, give instructions, or furnish explanation of technical or trade details. Such information is also necessary in the preparation of specifications and technical reports and papers for technical readers. Scientific and technical terms and the familiar and special trade terms and trade vernacular simplify explanations covering materials, operation and details of construction, and are absolutely necessary for reasonable facility in business transactions. The best method of acquiring a technical vocabulary is the direct study of the words and terms used in any special vocation or business when such information is accessible. The reading of the various technical papers and the proceedings of the various societies which cover or include the special subject in which information is desired will often furnish valuable additions to the vocabulary.

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