Human reproduction Gonadotropin

There are glands called the endocrine glands that release releasidmore

hormones into the blood stream

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Pituitarygiant
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have glands not • Hypothalamus releases hormones that trigger
the pituitary gland. The hormone is called
into bloodstream GnRH - Gonadotrophin releasing hormone.
• GnRH triggers the pituitary glands. This trigger
causes the pituitary gland to release other
hormones; LH (Luteneisig hormone) and FSH
(Follicule stimulating hormone). These two
hormones with either act on the ovaries or
testicles. The two hormones with act on both
genitalia but differently. This release system is
the same in both males and females.

Male Reproductive Organs

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Male genitalsystem front view sex or the less the
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• Epididymis: sperm travel through the seminiferous tubules to

be stored until ejaculation or degeneration at the epididymus.

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Temporary storage for sperm 3-5 days max on average.
• Seminiferous tubules: multiple tubules made of germinal
epithelial cells(somatic). normal body cells that create sperm
cells. The germinal epithelial cells go through a process called
spermatogensis, the production of sperm. The cells will
regenerate due to mitosis so males will be fertile even at an old
age.
• Septum: septum separate the lobules (divide between them).
Mm Ejaculation Made of connective tissue.
process • Lobule: separations within the testus. in between the lobules
There is connective tissue, the septum.
When the process of the ejaculation begins the sperm will travel along the seminiferous tubules through the vas deferens.
Vas deferens: The vas deferens is a duct that conveys sperm from the testicle to the urethra.

Ejaculation is the process of sperm releasing from the testus out the penis. The fluid ejaculated is called semen, which is
made of sperm + fluids.

Seminal vesicle: releases seminal fluid which has fructose (potential energy) so the sperm has nutrients to form energy to
travel to the egg in fertilisation process. Mitochondria in the sperm will convert the fructose into ATP - usable energy.

The vas deferens joins the Urethra.

Hence, Men cannot ejaculation and urinate at the same time

On the way to the Ureathra

1. Testes

testes - plural
Testis - singular

Site of Sperm spermatogensis

Sperm require a lower temperature than that of a normal persons to survive
The testies are held outside of the body to prevent spern denaturation as the body is at a high
temoperature and if the testes would be inside the body sperm wouldn’t be functional.

If it is extremely cold in the enviornment the scrotum (structure of skin around the testes) will move
closer to the body to heat from body heat. And vis versa.

## The Male Reproductive System: Organs and Hormonal Control (HL Biology - IB)

**Organs:**

The male reproductive system comprises

a complex interplay between internal and
external organs:

* **Testes (Testicles):** These paired,

oval-shaped glands are housed within
the scrotum. They are responsible for
two crucial functions:
* **Spermatogenesis:** The
seminiferous tubules within the testes are
the site of sperm production. Sertoli cells
in these tubules nurture developing
sperm cells, while Leydig cells located in
the interstitial space between tubules
produce testosterone.
* **Testosterone Production:** Leydig cells synthesize testosterone, the principal male sex hormone.
[Image of Male Reproductive System Diagram]

* **Accessory Glands:** These glands contribute fluids that nourish and propel sperm during ejaculation.
* **Seminal Vesicles:** Located near the base of the bladder, these glands produce a fructose-rich fluid
that nourishes sperm and provides energy for their motility.
* **Prostate Gland:** Situated below the bladder and surrounding the urethra, the prostate secretes a
milky fluid rich in citric acid and enzymes that contribute to sperm motility and liquefaction of semen after
ejaculation.
* **Bulbourethral Glands (Cowper's Glands):** These pea-sized glands are located near the base of the
penis and secrete a clear, lubricating fluid that provides initial lubrication during sexual arousal.

* **Scrotum:** This sac-like structure composed of skin and muscle hangs beneath the penis. It maintains
the testes at a temperature slightly cooler than the body core, which is optimal for spermatogenesis. The
cremaster muscle within the scrotum regulates testicular temperature by contracting and relaxing, adjusting
the position of the testes closer or further from the body.

* **Vas Deferens:** These tubes carry sperm cells from the epididymis (coiled tubes atop the testes where
sperm mature) to the ejaculatory ducts.

* **Ejaculatory Ducts:** Short tubes that join the vas deferens and seminal vesicles, these ducts combine
sperm and seminal fluids before ejaculation.

* **Urethra:** This tube carries both urine from the bladder and semen during ejaculation. It runs through
the penis and exits at the tip (urethral meatus).

* **Penis:** The external male reproductive organ for sexual intercourse and urination. It contains erectile
tissue that fills with blood during arousal, causing an erection. The urethra runs through the length of the
penis and semen exits through the urethral meatus at the tip.

**Hormonal Control:**

The HPG axis (Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Gonadal) tightly regulates testosterone production and

spermatogenesis:

* **Hypothalamus:** This region in the brain secretes gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) in response
to decreasing testosterone levels.
* **Pituitary Gland:** GnRH stimulates the anterior pituitary to release LH (Luteinizing Hormone) and FSH
(Follicle-Stimulating Hormone).
* **Leydig Cells:** LH binds to receptors on Leydig cells in the testes, stimulating testosterone production.
* **Sertoli Cells:** FSH acts on Sertoli cells in the seminiferous tubules, supporting sperm maturation by
promoting factors like ABP (androgen-binding protein).
* **Testosterone Feedback:** Testosterone exerts negative feedback on both GnRH and LH secretion,
maintaining hormonal homeostasis.

This intricate interplay between organs and hormones ensures proper function of the male reproductive
system, from sperm production to sexual function.
Female reproductive organs

IN the brain:
• Hypothallamus ->
◦Secretes GnRH ->
• pituitary gland/Hypophesis - Endocrine -> through the blood to the reproductive organs
◦LH
◦FSH

Endometrium -
Myometrium - muscular layer surrounding the reproductive structures in the female organs, such as
the fallopian tubes and the vagina.

• Fimbriae: finger like projections at the end of each of the fallopian tubes

Ovaries attached by ligament

A. Fallopian tubes/oviduct
• right and left
• In the fallopian tube there are cilla which will help move the ovum along the tube - propel the
zygote/ovum towards the uterus
• This propel is not enough there are involuntary
muscular contractions - of the muscle that lines
these structures called the myometrium
• When an ovum is released and brought into the

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fallopian tube the fimbriae will draw it in

Uterus and help this movement of the ovum.
myometrium
Endometrium
Y
servslayer
B. Uterus
vagina
• Wall of the Uterus:
◦Endometrium - blood lining on the
inner most layer of the uterus
R L
◦Muscular layer (myometrium) -
smooth and involuntary muscle.
Involuntary muscular contractions and cannot control them - myometrium
 ◦Serous layer (membranous) - located on the outside. Holds the uterus in place through fibres.
Protects the uterus.
• After fertilisation has happened the endometrium thickens in preparation for he implantation of the
fertiliser ovum by becoming vascular and glandular
• The bottom of the uterus is the cervix. The cervix is rich in exocrine glands which secrete vaginal
fluids, which differ depending on which stage of the cycle. Different ph in the vagina at different
stages of the female hormonal cycle is regulated by these fluids. Releases antibacterial vaginal
fluids. The vaginal fluid is meant to be clear yellowish. Because its a moist enviornment it is
susceptible to bacterial infecton when there is an infection the color of these fluids are different
and they indicate something is wrong. The vaginal fluids are defence mechanism to a certain
extent, if the infection is too intense and the immunity isnt enough or you dont have the specific
antibodies then an infection will develop and need to take medication.

C. Vagina
• muscular tube that opens to the exterior through the vulva
• Function: Where sex is occurring or where menstrual blood is coming out (shedding of the
endometrium)
◦During intercourse the pens is to releases superm directly into the vagina
◦The vagina forms a birth canal to deliver a baby
• The vagina can be stretched but the cervix isn’t stretched until childbirth
• Hymen: thin membrane that is broken after having sex for the first time. On the inside at the
beginning of the vaginal opening (bottom of vagina). Other things like physical excersise, tampons,
medical examination or trauma may damage the hymen.
• There are vaginal fluids.

Vulva: external female genetalia. Inner and outer labia, clitorous and the opening of the vagina.

Hormones

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## The Female Reproductive System: Organs and Hormonal Control (HL Biology - IB)

**Organs:**

The female reproductive system consists of internal and external organs that work together for
reproduction:

* **Ovaries:** These paired, almond-shaped organs located in the lower abdomen are responsible
for egg (oocyte) production and hormone secretion.
* **Follicles:** Within the ovarian cortex reside numerous follicles, each containing an immature
egg surrounded by granulosa cells. Follicles mature and release an egg during ovulation.
* **Corpus Luteum:** After ovulation, the remaining follicle transforms into the corpus luteum, a
temporary structure that secretes progesterone until menstruation or pregnancy.

* **Fallopian Tubes (Uterine Tubes/Oviducts):** These tubes connect the ovaries to the uterus and
provide a passageway for eggs to travel from the ovaries to the uterus. The fimbriae at the end of
each tube resemble finger-like projections that help capture the released egg during ovulation.
Fertilization, the union of sperm and egg, typically occurs within the fallopian tubes.

* **Uterus:** This pear-shaped, muscular organ is the site of fetal development during pregnancy.
The endometrium, the inner lining of the uterus, thickens with blood vessels in preparation for
implantation (attachment of a fertilized egg) during the menstrual cycle. If implantation doesn't occur,
the endometrium sheds during menstruation.

* **Cervix:** The lower, narrow portion of the uterus that projects into the vagina. The cervix
produces mucus that changes consistency throughout the menstrual cycle, affecting sperm motility.

* **Vagina:** This muscular canal connects the cervix to the external genitalia and serves as the
passage for childbirth and sexual intercourse. The vaginal walls contain folds that expand during
childbirth.

* **Vulva:** The external genitalia, including the mons pubis (fatty pad over the pubic bone), labia
majora (outer skin folds), labia minora (inner skin folds), clitoris (sensory organ for sexual pleasure),
and vestibule (area containing the openings of the urethra, vagina, and Skene's glands and
Bartholin's glands, which produce lubricating mucus).

**Hormonal Control:**

The complex interplay of hormones from the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, ovaries, and placenta
(during pregnancy) regulates the menstrual cycle and female reproductive functions:
* **Hypothalamus:** This region in the brain releases gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) in a
pulsatile manner.

* **Pituitary Gland:** GnRH stimulates the anterior pituitary to release:

* **Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH):** FSH stimulates the growth and development of
ovarian follicles containing immature eggs.
* **Luteinizing Hormone (LH):** LH triggers ovulation (release of a mature egg) by causing a
surge in estrogen levels from the dominant follicle.

* **Ovaries:** Produce the following hormones:

* **Estrogen (primarily estradiol):** Secreted by granulosa cells within follicles, estrogen
stimulates the thickening of the endometrium and influences cervical mucus consistency. A surge in
estrogen triggers the LH surge for ovulation.
* **Progesterone:** Produced by the corpus luteum after ovulation, progesterone prepares the
endometrium for implantation and maintains the lining during pregnancy.

* **Placenta (during pregnancy):** This temporary organ produces:

* **Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (hCG):** Mimics LH to maintain corpus luteum function and
progesterone production during early pregnancy.
* **Estrogen and Progesterone:** These hormones continue to be produced by the placenta
throughout pregnancy for fetal development and uterine lining maintenance.

**Feedback Mechanisms:**

* Estrogen and progesterone exert negative feedback on GnRH and FSH release from the
hypothalamus and pituitary, respectively. This maintains hormonal balance within the menstrual
cycle.

**Disruptions and Homeostasis:**

* Hormonal imbalances can disrupt the menstrual cycle and fertility. Factors like stress, certain
medications, and polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) can affect hormone production.
* Endometriosis, a condition where endometrial tissue grows outside the uterus, can cause pain and
infertility.
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1. Ovarian stimulation - medication is self-given to enduce ovaries to mature numerous ova every
month.
a. Two weeks before a woman is due to ovulate she injects FSH into her but. There are
blood tests done to test hormones in the blood - daily - to estimate the point of ovulation
to know when the maturation of the ova occurs.
A. Medications are given to stimulate the ovaries to produce several ova instead of just one
ovum that normally develops each month. This helps increase the chances of having at least
one viable embryo to use during the IVF procedure.
B. There are several different fertility medications to stimulate ovarian follicles ranging from a
follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), a medication to help ova mature and prepare the lining of
your uterus to hold the fertilized ovum.
C. Ovarian stimulation typically occurs over 10 days before the ova are ready for collection.
D. A vaginal ultrasound is done to monitor the ovarian follicles and blood tests to analyse the
estrogen levels. Once the follicles are adequate size, measured by ultrasound, the ova are
retrieved.
2. Egg retrieval - retrieval of ova before ovulation (mature ovum goes out of the ovum into the
fallopian tube). Go up with device and into the ovaries
A. The timing of the ova retrieval is critical because waiting much longer than 36 hours risks
ovulation and the loss of some or all the ova.
B. • The procedure involves receiving intravenous sedation followed by a' transvaginal
ultrasound guided needle aspiration to carefully retrieve the ova from each follicle.
C. • In about 20-minutes, multiple ova are typically removed. The ova are then placed in a
culture medium and sperm are added later in the day for fertilization.
3. Sperm collection/retreval
A. Men need to ejaculate which will be collected
B. May go through genetic profiling to test whether sperm are adequate
4. Fertilisation and embryo development
A. Facilitation of fetrilization of ovum
B. Allow zygote to multiply numerous times - embryos develop
5. Embryo transfer
A. Those embryos can can be frozen
B. Or they may be Transfered into a female
C. Transfer multiple embryos at one type because probability of implantation is low
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Asexual reproduction - creation of offspring without fusion of

gametes leadingname to progenyto(offspring)
asexualthat are genetic clones of the 24
given reproduction
parent organism
creating an identical organism from one organism (one parent
cell)

Binary fission - one parent celltosplitting into two daughter cells. Need
mitosis given production of new cells n 14 n 14
to duplicate genetic information to or
growth maintain repair
the exact number of
chromosomes.

Budding: form of asexual reproduction, individual organism sprouts from its parent. A bud grows and
detaches becoming an independent organism. Frequent in years and aquatic animals.

Fragmentation: an organism breaks into fragments, each piece developed into a mature, fully-grown
individual. Eg. Starfish

Advantages of asexual reproduction

Efficiency: in stable enviornments, producing genetically identical offspring is expedient. No energy

is wasted in locating a mate.

Rapid consultation: some plants reproduce asexually, enabling them to colonise areas swiftly.

Faster reproduction: dont need two gametes - reproduction can be very quick and rapid

Uniformity; Genetic material is identical and is passed onto the next generation. Benefi†al in
cultivars plants entre specific traits are desirable.

Disadvantages of asexual reproduction

Passing on of undesirable characteristics: If the parent has a trait which is not desirable it has a
100% probability to pass it into its offspring, therefore having a decreased probability of evolving and
surviving.

Variation: in asexual reproduction there is no variation. It dos not allow for ant variation. In order for
species to evolve there has to be variation.

Overpopulation:

Role of Meiosis in the Sexual Life Cycle

As touched upon, meiosis is indispensable for sexual reproduction. It's a bridge between one
generation and the next, ensuring genetic continuity and variability.

Genetic Recombination
• Crossing Over: Chromosomal segments are exchanged between homologous pairs during
prophase I of meiosis, leading to new genetic combinations.

• Independent Assortment: Chromosomes are randomly assorted during metaphase I, contributing

to the genetic uniqueness of gametes. Which parent chromosome goes to which daughter cells.

Leads to new combinations

Genetic Diversity Through Sexual Reproduction

Sexual reproduction is a natural algorithm for genetic diversification, an essential ingredient for
evolution and survival.

Factors Facilitating Genetic Diversity

• Random Fertilisation: The sheer number of possible sperm-egg combinations further enhances
the genetic diversity of offspring.

Evolutionary Significance
• Survival: In fluctuating environments, some offspring, due to genetic combinations, might have
traits that confer survival advantages.

• Natural Selection: Over generations, these advantageous traits become more common, leading to
evolution.those who dont have desirable traits die out anf those that do survive (survival of the fittest)
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