MEASUREMENT OF HEAT

Heat is the energy in the process of transfer from one body to another as a result of temperature
difference between them.

During the process of heat transfer, the body at a lower temperature gains heat energy while the
one at a higher temperature loses heat.

Consider body A at temperature, say θ1 = 70 0C placed in contact with or near body B at

temperature, say θ2 = 20 0C.
Temperature (0C)
Body A
θ1=70
θ1 = 70 0C Temperature of A

Heat Equilibrium
θ Temperature
flow
Temperature of B
Body B θ2=20
θ2 = 20 0C

Time (s)

Heat energy will flow from body A to B until both acquire the same steady temperature, θ.
Body A loses heat and experiences decrease in temperature while B gains heat and experiences
temperature rise.
Temperature fall of A = 𝜃1 − 𝜃
Temperature rise of B= 𝜃 − 𝜃2
The temperature change of substance should always be a positive value.

Heat transfer continues between them until a state of thermal equilibrium is established i.e. a
state where the two bodies acquire the same steady temperature.
Once a body absorbs heat energy it becomes its internal energy (energy due to motion of
molecules or particles of a substance).

Quantity of heat, Q
Quantity of heat is the amount of heat absorbed or lost by a body.
It is measured in joules, J, like any other form of energy.

Heat Capacity, C

oil water

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Measurement of heat by Wycliffe Tumwine
When equal masses of water and oil are heated in separate beakers by the same source of heat, it
is noted that the temperature of the oil rises higher than that of water.
Since the rate of heat supply is the same it is clear that oil has a smaller heat capacity than an
equal mass of water.

When 1 kg and 10 kg of water are heated, the temperature of the 1 kg water rises faster than that
of 10 kg. It will therefore take shorter time to boil 1 kg of water than 10 kg. This is because the
heat capacity of 10 kg of water is larger than that of 1 kg of water.

Definition:
Heat capacity of a substance is defined as the quantity of heat energy required to raise the
temperature of a substance by 1 K or 1 0C.

Mathematically,
Quantity of heat absorbed or lost
Heat capacity = temperatur rise or fall

Heat capacity is denoted by C and the S.I units are joule per kelvin (J K-1)
In terms of symbols we write;
𝑄
𝐶=
𝜃
where θ is the temperature change given by 𝜃 = 𝜃2 − 𝜃1
𝜃1 − initial temperature
𝜃2 − final temperature

The temperature of a body increases from θ1 to θ2 when quantity of heat Q is supplied to it. The
heat capacity C of the body is given by:
𝑄 𝑄
𝐶= =
𝜃 𝜃2 − 𝜃2
Hence 𝑄 = 𝐶𝜃

Example: 1
The temperature of a body of heat capacity 2500 J K-1 rises from 25 0C to 57 0C when heated.
Find the quantity of heat absorbed.
Solution
Leave 4 lines

Specific heat capacity, c

The specific heat capacity of a substance is the heat energy required to raise the temperature of
1kg of the substance by 1K or 10C.

Quantity of heat absorbed or lost

specific heat capacity =
mass × temperatur rise or fall
If the temperature of a substance of mass, m changes from θ1 to θ2 when quantity of heat Q is
supplied to it, its specific heat capacity denoted by c is given by;

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Measurement of heat by Wycliffe Tumwine
 𝑄
𝑐=
𝑚 × (𝜃2 − 𝜃1 )
If the temperature change is 𝜃, then we have 𝜃 = (𝜃2 − 𝜃1 )
Thus
𝑄
𝑐=
𝑚×𝜃
This gives the S.I units of specific heat capacity, c as J kg -1 K -1
Quantity of heat absorbed or lost, Q is given by;

𝑄 = 𝑚𝑐𝜃

Note that 𝜃 is temperature rise or fall. It should always be calculated as a positive value.

Question
1. The specific heat capacity of water is 4200 J kg -1 K -1. What does the statement mean?
It means that 4200 J of energy are required to raise the temperature of 1kg of
water by 1 K
2. The specific heat capacity of copper is 400 J kg -1 K -1. What does the statement mean?
Leave 2 lines

Relation between heat capacity and specific heat capacity

From 𝑄 = 𝑚𝑐𝜃
𝑄
= 𝑚𝑐.................................................................................................1
𝜃
Also from 𝑄 = 𝐶𝜃

𝑄
= 𝐶 .....................................................................................................2
𝜃
From equations 1 and 2 it follows that;
𝐶 = 𝑚𝑐
Table of specific heat capacities of some substances
Table of specific heat capacities in J kg -1 K -1.

Substance c (J kg -1
K -1)
Aluminium 900
Brass 380
Copper 400
Iron 460
Mercury 140
2400 2400
Water 4200
Ice 2100

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Measurement of heat by Wycliffe Tumwine
From the above table water has the highest specific heat capacity and this accounts for its use in
many cooling systems e.g. car radiators, central heating systems and cooling in many factories
and industries. It takes longer to boil and freeze water than any other liquid

Example: 2
Calculate the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of 5 kg of copper from 20 0C to
45 0C. (Specific heat capacity of copper = 400 J kg -1 K -1)
Solution
Leave 4 lines

Example: 3
(a) The specific heat capacity of water is 4200 J kg-1 K -1, what does this statement mean?

Leave 2 lines

(b) Water of mass 60 g is cooled from a temperature of 90 0C to 40 0C. Find the quantity of
heat given out. (specific heat capacity of water = 4200 J kg -1 K -1)
Solution
Leave 4 lines

(c) 6000 J of heat is used to heat a liquid of mass 3 kg from 25oC to 45oC. Find the specific
heat capacity of the liquid.
Solution
Leave 5 lines

(d) If 20000 J was used to heat 5 kg of copper of specific heat capacity 400 J kg -1 K -1
initially at 15oC, calculate the final temperature of copper.
Solution
Leave 6 lines

Rate of heat transfer (power)

Quantity of heat absorbed or lost
Rate of heat transfer or absoption =
time taken
𝑄
𝑃=
𝑡
𝑄 = 𝑃𝑡
𝑃𝑡 = 𝑚𝑐𝜃

Example: 4
(a) A tank holding 50 kg of water is heated by a 3 kW electric immersion heater. Find the
time taken for the temperature of the water to rise from 10 0C to 60 0C.
Solution
Leave 7 lines

(b) A 3 kW heater heats a tank containing 60 kg of water from 100C to 600C, calculate the
time taken for its temperature to change.
Solution
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Measurement of heat by Wycliffe Tumwine
 Leave 7 lines

Example: 5
A block of metal of mass 1.5 kg which is suitably insulated is heated from 30 0C to 50 0C in 8
minutes and 20 seconds by an electric heater coil rated 54 W. Find
(a) the quantity of heat supplied by the heat
(b) the heat capacity of the block
(c) its specific heat capacity
Solution
Leave 12 lines

Example: 6
Find the final temperature of water if a heater source rated 42 W heats 50 g water from 20 0C in
five minutes. (Specific heat capacity of water is 4200 J Kg-1 K-1)
Solution
Leave 06 lines

Conservation of Heat Energy

During transfer of heat energy from on body to another, some heat energy is usually lost to the
surroundings through convection, radiation and conduction. The heat losses cab be minimised by
lagging.

In heat calculations, the heat losses to the surroundings are assumed to be negligible.
Thus total quantity of heat supplied or given out is equal to total heat gained or absorbed.

Total heat given out = total heat absorbed

Potential energy transferred to internal energy in a water fall

At the top of a water fall, water possesses p.e which changes to k.e as the water descends. Part of
this k.e is becomes transferred to internal molecular energy when the motion of the water is
arrested at the bottom of the dam. This then results in a slight rise in temperature of the water at
the bottom.
If we assume that all the p.e becomes internal energy when the water is arrested, then for a mass
m of water that has descended we have;
loss in p.e = gain in heat or internal energy
𝑚𝑔ℎ = 𝑚𝑐𝜃
𝑔ℎ
The rise in temperature is given by; 𝜃 = 𝑐

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Measurement of heat by Wycliffe Tumwine
Example: 7
A water fall is 100 m high and the difference in temperature between the water at the top and that
at the bottom is 0.24 K. Find an approximate value for the specific heat capacity of water.
Solution
Leave 08 lines

An experiment to measure the specific heat capacity of solids by the method of mixtures.

Thermometer

Outer jacket

Calorimeter Stirrer

Lagging
material

 A solid of mass ms whose specific heat capacity cs is to be determined is heated in boiling

water and its temperature 𝜃3 is noted.
 The solid suspended by a light string is then quickly and gently transferred into a well
lagged calorimeter of mass mc and specific heat capacity cc containing water of mass mw
and specific heat capacity cw at a temperature θ1
 The mixture is well stirred and the final steady temperature θ2 reached is recorded.
 Assuming no heat is lost to the surroundings,

Heat lost by Heat gained by Heat gained by
metal block = calorimeter and stirrer + water

𝑚𝑠 𝑐𝑠 (𝜃3 − 𝜃2 ) = 𝑚𝑐 𝑐𝑐 (𝜃2 − 𝜃1 ) + 𝑚𝑤 𝑐𝑤 (𝜃2 − 𝜃1 )

𝑚𝑠 𝑐𝑠 (𝜃3 − 𝜃2 ) = (𝑚𝑐 𝑐𝑐 + 𝑚𝑤 𝑐𝑤 )(𝜃2 − 𝜃1 )

(𝑚𝑐 𝑐𝑐 + 𝑚𝑤 𝑐𝑤 )(𝜃2 − 𝜃1 )
𝑐𝑠 =
𝑚𝑠 (𝜃3 − 𝜃2 )

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Measurement of heat by Wycliffe Tumwine
Determination of specific heat capacity of a liquid by the method of mixtures

The above method can be used to find the s.h.c of a liquid. In this case the solid is replaced with
one of known s.h.c and the water is replaced by the liquid whose s.h.c is required.
For his case we have;
𝑚𝑠 𝑐𝑠 (𝜃3 − 𝜃2 ) = 𝑚𝑐 𝑐𝑐 (𝜃2 − 𝜃1 ) + 𝑚𝑙 𝑐𝑙 (𝜃2 − 𝜃1 )

𝑚𝑙 𝑐𝑙 (𝜃2 − 𝜃1 ) = 𝑚𝑠 𝑐𝑠 (𝜃3 − 𝜃2 ) − 𝑚𝑐 𝑐𝑐 (𝜃2 − 𝜃1 )

𝑚𝑠 𝑐𝑠 (𝜃3 − 𝜃2 ) − 𝑚𝑐 𝑐𝑐 (𝜃2 − 𝜃1 )
𝑐𝑙 =
𝑚𝑙 (𝜃2 − 𝜃1 )

Example: 8

A lagged copper calorimeter of mass 0.75 kg contains 0.9 kg of water at 20 0C. A metal bolt of
mass 0.8 kg is transferred from an oven at 400 0C to the calorimeter and a steady temperature of
50 0C is reached by the water after stirring. Calculate the specific heat capacity of the material of
the bolt. (Specific heat capacity of copper = 400 J kg -1 K -1, specific heat capacity of water =
4200 J kg -1 K -1)
Solution
Leave 09 lines

Example: 9

A block of iron of mass 1.25 kg at 120 0C was transferred to an aluminium calorimeter of mass
0.3 kg containing a liquid of mass 0.6 kg at 25 0C. The block and the calorimeter with its
contents eventually reached a common temperature of 50 0C. Given the specific heat capacity of
iron as 450 J kg -1K -1 and that of aluminium 900 J kg -1 K -1, calculate the specific heat capacity
of the liquid.
Solution
Leave 09 lines
Example: 10

The temperature of a piece of copper of mass 250 g is raised to 100 0C and it is then transferred
to a well lagged aluminium can of mass 10.0 g containing 120 g of methylated spirit at 10.0
0
C.Calculate the final temperature after the spirit has been well stirred. Neglect the heat capacity
of the stirrer and any losses from evaporation. (Specific heat capacity of copper = 400 J kg -1 K -1,
specific heat capacity of aluminium = 900 J kg -1 K -1, specific heat capacity of methylated spirit
= 2500 J kg -1 K -1)

Solution
Leave 11 lines

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Measurement of heat by Wycliffe Tumwine
Example: 11
What is the final temperature of the mixture if 100g of water at 70 0C is added to 200 g of cold
water at 10 0C and well stirred?(Neglect heat absorbed by container)

Solution
Leave 09 lines

An experiment to measure the specific heat capacity of a metal by the electrical method

V
A
Thermometer

Lagging material
Cylindrical
metal block
Electric heater
Metal cylinder

 A solid of mass m with two holes, one for the heater and the other for the thermometer is
used.
 The heater is placed in one of the holes and the thermometer is placed in the other.
 The initial temperature, θ1 of the block is noted from the thermometer.
 The heater is switched on by closing the switch until the temperature changes to θ2 in a
time t.
 The ammeter and the voltmeter readings I and V respectively are noted.
 Assuming there are no heat loses,

Energy absorbed by block = electrical energy supplied by heater.

𝑚𝑐(𝜃2 − 𝜃1 ) = 𝑉𝐼𝑡
Specific heat capacity, c of the metal is given
𝑉𝐼𝑡
𝑐=
𝑚(𝜃2 −𝜃2 )

Precautions
(i)The metal block must be heavily lagged to prevent heat loss to the surroundings.
(ii)The two holes should be filled with a light oil to improve thermal contact with the heater and
thermometer.

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Measurement of heat by Wycliffe Tumwine
Experiment to determine the specific heat capacity of a liquid by electrical method

Outer jacket

Calorimeter Electric heater

Liquid
Stirrer
Lagging
material

 A liquid of mass m is poured in a copper calorimeter of mass, mc and specific heat

capacity cc containing a thermometer and a stirrer.
 The initial temperature θ1 of the liquid is then recorded from the thermometer.
 The electrical heater is switched on until the temperature changes to θ2 in a time t
 The ammeter and voltmeter readings I and V respectively are noted and recorded.
Assuming no heat is lost to the surroundings;
Heat supplied by heater = Heat gained by liquid + Heat gained by calorimeter.
𝑉𝐼𝑡 = 𝑚𝑙 𝑐𝑙 (𝜃2 − 𝜃1 ) + 𝑚1 𝑐𝑐 (𝜃2 − 𝜃1 )
Where 𝑐𝑙 and 𝑐𝑐 are the specific heat capacities of the liquid and calorimeter respectively.

𝑉𝐼𝑡 − 𝑚1 𝑐𝑐 (𝜃2 − 𝜃1 )
𝑐𝒍 =
𝑚𝑙 (𝜃2 − 𝜃1 )
Examples.
1. An electrical heater of 1.8 kW was used to heat 5 kg of a liquid. It then takes 6 minutes to
raise the temperature from 200C to 110oC. Calculate the specific heat capacity of the
liquid.
Solution
Leave 07 lines

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Measurement of heat by Wycliffe Tumwine
LATENT HEAT
Latent heat is the quantity of heat absorbed or released when a substance changes state at
constant temperature. Or
Latent heat is the quantity of heat required to change the state of a substance at constant
temperature. Latent heat of vaporisation

Latent heat of vaporization is the amount of heat required to change the state of a liquid to
vapour without change in temperature.

When water in a kettle is heated its temperature rises until it reaches 100 0C showing that it has
been absorbing heat. At 100 0C , it starts to boil; bubbles of vapour form at the bottom and rise to
the surface where they burst to form steam. The temperature of the water remains constant as it
steadily absorbs heat from the gas flame or heating element.
The heat energy absorbed at this stage does not increase the temperature of the water but
converts the water from liquid state to the vapour state. This heat energy which does not cause
temperature change is called latent heat of vaporisation.

Specific latent heat of vaporization

Specific latent heat of vaporization is the quantity of heat required to change 1kg mass of a
substance from the liquid state to the vapour (gaseous) state at constant temperature.

𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝

Specific latent heat of vaporisation = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
If a liquid of mass, m is converted to vapour at constant temperature when supplied with quantity
of heat, Q, its specific latent heat of vaporization denoted by lv is given by
𝑄
𝑙𝑣 =
𝑚
The S.I units of lv are joule per kilogram (J kg -1).
The specific latent heat of vaporisation of water is 2,260,000 J kg -1 and that of alcohol is
860,000 J kg -1
This means that 1 kg of water requires 2,260,000 J of heat energy to be converted to water
vapour or steam at its boiling point. The same quantity of heat energy is released or given out
when 1 kg of water vapour is converted to water at its boiling point.

The quantity of heat needed to change a liquid of mass, m to its vapour state at constant
temperature is given by
𝑄 = 𝑚𝑙𝑣

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Measurement of heat by Wycliffe Tumwine
Example: 1

Calculate the quantity of heat required to convert 5 kg of water to steam at 100 0C.
(Specific latent heat of vaporisation of water = 2,260,000 J kg -1)
Solution
Leave 03 lines

Example: 2
Determine the amount of heat energy needed to change 2 kg of water at 20 0C to water vapour at
100 0C. (s.h.c of water = 4200 J kg -1 K -1, specific latent heat of vaporisation of steam =
2,260,000 J kg -1)
Solution
Leave 06 lines

Example: 3
Determine the amount of heat energy needed to change 2 kg of steam at 100 0C to water at 20
0
C. (s.h.c of water = 4200 J kg -1 K -1, specific latent heat of vaporisation of steam = 2,260,000 J
kg -1)
Leave 06 lines

Kinetic theory and latent heat of vaporisation

At the boiling point of a liquid, molecules have maximum speed and kinetic energy. Heat
absorbed by the liquid is used to overcome the force holding the molecules together so that they
gain freedom to move around as independent gas molecules (vapour).
The latent heat of vaporisation absorbed is used to increase the potential energy of the molecules
as they move away from each other.

An experiment to measure the specific latent heat of vaporisation of a liquid using electrical
method.

V
A

Heater of known
power P

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Measurement of heat by Wycliffe Tumwine
  The liquid is poured in a beaker and then placed on a weighing scale pan.
 An immersion heater of known power rating, P is immersed in the liquid.
 The initial reading m1 of the scale pan is recorded.
 The heater circuit is switched on and the liquid is heated until it just starts to boil.
 A stop clock is started and the liquid is allowed to boil for some time.
 After a suitable amount of the liquid has evaporated (boiled off) the heater is switched off
and the timing is stopped.
 The new reading, m2 of the scale pan and the time, t taken to boil the liquid are recorded.
 The mass, m of the liquid that has evaporated is found from 𝑚 = (𝑚2 − 𝑚1 ).
 Quantity of heat supplied by heater = latent heat of vaporisation
𝑃𝑡 = 𝑚𝑙𝑣
𝑃𝑡
𝑙𝑣 =
𝑚

An experiment to measure the specific latent heat of vaporisation of a liquid using the
method of mixtures.

 Water in the flask is heated to a temperature of 1000C until steam comes out.
 Steam is then passed through cold water of mass mw and specific heat capacity Cw
contained in a calorimeter of mass mc and specific heat capacity cc at a temperature
θ1
 The mixture is well stirred until a steady temperature θ2 is reached and recorded
from the thermometer.
 The calorimeter and its contents are measured to determine the mass, m of
condensed steam from m= total mass - ( mw+ mc)
 Assuming there is no heat lost during the experiment,
𝑚𝑙𝑣 + 𝑚𝑐𝑤 (100 − 𝜃2 ) = 𝑚𝑤 𝑐𝑤 (𝜃2 − 𝜃1 ) + 𝑚𝑐 𝑐𝑐 ((𝜃2 − 𝜃1 )

𝑚𝑤 𝑐𝑤 (𝜃2 − 𝜃1 ) + 𝑚𝑐 𝑐𝑐 ((𝜃2 − 𝜃1 ) − 𝑚𝑐𝑤 (100 − 𝜃2 )

𝑙𝑣 =
𝑚

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Measurement of heat by Wycliffe Tumwine
Latent heat of fusion

Latent heat of fusion is the quantity of heat required to change a substance from the solid state to
the liquid state without change in temperature. Or it is the quantity of heat released when a liquid
changes to solid state at constant temperature.

To investigate the effect of supplying heat to a solid

 Crushed ice is placed in a beaker and cooled it in a freezer to a temperature of about -10
0
C.
 The beaker is then removed from the freezer and then the ice is heated.
 The temperature of the ice is recorded after about 30 seconds until the water reaches a
temperature of about 20 0C.
 The results are recorded in a suitable table.
 A graph of temperature against time is plotted.

Observations from the results

temperature (0C)

20

0
time (s)

-10

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Measurement of heat by Wycliffe Tumwine
Temperature of the ice rises from -10 0C until it reaches 0 0C. On further heating, the temperature
remains at 0 0C while ice changes to water. After all the ice has melted temperature again rises to
20 0C.

Explanation
When ice at -10 0C is heated, the heat energy it absorbs is used to raise its temperature 0 0C. Heat
energy given to the ice at 0 0C is used to change ice from the solid to the liquid state. Heat absorbed
after all the ice has melted is used to raise the temperature of the water formed from melting ice.
Heat absorbed at 0 0C does not change the temperature of the ice but changes its state from solid
to liquid (melting of ice). Heat absorbed as the ice melts is called latent heat of fusion.

Specific latent heat of fusion

Specific latent heat of fusion is the quantity of heat required to change 1 kg mass of a substance
from the solid to the liquid state without change of temperature.
The symbol for specific latent heat of fusion is lf.
If a substance of mass, m changes state from solid to liquid when supplied with heat energy Q,
then we have
𝑄
𝑙𝑓 =
𝑚
The S.I units of lf are joule per kilogram, J kg -1

The specific latent heat of fusion of ice is 336000 J kg -1. Thus to convert 1 kg of water to ice at 0
0
C, 336,000 J of heat energy has to be given out by water or to convert 1 kg of ice to water at 0
0
C, 336,000 J of heat energy has to be absorbed by ice.

Example: 3
Calculate the quantity of heat required to convert 500 g of ice at 0 0C to water at the same
temperature (specific latent heat of fusion of ice = 336,000 J kg-1)
Solution
Leave 04 lines

Example: 4
(a) Calculate the quantity of heat required to convert 2 kg of ice at -10 0C to water at
70 0C. (s.h.c of ice, ci = 2100 J kg -1K -1, s.h.c of water, cw = 4200 J kg -1K -1, specific
latent heat of fusion of ice, lf = 336000 J kg -1)
Solution
Leave 06 lines

(b) Sketch a graph of temperature against time to show the stages of heat absorption.

Leave 04 lines

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Measurement of heat by Wycliffe Tumwine
Example: 5
Calculate the quantity of heat given out when 2 kg of water at 70 0C cools and condenses to ice
at -10 0C. (s.h.c of ice, ci = 2100 J kg -1K -1, s.h.c of water, cw = 4200 J kg -1K -1, specific latent
heat of fusion of ice, lf = 336000 J kg -1)
Leave 06 lines

An experiment to measure melting point of naphthalene using a cooling curve

Thermometer

Naphthalene

Water

 A test tube partly filled with solid naphthalene is clamped vertically on a stand and then
placed in a beaker of water placed above a bunsen burner.
 The Bunsen burner is turned on and the water is heated until the naphthalene just melts.
 A thermometer is placed in the liquid naphthalene and heating is continued until the
temperature is about 100 0C.
 The Bunsen burner is turned off and the beaker is removed
 The temperature of the liquid naphthalene is recorded at one minute interval as it cools.
 The results are tabulated in a table.

Temperature (0C) Time (min)

 A graph of temperature against time is plotted to obtain a cooling curve as follows:

Temperature (0C)
A

B C
𝜃𝑚

𝜃𝑅 D

15
Measurement of heat by Wycliffe Tumwine Time (min)
 Observations from the graph
 From the graph the melting point of naphthalene is temperature𝜃𝑚 . This is also the
freezing point of naphthalene.
 Along portion AB of the graph the liquid naphthalene is cooling.
 Along BC naphthalene changes gradually to solid at constant temperature, 𝜃𝑚 .
 Along CD, solid naphthalene cools to room temperature, 𝜃𝑅 .
States of naphthalene over the regions of the graph
Region: AB – Naphthalene is in liquid state
Region: BC – Naphthalene is in both liquid and solid state
Region: DC – Naphthalene is in solid state.
NB: Over region BC naphthalene loses latent heat of fusion given by: 𝑸 = 𝒎𝒍𝒇

To determine specific latent heat of fusion of ice by the electrical method

 A filter funnel is clamped vertically on a stand and an empty beaker of known mass, m1 is
paced below it.
 An immersion heater and a thermometer are placed in the funnel and small pieces of ice
shavings are packed around them.
 The heater is then connected to a circuit as shown above.
 Switch K is closed and simultaneously a stop clock is started.
 The ammeter and voltmeter readings I and V respectively are recorded.
 After a reasonable amount of water has been collected, the current is switched off and the
stop clock is stopped.
 The beaker is weighed and its mass m2 together with melted water is determined.
 The time, t taken to melt ice is recorded.
 Mass, m of melted ice is determined from 𝑚 = 𝑚2 − 𝑚1
 If heat losses are neglected then;
Heat energy supplied by the heater = heat absorbed to melt ice.

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 𝑉𝐼𝑡 = 𝑚𝑙𝑓 where 𝑙𝑓 is the specific latent heat of fusion of ice.
𝑉𝐼𝑡
𝑙𝑓 =
𝑚
An experiment to determine specific latent heat of fusion of ice using the method of
mixtures

 Small pieces of ice at 00C are placed in copper calorimeter of mass 𝑚𝑐 and specific heat
capacity 𝑐𝑐 containing hot water of mass mw and specific heat capacity 𝑐𝑤 at a
temperature θ2
 The mixture is gently stirred until all the ice melts and the steady temperature θ1 of the
mixture is noted from the thermometer
 The calorimeter and its contents are weighed to obtain the mass 𝑚𝑖 of melted ice from
mi = total mass – (𝑚𝑐 + 𝑚𝑤 )
 Assuming no heat losses to the surroundings,
ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚𝑒𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑐𝑒 = ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑏𝑦 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑚𝑖 𝑙𝑓 + 𝑚𝑖 𝑐𝑤 𝜃1 = 𝑚𝑤 𝑐𝑤 (𝜃2 − 𝜃1 ) + 𝑚𝑐 𝑐𝑐 ((𝜃2 − 𝜃1 )

𝑚𝑤 𝑐𝑤 (𝜃2 − 𝜃1 ) + 𝑚𝑐 𝑐𝑐 ((𝜃2 − 𝜃1 ) − 𝑚𝑖 𝑐𝑤 𝜃1
𝑙𝑓 =
𝑚𝑖
Example: 6

20 g of ice at -150C is placed inside 85 g of water at 400C contained in a 50 g calorimeter of

specific heat capacity 400 J kg-1 K-1. Calculate the final temperature of water (specific heat
capacity of ice = 2100 J kg-1 K-1, specific latent heat of fusion of ice = 350000 J kg-1)

Solution
Leave 10 lines

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Measurement of heat by Wycliffe Tumwine
GAS LAWS (Expansion of Gases)
These are statements that relate pressure, pressure and volume of a fixed mass of a gas.
When the pressure of a fixed mass of a gas changes, two other physical properties of the gas
also change, namely; its volume and temperature.
Therefore, the three properties of a gas i.e. pressure, volume and temperature are interrelated.
When any one of them is altered, the other two may all change or one of them may change
accordingly.
Boyle’s law
It states that the volume of a fixed mass of a gas is inversely proportional to its pressure at
constant absolute temperature.
1
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 ∝
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
1
𝑃∝
𝑉
𝐾
𝑃=
𝑉
𝑃𝑉 = 𝐾( 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡)
Experiment to verify Boyle’s law

Dry ideal gas is trapped in a closed limb of a U tube of uniform Crossectional area A by mercury
as shown above.
Pressure exerted by this gas on mercury in the closed limb is varied by raising or lowering the
open limb.
The difference h in mercury levels in the closed and open limb is determined and the corresponding
length l of the air column is measured.
The pressure is then calculated from 𝑃 = 𝐻 ± ℎ and the volume V is calculated from 𝑉 = 𝐴𝑙
The procedure is repeated with different values of h and their corresponding values of l are
1
measured using a meter rule and recorded in a suitable table including values of P and 𝑉
1
A plot of P against 𝑉
is plotted and a straight line through the origin is obtained which verifies
Boyles law.

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Measurement of heat by Wycliffe Tumwine
 Pressure
(Pa)

1
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
Charles’ law
It states that the volume of a fixed mass of a gas at constant pressure is directly proportional to
its absolute temperature.
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 ∝ 𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒.
𝑉 ∝ 𝑇.
𝑉 = 𝐾𝑇.
A graph of volume against temperature

Volume (m3)

Volume (m3)

𝑇(𝐾)

An experiment to verify Charles’ law.

Dry ideal gas is trapped in the closed limb of uniform Crossectional area A.
The closed limb is completely surrounded by water and its temperature is varied (increased) by
passing steam into the water bath.
Due to increase in temperature, the gas exerts pressure on mercury in the closed limb such that
mercury is displace upwards in the open limb.

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Measurement of heat by Wycliffe Tumwine
 The liquid is stirred to a common steady temperature 𝜃 𝑖𝑛 ℃
The mercury in the limbs is leveled by releasing some out through the tap at C to ensure constant
pressure (atmospheric pressure).
The corresponding length l of air column is measured by a meter rule and recorded including the
thermometer reading 𝜃 and the volume 𝑉 = 𝐴𝑙 is calculated.
The experiment is repeated and a series of 𝜃 and l are tabulated including values of 𝑇 =
(𝜃 + 273)
A graph of V against T is plotted and a straight line passing through the origin is obtained
implying that 𝑉 ∝ 𝑇 which verifies Charles law.
Pressure law.
Pressure Law
The pressure of a fixed mass of gas at constant volume is directly proportional to
its absolute temperature.

Pressure
(Pa)

𝑇(𝐾)
Or
Pressure
(Pa)

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Measurement of heat by Wycliffe Tumwine
 Dry ideal gas of fixed mass trapped in bulb B is heated by water in the beaker to increase its
temperature.
For each temperature 𝜃, the flexible limb is adjusted to bring the mercury level in the closed
limb to the reference mark M.
The difference h in mercury levels is measured and recorded.
The pressure P of air is then calculated from 𝑃 = 𝐻 ± ℎ.
The procedure is repeated and a series of values of 𝜃 and P are tabulated including values
of 𝑇 = (𝜃 + 273)𝐾.
A graph of P against T is plotted and a straight line through the origin is obtained implying that
pressure is directly proportional to absolute temperature which verifies pressure law.

Examples
Leave 6 lines after every question
1. The pressure of a fixed mass of a gas at 127oC is 600 mmHg. Calculate its pressure at
constant volume if the temperature reduces to 27oC. Ans 450 mmHg.

2. The volume of a fixed mass of a gas at 127oC is 300 cm3. Calculate its volume at constant
pressure if the temperature reduces to 27oC. Ans 225 cm3.

3. In an experiment 500 𝑐𝑚3 of a gas was collected at a temperature of 97℃ and a pressure of
3.7 x 106 Pa. Find the volume the gas if the pressure changes to 6.0 x 106 Pa at a temperature
of 27℃. Ans 250 𝒄𝒎𝟑

4. In an experiment 58 𝑐𝑚3 of a gas was collected at a temperature of 17oC and a pressure of

8.0 x 104 Pa. Find the volume the gas at s.t.p
Note: S.T.P is standard temperature and pressure and the standard temperature = 273K and
standard pressure = 76 cmHg = 760 mmHg = 1.013 x 105 Pa. Ans 43.12
𝟑
𝒄𝒎 .

5. The volume of a fixed mass of a gas at constant temperature is 250 𝑐𝑚3 when the pressure is
720 mmHg. Find the pressure when the volume is increased to 600 𝑐𝑚3 .Ans 300 cmHg.

6. A balloon containing air at a pressure of 900 mmHg and temperature of 30℃

occupies a volume of 1500 𝑐𝑚3 . What will be its volume at s.t.p?Ans (1600𝒄𝒎𝟑 )

7. Air in a 2.5 litres vessel at 127℃ exerts a pressure of 3 atm. Calculate the pressure that the
same mass of air would exert if contained in a 4 liters vessel at – 43℃. Ans 1.078 atm

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Measurement of heat by Wycliffe Tumwine
8. The volume of a gas is 90 at 25℃and 780mm Hg pressure. Calculate the
volume of the gas at s.t.p. Ans 84.6 𝒄𝒎𝟑

Kinetic theory and Gas laws:

It states that matter is made up of small particles that are in a constant random motion and
possess energy. Therefore the speed of the particles is proportional to temperature and the
pressure exerted by the gas is due to collision of gas molecules with the walls of the container

Boyle’s law
When the volume of the fixed mass of a gas is reduced at constant temperature the speed of
the gas molecules increases hence the rate of collision with the walls of the container
increases thus the pressure of the gas increases since the temperature is constant. However
increasing the volume reduces the pressure of the gas since
the speed of the molecules of the gas reduces hence reducing on the rate of collision with the
walls of the container.

Charles’ law
When the temperature of the fixed mass of a gas is increased at constant pressure the speed of
the molecules of a gas increases and the rate of collision with the walls of a container
increases hence the volume of the gas increases to keep the pressure constant.

Pressure law
When the temperature of the fixed mass of a gas is increased at constant volume the speed of
the molecules of a gas increases and the rate of collision with the walls of a container
increases hence the pressure of the gas increases to keep the volume constant.

Note:
Absolute zero temperature is the temperature at which the molecules of a gas have
minimum kinetic energy. That is the temperature at which the volume of the molecules of the
gas reduces to zero.

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Measurement of heat by Wycliffe Tumwine