Ilia State University

Synonyms and types of connotations

Research Project in Lexicology

Scientific supervisor: Nino Tevdoradze

Student: Tamar Pirtskhalava

Tbilisi 2014
 The aim of my research is to discuss synonyms and their types of connotations.
Synonymy is one of the modern linguistics’ most controversial problems. We base
mostly on semantic criteria according to which synonyms have the same denotations
but different connotations. Due to its dual nature, synonymy is considered to be the
one of the most controversial problems in today’s linguistics, that is why linguists have
worked out several criteria how to define synonyms. One of the criteria is semantic
one, on which we shall base our research.

The connotation of degree of intensity

In this type the next synonym is stronger than the previous one and it shows the
gradation of words. This type refers to a synonymic group such as :

 resembling, similar, (a)like;

Resembling usually suggests that several things or persons have some external
characteristic in common. Similar often denotes not only ''surfaces likeness'' but also
closer resemblance in character. (A)Like indicates an even more comprehensive
likeness than ''similar''.

 to look for, to seek, to search;

To look for - the ordinary term for to try to find. To seek - to try to obtain; to ask for;

To search - to look carefully, extensively in trying to find; To find out by careful

examination. The search is stronger than look for.

to look for, to seek and to search are differentiated by connotation of degree of

intensity and manner.

 Wonder, marvel, prodigy, miracle;

Wonder refers to something which greatly surprises us by its strangeness and possibly
fills us with admiration. Marvel - this term is more dignified and somewhat stronger
than wonder. Prodigy -something out of the course of nature; a person who is gifted in
an extraordinary way. Miracle - a wonderful event that is seeming due to some
supernatural power.

 sensible, intelligent, clever, smart, wise;

Sensible -to be guided by common sense and natural reasonableness. Much more earthy
and simple than intelligent, clever, or wise.

Intelligent -able to use mental power for understanding new or difficult phenomena or
problems, and coping with them.

Clever - mentally bright, similar to intelligent. But clever suggests quickness rather
than depth of understanding. A person may be clever but shallow. Clever also suggests
ingenuity and natural skill.

Smart – implies quick – wittendess and cleverness, but it is often used ironically. Wise -
having the capacity of assessing persons, things, or situations properly on the basis of
knowledge and experience to as to discern what is right or true. Deep thinking and
knowledgeable, usually only achieved by long experience.

 Irritated-the main word;

Infatuated- very irritated person;
Infuriated-annoyed like a lion.
 Cracked-broken-smashed-ruined

Cracked-a glass that has a little crack;

Broken-something that is split;

Smashed-something divided into small pieces;

Ruined-destroyed things.

 Clean-the main word.

Polished- too clean thing;

Brilliant- something that is shinny because of cleanness.

 Fried-food ( moderality) ; burnt out-something that is unnecessarily roast;

reduced to coal-very very fried food that has black color like coal.
 Fat –the main word.
stocky- a big bellied man;
overweight- too fat person who needs help.(these synonyms include the
connotation of degree of intensity).
 Big –something that is not small;
 enormous- very big thing;

gigantic-it referes to an inimaginably big thing.

 Tired-the general word;

exhausted- a weakened person;
half-dead- someone is so tired that he/she cannot even speak like a dead person.
 Rude- the main word;
impolite-a very course person;
scoundrel-who is liar and acts like an old fox;
immoral-a person who is not restricted in doing something bad.
 Warm- the main word:
hot- more than warm;
sultry-people can hardly breathe, because of heat.
 Cool –chill –cold –frozen

Cool -Neither warm nor very cold

Chill-A moderate but penetrating coldness. A sensation of coldness, often

accompanied by shivering and pallor of the skin.

Cold-Having a temperature lower than normal body temperature. Feeling no

warmth; uncomfortably chilled.

Frozen - Made into, covered with, or surrounded by ice. Very cold .

 Dark –dusky -black

Dark –lacking or having very little light

Dusky – characterized by little or inadequate light ,shadowy.

Black – having little or no light

 To smile – to laugh

To smile- a happy or friendly expression on the face in which the ends of

the mouth curve up slightly, often with the lips moving apart so that the teeth can
be seen.
 To laugh - to smile while making sounds with your voice that show
you think something is funny or you are happy.

 Enjoyment – joy – pleasure – delight

Enjoyment - the feeling of enjoying something

Joy- great happiness

Pleasure- enjoyment, happiness, or satisfaction, or something that gives this

Delight- something or someone that gives great pleasure, satisfaction, or happiness.

 dear-loved-adored-precious
dear- loved by or important to somebody
loved-to have very strong feelings of affection for somebody
adored-to love somebody very much
precious-loved very, very much.
 Thought- reflection
Thought-process of thinking
Reflection-careful thought about something,sometimes over a long period of time.
 Old-unfit-rotten

Old- something that is old has existed or been used for a long time.

Unfit-(of a thing) not of the necessary quality or standard to meet a particular

purpose. E.g the land is unfit for food crops.

Rotten –if something is very bad, no longer good to use.

 very-greatly-acutely-enormously;

very- used before adjectives, adverbs to mean 'in a high degree' or 'extremely'

greatly- very much

acutely- noticing or feeling something very strongly
enormously- very, very much
 happy-beatific-blissful;
happy- feeling or showing pleasure;
beatific- showing great joy and peace
blissful- extremely happy.
 purpose-aim-ambition-aspiration
purpose- the intention, aim or function of something
aim- what somebody is trying to achieve
ambition- something that you want to do or achieve very much
aspiration- a strong desire to have or do something
 Funny-humorous-comical-hilarious-hysterical
Funny- making you laugh
humorous- funny and entertaining
comical- funny or amusing because of being strange or unusual
hilarious- extremely funny
hysterical- in a state of extreme excitement, and crying, laughing
 burn -scorch-singe.
burn -implies any effect of fire or heat whether slight of destractive.
scorch is to burn and exposed surface slightly,usually causing a change of taste,colour or
texture of something.
singe-is to burn an end of the hair bristless or the like slightly or superficially,causing a change
of colour on the surface.

The connotation of duration in this group every synonym continues in time. For
example:

 trip, voyage;

Trip - any kind of journey of short duration or excursion.

Voyage - usually a long journey by sea. Trip and voyage are differentiated by
connotation of duration and manner.

 To look through (of short duration)-to look fixedly (lasting).

 To scratch (brief)-to rummage (lasting) as it takes much time.
 To make laugh (brief)-to burst out laughing(lasting).
 Nap-(brief)-somnolency-(lasting).
 To croon-(brief)- to sing-(lasting).
To croon- the small part of a song ; to sing the whole song.
 To laugh-(brief)-to giggle-(lasting)-to laughter-(lasting).
 Run - Depart
 Run -To move swiftly on foot so that both feet leave the ground during each
stride.(lasting)

Depart - to go away; leave.(brief)

 Nap- sleep- oversleep

Nap- a short sleep, especially during the day

Sleep- the resting state in which the body is not active and the mind is
unconscious

Oversleep- to sleep for longer than you intended to and so wake up late.

 big-beefy-bulky-burly
big-large in size
beefy- big or fat (of aperson or their body)
bulky-tall and heavy(of a person), large and difficult to move (of a thing)
burly-big, strong and heavy of a man or a man’s body
 thought-reflection
thought- process of thinking
reflection-careful thought about something, sometimes over a long period of time
 smile-beam
smile-to make a smile appear on your face
beam- to have a wide and happy smile on your face.
to observe and to view denote a lasting act , whereas to espy describes a brief,
passing action.

 continual, continuous, perpetual

Continual – always implies that which is going on all the time but with short
pauses or breaks.

Continuous – implies unbroken or interrupted continuity of things, events or the

like.

Perpetual – stresses that which goes on never ceasing, for a long time, perhaps
continuing forever.

 to see-to look- to watch;

 Synonym to watch denote a lasting act, whereas to see describes a brief, passing
action.
to see- to become aware of somebody/something by using your eyes
to watch-to look at somebody/something for a time, paying attention to what
happens.

Emotive connotations synonyms in this group differ from each other and from the
other words by the nature of the emotion they express. The base of expressing
something is connected with emotion. For example:

 Cheery-lively-happy. (These synonyms have different intensity).

 To smile - to grimace .
To smile with joy;
To grimace from irritation , disgust.
 Scared-startled.
Startled with fear.
 cry, weep, sob, squall;

Cry is the ordinary word.

Weep generally implies a quitter utterance than the other words.

Sob implies convulsive gasps. One cries, weeps or sobs from grief. One cries or
weeps from joy. One cries from pain, rage or fear.

Squall - to utter a sudden loud cry.

 To irritate-to annoy- to put out.

Annoyance, putting out and irritation are caused by the following emotions-
harm end disgust.

 To bore- to depress- to weary

To bore-to make somebody feel bored

To depress-to make somebody sad and without enthusiasm or hope

To weary -to make somebody feel tired

 Sad- gloomy- cheerless- miserable

 Sad- unhappy or sorry

Gloomy- unhappy and without hope

Cheerless- not bright or pleasant and making you feel sad

Miserable- very unhappy

It is important to mention that synonyms said-miserable also belongs to the

connotation of degree of intensity.

 thoughtful-quiet, because you are thinking

pensive-thinking deeply about something, especially because you are sad or

worried

 brave-willing to do things which are difficult, dangerous or painful

audacious-willing to take risks or to do something shocking
 Irritate , exasperate, provoke, annoy
Irritate – is to arouse anger, usually expressed by a short-lived or momentary
outburst of impatience.
Exasperate – stresses great irritation, annoyance, anger or the like, which may
cause one to lose his temper.
Provoke – emphasizes the arousing or exciting of extreme annoyance, which is
often justifable.
Annoy – is to cause some anger or unpleasant feeling, usually a temporary
disturbance or irritation of nerves by enduring that which one finds displeasing
irritating or offensive.
 Frighten scare, terrify
Frighten – the general word of the group, implies a sudden or momentary reaction
in which fear is emphasized.
Scare – usually stresses fear that causes sudden and often unreasoning panic.
Terrify – implies intensive fear suggesting a shocked state of mind and loss of self-
control.
 kind-thoughtful-amiable-gracious

kind- gentle, friendly and generous

thoughtful- showing that you think about and care for other people
amiable- pleasant; friendly and easy to like
 gracious- kind, polite and generous

The evaluative connotation conveys the speaker’s attitude towards the referent,
labeling it as good or bad.
This type implies that synonyms have negative or positive evaluative connotation. For
example:

 Prudent- a person who is cautious and careful;

Cowardly-someone is afraid of anything.

 Inquisitive- when a person wants to know many interesting things; Nosy-

someone asks too many questions and being with them seems to be uneasy.
 To talk-to speak about ordinary, real things;
To chat-means to compose unreal stories (maliciously).

to talk - has positive meaning, to chat -has negative meaning.

 Thrifty-when someone spends money reasonably;

Miserly-when a person is not generous and is very stingy with money.
 Persevering- a strong person which does not step back (but if it is necessary to
make a way for somebody he/she can do it.);
Stubborn –it refers to a person who wants his /her demands to be met and never
steps back by no means.
 Modest-a person who is not very keen on praising and does not like talking
about success.
Mousy is too shy person.
 Up to date-something that is modern ,the newest;
new-fangled-new fashioned thing that is said scornfully.
 Self-confident-a man/woman who is sure of herself/himself; Conceited-someone
who wants to be praised and is a self-satisfied person.
 Dignified-someone who stands on his/her dignity and is kind;
Stiff-necked-a stubborn person.
 Slim –skiny

Slim- slender, as in girth or form, has positive connotations.

Skiny –very ,very slim, has negative connotations

 Thin – slim – slender

Thin- having a small distance between two opposite sides

Slim- (especially of people) attractively thin

Slender- thin and delicate, often in a way that is attractive.

 thoughtful-quiet, because you are thinking

pensive-thinking deeply about something, because you are sad or worried

smile-simper
 smile-to make a smile appear on your face
simper-to smile in a silly and annoying way
 to talk - to gossip ,
to gossip bears a negative evaluative connotation and to talk positive one.
to gossip- to say something about other people's private lives, often in an unkind
way
to talk- to speak in order to give information or to express feelings, ideas
 Poor and wretched
Poor-having very little money and not many possessions.
Wretched- extremely bad or unpleasant.
 hope-expectation-anticipation
the noun expectation bears a negative evaluative connotation and hope-
anticipation a positive one.
hope- to want something to happen and think that it is possible
expectation may be either of good or of evil
 bossy-controlling-tyrannical
bossy- always telling people what to do
controlling- to have power over a person, company, country, etc. so that you are
able to decide what they must do
tyrannical- using power or authority over people in an unfair and cruel way
 purpose-purport
purpose- the intention, aim or function of something
purport- to claim to be something or to have done something, when this may not
be true
  clique (a small group of people who seem unfriendly to other people) as
compared to group (a set of people);

The causative connotation shows the reason that causes some actions, such as:

to earn, to deserve, to merit;

 To earn -to acquire an adequate reward from one's labor, service or performance.
To deserve -rightfully to get some reward or punishment for one's actions or
behavior; To be entitled to such reward;
To merit means the same as to deserve, but it is a more formal term than the
latter. Besides, it is more often used to express praise than criticism. Merit cannot
be immediately followed by a verb.
 To kill –to starve-to make somebody die of laughing.The causes of dying are
following: starvation and laugh.
 To smile-to grimace.The cause of grimacing is disgust (they have emotive
connotation).
 Scared-startled .
The cause of being startled is fear.
 Obliged-forced-supposed.

These words imply an obligation of doing something, that is not voluntary.

 To lose one’s life –to perish.

To lose one’ s life because of war, or something else;
to perish from cold or starvation.
 Thoughtful- brooding- meditative- wistful- pensive

Thoughtful- quiet because you are thinking about something

Brooding- making you feel uncomfortable or worried, as if something bad is going

to happen

Meditative- relating to or absorbed in meditation or considered thought

Wistful- sad and thinking about something that is impossible or in the past
 Pensive- thinking in a quiet way, often with a serious expression on your faceThe
synonyms thoughtful- meditative also belong to the connotation of degree of
intensity.

 smile-leer
smile-to make a smile appear on your face
leer- an unpleasant look or smile that shows somebody is interested in a person in
an evil way
 bossy and tyrannical.
bossy- to tell people what they must do
tyrannical- using power or authority over people in a cruel way
 To scream-to shout
To scream-with fear, but shout with joy.
The connotation of manner can be singled out in some groups of verbal synonyms.
They express manners that are typical of people while doing particular things.

This type is traced in some groups:

 journey, voyage, trip, travel, tour;

Journey is the general word. It suggests going by any means of transport to some
definite destination but usually by land.

Voyage - usually a long journey by sea.

Trip any kind of journey of short duration or excursion.

Travel - if used in singular = the act of travelling, in plural = journeys to distant

places.

Tour - a series of successive journeys.

 to look for, to seek, to search;

To look for - the ordinary term for to try to find.

To seek - to try to obtain; to ask for; to try or attempt. Sometimes seek is used as a
more dignified, literary or high flown term for to look for.
 To search - to look carefully, extensively in trying to find; To find out by careful
examination. The search is stronger than look for.

 cry, weep, sob, squall;

Cry is the ordinary word.

Weep generally implies a quitter utterance than the other words.

Sob implies convulsive gasps. One cries, weeps or sobs from grief. One cries or
weeps from joy. One cries from pain, rage or fear.

Squall - to utter a sudden loud cry. to cry, to weep, to sob and to squall are
differentiated by emotive connotation and connotation of manner.

 To speak –to gumble -to mumble.

These synonyms denote ways of speaking in a low voice, in parts.

 To hear-to overhear.
Something prevents hearing , speakers do not know that someone is hearing
them
 To walk-to walk up and down-to wander.

To walk from one place to another;

To wander aimlessly.

 To run- to run up-to run down.

All the synonyms denote types of running.

 To jump up-to jump down-to jump over

Jump up-a jump in an upward direction.
Jump down-a jump in an down direction
Jump over-to jump to another place.
 To cry-to lament-to bewail.
 to sob- to moan-to goan.
 Mix –join –jumble

Mix - To combine or blend into one mass or mixture.

 Join- To put or bring together so as to make continuous or form a unit

Jumble -To mix in a confused way; throw together carelessly.

 To Sip- to drink- to gulp

To sip- to drink, taking only a very small amount at a time

To drink- take (a liquid) into the mouth and swallow- It is also a dominant
synonym

To gulp- to drink r liquid quickly by swallowing it in large amounts

 to ask-to appeal-to apply-to beg

to task-to say or write something in the form of a question
to appeal- a formal request to a court of law or to somebody in authority for a
judgement.
to apply-to make a formal request, usually in writing, for something such as a job,
a place, at college, university
to beg- to ask somebody for something especially in an anxious way because you
want or need it very much
 sing-to make musical sounds with your voice in the form of a song
chant-to sing or shout the same words or phrases many times
chirp- to make short high sounds
chorus- to sing or say something all together
 to caper-to frisk-to frolic-to gambol all denote ways and types of jump.
to caper- to run or jump around in a excited way
to frisk- to run and jump in a lively way
to frolic- to play and move around in a happy way
to gambol- jump or run about in a lively way
 to demand- to order- to request all denote types of ask.
to demand- to ask for something very firmly
to order- to ask for something to do something
 to write-to scribble
to write- To form (letters, words, or symbols) on a surface with an instrument
to scribble- To form (letters, words, or symbols) on a surface with an instrument not
cleanly.
 anger-rage-fury-wrath.
 anger-suggets merelly an emotional reaction of displeasure .
rage-is violent anger and stresses the loss of self-control more often exhibited in
looks,words or actions.
fury-is even more violent overpowering than rage.It vegres on medness
suggesting a violent and med physical or outword expression of violence.
wrath-stresses a desire to punish or get revenge.

The connotation of attendant circumstances

To hear-to overhear.

To speak-to mumble-to gumble.

To walk-to walk up and down-to wander

To jump up- to jump down-to jump over.

To laugh-to giggle-to laughter.

To run- to run up-to run down.

Low-pygmy

The connotation of attendant features

 intelligent, clever, sensible, wise. sensible, intelligent, clever and wise are
differentiated by connotation of degree of intensity and attendant features.

Each of them describes a special type of human cleverness.

 Ugly-uncomely-monster. (These synonyms have different intensity).Uncomely-

someone with the following features: a hooked nose ,short legs and hands etc.
Monster- too ugly person.
 Tall-giant (different intensity).

Tall man with big hands and lags ;

giant –very tall person.

 Fat-stocky-overweight.
A man of short stature – Lilliputian, having short legs and hands. Lilliputian is
someone who is very short with small features head, hands.

Stylistic connotations

this type is controversial. Some scholars think that word’s stylistic characteristic is not a
connotative component. Secondly, stylistic connotations are subject to further
classification, namely: colloquial, slang, dialect, learned, poetic, terminological, archaic.

Marriage (neutral), matrimony (formal), wedlock (literary and sometimes ironical),

wedding (both formal and informal); to merit (formal);

courage (neutral), valour (bookish), dauntlessness (archaic, poetical), grit (colloquial),

pluck ( colloquial), guts (slang).

enemy (neutral), adversary (bookish), opponent (official), foe (poetical).

dismiss, discharge (neutral), fire, sack (colloquial).

Head (colloquial)-loaf (slang).

Pay-salary-wage-benefice.

Old fox (colloquial)-file (slang).

Hark (slang)-spy ( colloquial).

Loped (colloquial)-sprinted (sporting).

Evening glow (colloquial)-even (poetic).

Nose (colloquial)-conk(slang).

To sob-to moan-to goan (these synonyms have the connotation of manner).

Room(colloquial)-chamber(slang).

Assured(colloquial)-confident(bookish).

Refrain(colloquial)-burden(poetic).

father (neutr.) – parent (book.) – daddy (colloq.)

To put- to place- to set

New –fresh - modern

New -In the most recent form, period, or development.

Fresh -Recently made, produced, or harvested; not stale or spoiled

Modern-Of or relating to a recently developed or advanced style, technique, or

technology: modern art; modern medicine.

To choose-to select.

To choose -To select from a number of possible alternatives; decide on and pick out.to
prefer or decide (to do something) (Informal)

To select-To take as a choice from among several .(formal )

Chat- gossip- talk- speak- converse- discuss- utter

Chat- to talk to someone in a friendly informal way

Gossip- conversation or reports about other people's private lives that might be
unkind, disapproving, or not true

Talk- to say words aloud; to speak to someone

Speak- to say something or to make a sound with your voice. It is also a dominant
synonym.

Converse- to have a conversation with someone

Discuss- to talk about a subject with someone and tell each other your ideas or opinions

Utter- to say words, to use the voice, or to have a conversation with someone.

As you have seen several types of connotations are intermixed. As we have already
seen, there are many types of connotations that are transitional between each other.
The groups of synonyms may belong to the different types at the same time and
sometimes it is almost impossible to belong them to the any particular type of
connotation properly.