Social Rehabilitation and Reintegration

SOCIAL REHABILITATION AND RE-INTERGRATION
Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION TO SOCIAL DEVIATION

To deviate is to go against the set rules, standards of any society. It is doing contrary to
the expectation of the society. Eg rape, fighting, stealing, murder, practicing
homosexuality etc.
Causes of deviation
a) Peer pressure
b) Drug and alcohol abuse
c) Diffusion of foreign culture
d) Mental instability because of sickness
e) Poverty- leads to stealing
f) Poor self concept
g) Stress
h) Inconsistent parental discipline
i) Outdated traditional values and norms
N/B
Behaviour that is defined as deviant in one situation may not be a deviant even in the
same time, period and geographical area, e.g a man who dresses in a woman’s clothes to
an in a play will be considered normal, but a man who dresses in a woman’s clothes in
the same audience will be considered to have acted abnormally.
Impact of social deviation

1. Violation of social norms, values and rules in the society
2. It leads to high insecurity
3. It leads to high marriage breakup and domestic violence
4. High violation of human rights in the society
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Christopher Kuloba 2021
Positive impacts
1. It has encouraged partnership among societies and countries in addressing the
problems of social deviation
2. It has led to in-balance in resource distribution in various regions and among
individuals
3. It has encouraged segregation and discrimination on those associated with deviant
behaviour in the society
4. It has led to neglect of social economic responsibilities by deviant individuals
5. It has led to individual capabilities being eroded thus loosing human resource
Factors leading to deviation (reasons why there is deviation)

1. Physiological factors:-
Some experts believe that all children are born with their biological genes. Genetics
have shown that depending with the genes of the family, children can behave in an
abnormal way e.g crying, getting easily irritated, becoming hyper reactive e.t.c. some
biologists believe that crime, alcoholism, drug addiction, certain types of mental
disorders and certain sexual deviations are inherited in the family.
2. Psychological factors:-
Psychologists explain all forms of deviation and criminal behaviour in terms of
abnormalities in the psychological structure of the individual. They believe that the
inability of people to adjust to demand of the society makes them to be deviant.
Psychological factors are mainly from the environment and they affect the individual
directly.
3. Sociological factors:-
The level at which the person socializes makes the person acquire certain behaviour.
A bad peer pressure influences an individual to defiant behaviours. A good peer
group will influence one to good behaviour. Isolation and not wanting to mix with
other people makes people to acquire isolated behaviour.
Other social factors include;

 Poverty
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 Age of the mother- the older the mother the greater the incidence of abnormality
in the C.N.S (Central Nervous System) and may cause mental retardation and
premature labour.
 Father age.
4. Environmental factors:-
The environment in which a child is brought up affects the child’s behaviour. If a
child lacks enough nutrition he/she will remain domant for the rest of her life.
5. Cultural Factors:-
Cultural beliefs and taboos affect the behaviour of an individual
Rehabilitation and re-integration measures on school behavior

1. Have a fair attitude towards individual differences in interest and abilities
2. Have an average expectation for each one of them academically
3. Manage a child’s behaviour consistently without being too rigid/ too soft
4. Reward the desired behaviour and do not reinforce inappropriate behaviours.
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Chapter 2: THEORIES OF CRIME AND DEVIATION
A theory is an explanation of a given phenomena or happening

It’s believed that deviant varies with time, place, situation and social status. Scientists
have therefore developed a variety of theories to explain deviants
This does not mean that some theories are correct while others are wrong
1. Biological explanation:-
Human being possesses both biological and social nature. Humans like animals must
eat, rest, breath and eliminate wastes and require salt and other chemicals, food etc
for them to be healthy. Just like animals that depend on environment. Scientists
explain that certain forms of deviants can be traced certain abnormal body body
chemicals or heredity.
Physical structure/properties set physical limits on the activities of people. These limits
are also set by the culture. Biologists believe that disorders have biological inheritance
although this has not been proved. It can also be discussed in terms of evidence as seen
from generation to generation in a particular culture and in one family to another. These
crimes include sexual deviation, alcoholism, certain types of mental disorders and drug
addiction
Behavioural traits can be passed on in a family through sharing of common experiences
and attitude
2. Psychiatric/Medical model of deviant:-

Psychiatrics regard deviants as psychologically sick persons, in their view, deviant
behaviour is a product of something in the individual such as personal di-organization
and mal-adjusted personality. Culture is not seen as a determinant cause of deviant
behaviour but a way of expressing the deviation.
Psychiatrists say that all people have certain basic needs and especially the need for
emotional security. Children experience emotional conflict which likely determines their
personality of behaviour in future.
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According to this theory deviant behaviour cannot be inherited since social norms that are
directely related to deviance cannot be inherited
3. Anomie theory:-
This theory explains that deviance is as a result f conditions in the environment i.e
when there is absence of standards, rule in the society. Anomie implies that there is a
social unrest and chaos in the society.
Robert King adapted the idea of anomic to develop the strain theory which he said that
social goals or legitimate goals work together to attain a well being society. Anomie as a
social disorder is shown by lack of rules, commands, hierarchy. Therefore accounting to
this theory, people become deviance when there are no rules or norms in the society.
4. Labeling theory:-
It is also called social reaction theory. This theory is concerned with how the self
identity and behaviour of an individual is influenced/created by how that individual is
categorized and described by others in the society.
This theory denoted the label applied to individuals influence in behaviour particularly
the application of negatives/stigmatizing labels such as criminals promote deviant
beaviour.
The theory therefore emphasizes on rehabilitation of the offender through an alteration of
the labels such as;
 Client empowering schemes
 Victim offender forgiveness ceremonies
 Use of alternative programs
5. Social learning theory:-

This theory was developed by Ronald Aker and Robert Burgess (1960). It was
developed to explain deviancy by comparing variables which encouraged
delinquency eg the pleasure from delinquent peers with variables that discouraged
deliquesce e.g the response that parents take to discover deliquesce in their children
the theory emphasizes that social learning occur through five main stages.
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1st close contact
2nd imitation of superiors
3rd understanding of concept
4th role model behaviour
5th insertion
The theory emphasizes that deviant is adopted through observation of criminal behaviour
through the first stages.
According to social learning, theory supports the use of punishment for instance long
sentence for those who are convicted. Equally this theory suggests that criminal
behaviour is learned and affected by environment. Learning also is adoptive ie people
learn deviant behaviour when they associate with rebels
6. Strain theory (social structure theory) (sociology):-

In criminology the strain theory state that social structure within society may encourage
citizen to commit crime. Structures refers to societal level which filter down and affect
how individual perceive his/her needs eg the structure in the family may
encourage/discourage children into the criminal behaviour. Some institutions like
schools, value honesty, personality development and responsibility and this makes the
students not to take part in the deviant behaviour but in some cases the structure in school
makes students engage in deviant activities eg prefects who are not being punished.
7. Symbolic internationalism theory:-

Was developed by George Herbert, who argued that people are self and social
products. It is believed that people act towards things based on the meaning these
things have for them these meanings are derived from social interaction and are
modified through interaction.
It is believed that:
a) Human beings act towards things on the basis of the meaning that the
things. The meaning of such things is derived from social interaction
b) These meanings are handled and modified through interpretive process
used by the person in dealing with things he/she encounters
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According to the theory people interact with each other by interpreting each others
actions, their response is not made directly to the action of one another but instead is
based on the meaning which attach to such actions.
8. Differential associated theory

It states that through interaction with others, people learn the values, attitudes, techniques
and motives. This was invented by Southerland and it summarizes this theory into 9
points;
a) Criminal behaviour is learned through interaction
b) Criminal behaviour is learned through interaction with the other people in the
process of communication
c) The principle part of learning criminal behaviour to occur between intimate or
personal groups
d) When criminal behaviour is learned the learning include the techniques of
committing the crime which sometimes is very competitive and specifically
directed to the target
e) Specific direction of motives and drive is learned from definitions of the legal
codes as favourable and unfavourable.
f) A person becomes delinquent because of an excess of definition favorable to
violation of law over definitions unfavorable to violation of law.
g) Ifferential association may vary in frequency, priority, duration and intensity.
h) The process of learning criminal behaviour by association with criminals and
criminal patterns involve all of the mechanism
i) While criminal behaviour is an expression of general needs and values, it is not
explained by those needs and values, since non-criminal behaviour is an
expression of the same needs and values.
9 . Social control theory
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This theory proposes that the process of socialization and social learning build self
control. The theory was derived from functionalist theory and proposes that there are four
major sources of control; namely
 Direct- this is where punishment is applied for wrongful behaviour and
competence is rewarded by parents, family and authority figures.
 Indirect- this where a youth refrains from delinquency from the conscience
 Control through need satisfaction- ie all an individual needs are met, then there is
no point to engage in criminal activity
 Internal by identification with those who influence behaviour say because he/she
might act to cause pain and disappointment to parents and others with whom
he/she has close relationship.
Criticism of crime and deviation theory

1. Not all people who are labeled will become deviants. Or commit deviant
behaviour (labeling theory)
2. Its not true that we should have rules and regulations to avoid criminal behaviour
(anomie theory, social control theory and strain theory)
3. Not all people engage in criminal behaviour because of unsatisfied needs (strain
theory)
4. Not all people learn criminal behaviours from others (social learning theory)
5. Its not true that we should always have structures in order to reduce crime and
delinquency (strain theory, anomie theory)
10. Rational choice theory

In criminology, the Rational Choice Theory adopts a Utilitarian belief that man ia
reasoning actor who weighs means and ends, cost and benefits and makes a rational
choice.
The theory states that the failure of families and extended kin groups to expand the realm
of relationships no longer controlled by the community, and undermines governmental
control. This leads to persistent systematic crime and delinquency. He also believed that
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such disorganizations causes and reinforces the cultural traditions and cultural conflicts
that support antisocial activity.
The theory states that for a crime to occur, three elements must be present i.e there must
be;
a) an available and suitable targets
b) a motivated offender
c) No authority figure to prevent the crime from happening.
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Chapter 3: BELIEFS AND ATTITUDE
Definitions of terms:
Belief
The feeling of certainty that something exists or it true. It is a faith, conviction, principle,
idea, trust e.t.c
Attitude
Refers to an approach, outlook, manner, thought, feelings or opinion about something or
someone or a way of behaving that is caused by this.
Social deviance
Refers to the violation of social norms. A norm is an accepted standard or a way of
behaving or doing thongs that most people agree with. It is a rule that is socially
enforced.
Examples of social deviations could be;

Murder Prostitution Domestic violence
Robbery with violence Rape Underage alcohol
Illegal drugs Burglary Smoking in public
gambling Theft arson
What some people think I true about social deviants and criminals
a) Social deviants know what they are doing and want to punish others
b) Social deviants are rebels
c) Social deviants are bad
d) Being blind is a taboo
e) It is their problem
We react to deviants and criminals with social stigma i.e severe or a person’s
characteristics which lead to marginalization.
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We label them as deviants and criminals thus we make them feel not part of us. We call
them sick, disabled, criminals, thieves, perverts etc, all these words show disapproval of
people we consider deviants.
We are stereotyped against them especially by being prejudiced. We think it’s a taboo to
be associated with them and we do not want anything to do with them. That makes them
feel rejected by the society and they even become worse.
Cultural practices associated with social deviants

Culture refers to the way of life especially the general customs and beliefs of particular
group of people at a particular time. Practices are actions other than ideas. In socme
communities, the following were cultural practices that were associated with the social
deviants:
a) Twins were seen as bad omen and thrown away in the bush
b) The sick, lame and disabled were drugged in the bush to be eaten by animals
c) People with diseases like epilepsy we ex-communicated from the rest of the
society
d) Thieves were chopped off their hands
Impact of culture on deviants

Impact refers to influence which can either be positive or negative
Positive impact of culture on deviants and deviations

1. Cultural practices ensured social control on social deviants because the control
measures were very clear. Everybody in the community knew that if you
contravened a certain law the consequences will be this or that
2. Cultural practices ensured no deviants existed in the community because they
were killed, ex-communicated or otherwise.
Negative impact of culture on deviants and deviation

1. The value of acceptance of deviants as people and trying to rehabilitate them was
absent.
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2. Deviants suffered untold misery for faults not their own due to cultural practices
especially if the cause of deviation was biological
3. Innocent human life was destroyed due to ignorance especially the throwing away
of twins and not concentrating on finding cure for diseases like leprosy and other
treatable diseases.
Activity
1. give an account of your personal view and attitude about the criminal and
deviants in your community
2. looking at your community, discuss some cultural practices that were being
associated with social deviants and social deviations
3. Show the effect of your culture on social deviations and crime.
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Chapter 4: PHYSICALLY CHALLENGED
What is physical disability?
Physical disability occurs widely. It is important t realize that physical disability goes
beyond having to use a wheelchair or wear a back brace. There are many conditions, such
as multiple sclerosis and chronic fatigue syndrome, which are outwardly invisible but
result in physical disability. Generally, however, physical disability falls under the
following headings:-
1. Limited control of some or all voluntary muscles
a) arms- ranging from no control to abnormal coordination

b) legs- ranges from total inability to difficulty in standing or walking
c) trunk- difficulty in sitting straight
d) face and throat- difficulty in eating and speaking
e) bladder and bowel- may have to adapt to toileting procedures
2. Underdeveloped skeletal structure
Conditions such as dwarfism and the effects of thalidomide
3. Dysfunctional joints
For example, arthritis
It’s very difficult to generalize physical disabilities. Each person will have different
causes, symptoms and management strategies. Some people with a physical disability
may also have intellectual, vision or hearing disabilities.
What cause physical disability?
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1. Accidents which could result in:
a) spinal injury
b) b) amputation
c) acquired brain injury, affecting motor skills and limb control
2. Medical conditions such as:
a) Cerebral palsy
b) Spina bifida
c) Muscular dystrophy/atrophy
d) Multiple sclerosis
e) Nervous system disease
f) Circulatory diseases
g) Respiratory diseases
h) Arthritis
i) Other muscular-skeletal disorders
j) Head injury/stroke
k) Post-polio syndrome
l) Inherited conditions passed genetically (limb deficiency)
m) Exposure to drugs or chemicals during pregnancy (thalidomide)
Spinal injury
Spinal injury is usually the result of an accident (.g car, diving, pedestrian). The vertebra
of the spine are displaced or crushed, which injures the spinal cord or the spinal column.
Damage is often permanent of irreversible. When the spinal cord is damaged the
massages and signals to and from the brain cannot go through, resulting in paralysis i.e
lose of function and feeling of the area below the level of the injury. This usually means
that the person will use a wheelchair.
Paraplegia
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If the spine is injured below the level of the neck, the person is said to be paraplegic and
will be paralyzed to some degree in the legs and abdomen. Movement in the trunk and
chest will depend on the height of the person
Quadriplegia
If the neck is broken or the spine is injured in the cervical region, the arms also will be
fully or partially paralyzed. Hence all four limbs are affected and the person is said to be
quadriplegic. The chest muscles will also be affected and the person may have dificuty in
breathing, coughing and clearing their chest
Autonomic paralysis
As well as part of the nervous system, the controls movements and transmit sensation
autonomic has another system which controls the involuntary functions of internal organs
and glands. It is outside but close to and connected with the spinal cord, its massages
controls the bowel bladder, male (but not female) sexual function, blood circulation and
pressure. Damage to the spinal cord will usually affect the autonomic nervous system
also.
What causes spinal injury?
The major causes of spinal cord injuries can be divided into the following categories
1. Motor vehicle accidents (55%)
(Motor car -40%, motorbike -15%)

Contributing factors include
a) Not using seatbelts or using them incorrectly
b) Not using full face motorcycle helmets
c) Driving inexperience
d) Alcohol
e) Speed
f) Fatigue
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g) Drugs
2. Driving accidents (1%)
Contributing factors include

a) not checking the depth of water before diving
b) alcohol
c) submerged objects (rocks, logs, sandbanks and others)
d) not making allowance for tidal changes in water depth
3. Falls and crushes (15%)
These injuries may occur as a result of

a) horse-riding
b) hang gliding
c) tramp lining
d) skiing
4. Industrial accidents caused by;
a) Crushes and falls

b) Equipment failure
c) Inadequate safety precautions
5. Sports (8%)
Contributing factors may be

a) Inappropriate physical build for position/sport
b) Rough play- head high tackles
6. Other trauma (11%)
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These may include;
a) Gunshot wounds
b) Physical abuse
IMPLICATIONS FOR DAILY LIVING

In order to live independently people with paraplegia and quadriplegia will need:-
Housing
An accessible well-adapted and suitable home where they can live on their own or with
others of their choice
Mobility and access

A wheelchair or walking aid, a vehicle or accessible taxi service, access to public
transport and to places of work, study, leisure, shopping and other interest and/or
accessories.
Finance
Sufficient income to pay all the requirements for daily living including the cost of
services they cannot perform for themselves
Assistance
Suitable personal assistance to do the tasks they cannot do for themselves.
TIPS FOR GETTING ALONG WITH A PERSON ON A WHEELCHAIR

a) Do not assume assistance is needed-ask
b) Be aware of what is accessible and inaccessible to people in wheelchair
c) Find out how to push a wheelchair, how to get up and down steps, how to
push it backwards, how to use brakes and how not to lift by the arm rests
or wheels
d) Try sitting or crouching down to the approximate height of people in
wheelchair
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e) Do not talk about the person as if they were not present
f) Do not ask personal questions about the disability or its origin until you
know the person
g) Do not rush the person
h) Do not be sensitive about using words like ‘walking’, ‘running’. People in
wheelchair use the same words.
i) Do not lean on a person’s wheelchair unless you have their permission. It
is their personal space
j) Do not try to move the person or their wheelchair without their permission
to do so. Give a push only when asked.
CEREBRAL PALSY
Cerebral palsy refers to the damage in the areas of the brain which control movement
(motor areas), “short circuiting” messages from the brain to different parts of the body.
This results in difficulty in controlling different muscles. A person with cerebral palsy
may experience weak and stiff muscles or uncontrolled movements.
The type of physical disability will depend on the area of the brain damaged.
Spastic cerebral palsy

Movement appears stiff because the muscles are contracted and tense.
Athetoid cerebral palsy

Movements are constant and unintentional, often jerky. Coordination is also affected.
Ataxic cerebral palsy

Results in problems with balance and coordinating movement (eg walking unsteadily)
Possible Associated Disabilities

a) Speech
b) Sight
c) Hearing
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d) Intellect
e) Epilepsy
Cerebral Palsy occurs before or during birth, or in the early childhood as a result of an
accident or illness such as;
a) Pre-natal rebella infection
b) Anoxia (lack of oxygen to the brain)
c) Premature birth
d) Childhood diseases (eg meningitis)
e) Car accident
However, in many cases the cause is unknown. Cerebral Palsy can occur in any family
and is contagious.
Cerebral palsy cannot be cured but it does not get progressively worse. However, the
effect on the person can often change, as the person grows older.
IMPLICATION FOR DAILY LIVING

a) Limited mobility and the use of aids such as calipers, braces or walking
aids
b) Difficulty with everyday activities such as standing, walking, sitting,
eating and drinking
c) Absent or slurred speech
d) Use of communication aids such as boards, signing or technological aids
e) Difficulty for some in reading and writing because of perpetual problems
f) Co-ordination difficulty
WAYS OF ASSISTING
1. Look, listen, understand and treat the person as you would like to be treated.
2. Conversation should always be directed at the person, not at any companion who
may be with them
3. Take care serving hot drinks or food and provide necessary straws or eating
utensils
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4. Do not separate the person from their special aids or equipments
5. Be aware of the environment and the difficulty it may present
6. Find ways of communicating with the person. Maintain eye contact, sit down if
appropriate
7. Be willing to communicate in different ways if necessary, such as using a
communication board or other verbal and non-verbal cues
8. Be patient when talking to someone with communication difficulty. Resist the
temptation to interrupt or to answer on their behalf
9. Do not talk about the person to another person in their presence
10. Learn how to use or assist in the use of communication daily living aids.
MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS (MS)

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is neurological condition, which affects the central nervous
system. The central nervous system acts like a telephone switchboard, sending electrical
messages along the nerves to various parts of the body. These massages control all our
everyday movement and processes. The nerve fibres in the central system are wrapped in
a protective sheath of fatty materials called myelin, which like plastic around electric
cable, insulates the nerves and help the smooth flow of messages to different parts of the
body.
In people with MS the myelin breaks and is replaces by scar-tissue. This results in the
messages being distorted, completely blocked or being sent to wrong areas. The
symptoms vary from person to person, but may include:_
a) Vertigo (dizziness)
b) Eye trouble such as double vision
c) Speech difficulties, including slurring of words
d) Plasticity and/or weakness in the arms and legs
e) Loss of coordination
f) Numbness or “pins and needless”
g) Staggering, loss of balance or dragging of the feet
h) Extreme tiredness
i) Memory lapse
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What cause MS
There are many theories, but the cause is still unknown.

a) May not as mobile as other people and therefore they may become isolated from
the community resources and people
b) May be afraid off how others may respond to them
c) May experience chronic fatigue
d) May exhibit /have symptoms which result in them being unable to fulfill their
leisure and work activities
e) May be financially less secure than previous if they have to stop work
f) May be less mobile due to walking difficulties
g) May be unable to independently care for themselves or carry routine daily living
and activities
h) May have slow speech
i) May have double vision and sight impairments
j) May react adversely to extreme heat
WAYS OF ASSISTING
a) treat the person as you would want to be treated
b) negotiate the level of assistance by asking the person how much help require
c) don’t assume what they can do for themselves
d) Encourage the person to be as independent as possible.
POLIOMYLITIS
People contract polio when one or more polio viruses enter the body. The usual place of
entry is through the mouth but sometimes the entry takes place through the respiratory
tract.
 When initially infected (stage one), people experience “flu-like” symptoms such
as high fever or diarrhea. For many people infection ends at this point
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 Stage two of the infection occurs when the virus multiplies in the gut and moves
into the bloodstream. Symptoms at this time still resembles the “flu” and may
include a stiff neck and aches all over the body
 Then enter stage three, at this point the virus move across the blood-brain and
enters the central nervous system. The virus infects anterior horns of the spinal
cord causing damage to the motor neurons (nerve cells), which is responsible for
moving the skeletal muscles. Damage to the motor neurons leads to the varying
degrees of paralysis called polio.
POST POLIO SYNDROME

a) Lack of strength and endurance
b) Pain in the muscles and joints
c) Breathing, swallowing or speaking difficulties.
OTHER DISABILITIES
NEUROMUSCULAR DISORDERS
In the neuromuscular disorders, the muscles do not work properly because of an
abnormality in the muscle fibres, the motor nerve cells in the spinal cord or the nerve
fibres connecting them. All neuromuscular disorders have a genetic cause. There are
several types including:-
Muscular Atrophy- there is no damage to the spine, but because the muscles receive no
electrical impulses, they gradually waste away. There is no loss of feeling or sensation. It
is not thought to be hereditary.
Muscular Dystrophy:- is an inherited disease that causes weakening and wasting away
of the muscles
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1. Most children around the age of nine who have muscular dystrophy will use a
wheelchair and be quite limited in the body function
2. People may often have difficulty in carrying out activities when they need to lift
their hands above their shoulders eg combing hair.
3. Effects on lower limbs will create difficulties with steps and stairs.
4. Improving participation in school, work and community activities is important
5. With adequate support, people enjoy regular family, community, education,
leisure and work activities.
THE MODELS OF DISABILITY
1. THE SOCIAL ADAPTED MODEL

This is new model, built upon the social model, but incorporating elements of the
Medical Model. It it accepts that impairments identified by the latter are significant, but
stipulates that far more problems are created for disabled people by social and
environmental causes. Not all problems of impairment can currently be addressed, but if
we recognize our environment as discriminatory we can do much to change it so that
disabled people are enabled to high achievements.
2. THE ECONOMIC MODEL

Under this model disability is defined by a person’s inability to participate in work. It
also assesses the degree to which impairment affects an individual’s productivity and the
economic consequences for the individual, employer and the state. Such consequences
include loss of earnings for and payment for assistance by the individual; lower profit
margins for the employer and state welfare payments.
3. THE CUSTOMER/ EMPOWERING MODEL
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This is the opposite of the expert model. Here, the professional is viewed as the service
provide to the disabled client and his or her family. The client decides and selects what
services she believes are appropriate whilst the service provider acts as consultant or
coach.
4. THE RELIGIOUS MODEL

The religious model views disability as a punishment inflicted upon an individual or
family by an external force. It can be due to misdemeanors by the disabled person,
someone in the family or community group, or forbears. Birth conditions can be due to
actions of the committed in a previous reincarnation.
Sometimes the presence of the evil spirit is used to explain differences in behaviours,
especially conditions such as schizophrenia. Acts of exorcism or sacrifice may be
performed to expel the negative influence, or recourse made to persecution or even death
of the individual who is ‘different’.
In some cases disability stigmatizes a whole family, lowering their status or even leading
to total social exclusion
COMMON WAYS PEOPLE WITH DISABILITY ARE VIEWED AND TREATED

Unfortunately, and inaccurately, people with disability are often viewed as:
k) Victims, or objects of pity
l) horrible or grotesque
m) Burdens, either on society or on their families and careers
n) Evil, or some threats to the comfort and safety of others
o) Unable, or assumed to be unable to do things
p) Having multiple disabilities (such as assuming that a person who uses
wheelchair has an intellectual disability)
q) Childlike.
r) Special
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INTERACTING WITH PEOPLE WITH DISABILITIES
1. Good service behaviour such as active listening.
2. Think of the person first and the disability second. Sensitive use of language can
help reinforce the ‘person first’ attitude. Reference to people with disabilities
rather than to a disabled person helps maintain this stance.
3. Accept people with disability as individuals. People with disabilities may have a
common disability, but the consequences of their disabilities will vary
considerably from person to another.
4. Listen to what such people say. Don’t assume you know what they want or what
is best for them.
5. be yourself, be natural , don’t force enthusiasm
6. A disability is not necessarily an illness; do not treat people with disability as
though they are sick. Treat them as healthy individuals.
7. Treat people in a manner that is appropriate to their age. It is not appropriate to
talk to them as if they are children.
8. Speak directly to the person not to their careers or other third party.
9. If the person with disability has communication problem they will usually let you
know and indicate a proffered method.
10. A disability is an inconvenience in certain situations, but it is not necessarily a
tragedy, which dominates a person’s life and makes fulfillment impossible.
ACCESS ISSUES
Levels
Level or almost level access is a definite advantage for people with mobility impairment
whether they are a wheelchair user or ambulatory impaired. It is also easier to gain access
to a building via a ramp than by steps.
Parking
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Private car parking spaces need to be large enough to enable a person with a wheel chair
to get in and out of both the car and the parking space
Path of travel
An accessible path of travel from the street frontage car parking area or drop off points
needs to be provided
Entry points
At least one entry door should be available
Surface
Wet floor surfaces such as toilet areas should be ‘non slip’ and water resistant.
Accessibility
Accessibility to books on shelves needs to be given considerations.
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CHAPTER 5: MENTALLTY CHALLENGED
What is a Mental Illness?

The term mental illness refers to a group of illnesses in the same way that heart disease
refers to a group of illness affecting the heart. A mental illness is a medical condition.
Although no single cause has been identified, a number of factors may contribute to the
development of a mental illness
Research has identified genetics and biochemical factors as being associated with major
depression, bipolar disorder and schizophrenia, although it is not known exactly what
triggers the onset of the illness.
Stress may be a trigger for some mental illnesses but the relationship between stress and
mental illness is complex. The stress may trigger an episode of illness or it may be the
results of developing the illness.
Mental illness and psychiatric disability

What is the difference?
There is often confusion regarding the use of the terms “mental illness” and “psychiatric
disability”. Disabilities are the consequences of an illness i.e a person may have difficulty
in being able to carry out tasks and roles as a result of having an illness.
With regard to mental illness:
f) Impairment- refers to the loss or effect of the illness on psychological,
physiological or anatomical systems, for instance, experiencing
hallucinations, through disorder or depression.
g) Disability- refers to the restriction, lack or loss of the ability. (as a result
of illness and impairment) to perform an activity or a task.
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h) Handicap- refers to social and environmental factors such as
discrimination and poverty, which disadvantages a person with a
psychiatric disability.
Psychiatric disabilities are significantly different from many other disabilities in that they
can fluctuate and are a result of an intermittent and episodic process. As well, not all
people who have mental illness will develop a psychiatric disability.
Facts about mental illness

a) At some stage in their lives, one in five Australians will experience a mental
illness which may vary from mild or temporary to severe and prolonged.
b) Mental illness can be transient and come and go through a person’s life, some
people may only experience a mental illness once and fully recover
c) Improvement in the treatment of mental illness now mean many people are able to
lead rewarding lives in the community
MAIN TYPES OF MENTAL ILLNESSES

Mental illnesses are separated into two main categories;
a) Psychotic illness
b) Non-psychotic illness
1. Psychotic illnesses:- the most common form of this illness are schizophrenia and
bipolar disorder. During psychotic episode, the person can lose touch with reality or is
unable to distinguish between what is real and what is fantasy.
Common symptoms of psychotic disorders are;-
Alteration in thought- eg confused thoughts, lack of logical connection between
thought and speech and delusional thoughts
Alteration of perceptions- these include hallucinations and changes in self
awareness. Hallucinations are the perception of something which is not there in
the external world. They can be auditory (hearing voices).
Alteration of emotions- the person may have abrupt changes in mood, experiences,
conflicting emotions at the same time about the same thing, display of
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inappropriate emotional responses, mania or elation that is excessive, depression
and extreme sadness or despair
Alteration of behaviour- these are changes in usual patterns of behaviour for a
particular individual and can include restlessness, agitation, unusual reactions and
responses and day/night reversal (sleeping during the day , awake during the
night)
Schizophrenia
The word schizophrenia is a Greek word, “skhizo” meaning “to split” and “phren”
meaning ‘mind’
It therefore means split-mindedness.
Facts about schizophrenia

The illness often onsets (begins) in the adolescence or early adult life.
20-30% have only one or two psychotic episodes in their lives
For some, the condition will be life long
Bipolar disorder
Bipolar disorder affects moods and emotions to an exaggerated extent. Moods can swing
from one extreme to another and the person feels extremely “high” (mania) or extremely
low (depression)
Facts about bipolar disorder
Less than one percent of the population suffer from bipolar disorder
It used to be called manic depression
Episodes of bipolar disorder can range from mild to severe.
2. Non-Psychotic Illnesses
This group of mental illness used to be called neuroses and includes anxiety disorders and
depressive illnesses. They cause considerable distress to people suffering from them and
can affect every part of their live including work, relationships and leisure.
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Anxiety Disorders
Anxiety disorders include phobias, obsessive-compulsive disorder, post traumatic stress
disorder, agoraphobia, panic disorder and general anxiety disorder.
Facts about anxiety disorders

a) Disorders usually begin in early adulthood and are often, but not always triggered
by a series of significant life events
b) They can cause physical symptoms such as heart palpitations, sweating,
hyperventilation, dizziness, headache, nausea, indigestion and loss of sexual
pleasure.
c) The person may think these symptoms are the sign of serious health problems
which only make their anxiety worse.
Depressive illness
Depressive illness is a series of depression and is different from the emotional ups and
downs associated with everyday life. It is much more than unhappiness and is a mental
illness in the clinical sense.
Fact about depressive illnesses

a) The tendency to develop depression runs in families ie some people have a
predisposition to develop the illness. Its more common in certain stages of life
such as at child birth, menopause and retirement
b) It is associated with stress such as personal tragedies or disasters
Personality disorders
Personality disorders are not mental illnesses. The term refers to enduring patterns of
behaviour that deviates from the expectations of an individual culture. This behaviour is
always life long and causes significant distress and difficulties for the person in the social
and occupational relationships and in other important areas of life.
Stress and mental illnesses
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Everybody has a certain level of stress with which they are able to cope. When the
amount of stress a person is under exceeds the level they can cope with, then adverse
effect will occur such as tension, headache, ulcers, high blood pressure, high irritability
etc. it appears that some people have a higher level of vulnerability to developing a
mental illness than others.
Attitudes and communication

Why does a mental illness sometimes develop into a psychiatric disability?
a) Symptoms such as disordered thoughts, hallucinations and lose of contact with
reality can make it difficult for a person to concentrate, process information, solve
problems, make judgments or follow instructions.
b) The intermittent or constant presence of symptoms can result in in the person
being emotionally fragile and vulnerable to stress.
c) Medication does not always control symptoms
d) The person can lose confidence in their ability to make decisions, perform task
and engage in activities
e) Loss of confidence and self-worth has a compounding impact in all areas of a
person’s life and can lead to loss of motivation, neglect of self and overwhelming
feelings of hopelessness.
f) Loss of positive emotional feelings, apathy, withdrawal, loss of self-esteem and
confidence have traditionally been untreatable by medication
g) Interruption to education, training and developmental phases caused by illness can
impact on the person’s ability to perform tasks and achieve independence and
valued roles in the society.
Psychiatric disabilities- the social disadvantages

a) Limited choice due to limited income
b) Lowered social status
c) Lack of expectation from others
d) Rejection by friends and family
e) Vulnerability to being victim of crime and abuse
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f) Insufficient opportunities to learn new skills
g) Limited options for developing a valued role in the community
OTHER CLASSIFICATION/TYPES OF MENTAL ILLNESSES

1. Anxiety disorders:- people with anxiety disorders respond to certain objects or
situations with fear and dread, as well as with physical signs or nervousness, such as
rapid heartbeat and sweating. An anxiety disorder is diagnosed if the person’s response is
not appropriate for the situation
2. Mood disorders:- these disorders is also called effective disorders, it involves

persistent feelings of sadness or periods of feeling over happy or fluctuations from
extreme happiness to extreme sadness
3. Psychotic disorders:- this involves distorted awareness and thinking. Two of the most
common symptoms of psychotic disorders are hallucination- --the experience of images
or sounds that are not real, such as hearing voices ….and delusion---false beliefs that the
ill person accepts as true, despite evidence to the contrary. Schizophrenia is an example.
4. Eating disorders:- eating disorders involve extreme emotions, attitudes and behavious
involving weight and food. Anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa and binge eating disorder
are the most common eating disorders.
5. Impulse control and addiction disorders:- people with impulse control disorders are
unable to resist urges or impulses to perform acts that could be harmful to themselves or
others. Pyromania (starting fire), kleptomania (stealing) and compulsive gambling are
examples of control disorders. Alcohol and drugs are common objects of addictions.
Often people with these disorders become so involved with the objects of their addictions
that they begin to ignore responsibilities and relationships.
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6. Personality disorders:- people with personality disorders have extreme and inflexible
personality traits that are distressing to the person and/or cause problems in work, school
or social relationships. E.g anti-social personality disorder, obsessive-compulsive and
paranoid personality disorders.
7. Adjustment disorders:- this occurs when a person develops emotional or behavioural

symptoms in response to a stressful event or situation. The stress may include natural
disasters such as earthquakes or tornado, events or crises such as car accident or the
diagnosis of a major illness or interpersonal problems such as divorce, death of a loved
one, loss of job or a problem with substance abuse. Adjustment disorders usually begin
within three months of the event or situation and ends six months after the stressor stops
or is eliminated
8. Dissociative disorders:- people with these disorders suffer severe disturbance or

changes in memory, consciousness, identity and general awareness of themselves and
their surrounding.
9. Sexual and gender disorder:- these includes disorders that affect sexual desire,
performance and hehaviour. Sexual dysfunction, gender identity disorder and the
paraphilias are examples of sexual and gender disorders.
CAUSES OF MENTAL ILLNESS
Mental illness can be caused by the following factors
1. BIOLOGICAL FACTORS
Some mental illnesses have been linked to abnormal balance of special chemical int the
brain called neurotransmitters. Neurotransmitter helps nerve cells in the brain to
communicate with others. If this chemicals are out of balance are not working properly
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massages my not be transmitted through the brain correctly leading to symptoms of
illness in addition it detects if injury to certain areas of the brain have also been linked to
some mental conditions.
Other biological factors include:
f) Genetic heredity- many mental illnesses run in families suggesting that
people who have a family member with a mental illness are more
susceptible to developing a mental illness. Susceptibility to mental illness
is passed on families through genes
g) Infection:- certain infections have been linked to brain damage and the
development of mental illness or the widening of it symptoms.
h) Brain defect injury:- defect or injury to certain parts of the brain is also
being linked to some mental illnesses.
i) Pre-natal damages -some evidence suggest that a disruption of early
foetal development/trauma that occur at the time of birth for instance loss
of oxygen in the brain may be a factor in development of certain
conditions which may result to brain damage.
j) Poor nutrition and exposure to lead:- this may contribute to
development of mental illness.
2. PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS
Psychological factors that may contribute to mental illness may include:-
a) severe psychological trauma
s) Suffered as a child, such as emotionally, physiologically of sexual abuse

t) An important early lose of parents
u) Neglect
v) Poor ability to relate with others (violation)
3. ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
Certain stresses can trigger an illness in person who is susceptible to mental illness.
These stresses include:-
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a) Death or divorce
b) Living in poverty
c) Dysfunctional family life
d) Feeling of inadequacy, low self-esteem, anxiety, anger, loneliness.
e) Social or cultural expectations e.g a society that associates beauty with thinness
can be a factor in development of eating disorders
f) Substance abuse by the person or the person’s parents.
REHABILITATION AND RE-INTERGRATION OF PEOPLE WITH MENTAL

CHALLENGES
a) Maintain eye contact- maintaining eye contact shows respect and courtesy to the
person you are interacting with. It shows you are listening and trying to help.
b) Do not use complex terminologies- this is especially important when dealing with
people with intellectual disabilities whose receptive/ language skills are typically
low.
c) Identify yourself and ask “may I help you”
d) Clearly identify your role, state your name and make it clear that you are seeking
to assist.
e) Offer physical assistance and direction
f) Show where materials are kept and assist with items such as photocopier.
g) Wherever possible address the person with an intellectual disability by their first
names. People respond best to their first names and people with intellectual
disabilities are accustomed to being addressed by their first names.
h) Address any inappropriate behaviour immediately. Explain any rules or
regulations or bahaviour that is expected or required. It’s important that people
with intellectual disabilities know the parameters or acceptable behaviour in a
situation. If inappropriate behavior is not checked immediately it can be very
difficult subsequently to explain its inappropriateness.
i) Offer individual orientation tour- provide visual clue. Print, use landmarks and
use descriptive language eg the black desk over there.
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CHAPTER 6: PERSONALITY BEHAVIOUR DIVIATION
-Personality disorders are mental illnesses that share several unique qualities. They
contain symptoms that are enduring and play a major role in most if not all aspects of
personal life.
-While many disorders are identified in terms of symptoms present personality disorder
typically remain relatively constant.
-personality disorders are chronic psychological disorders which can greatly affect
person’s life. Having a personality disorder can negatively affect one’s work, family and
social life.
CAUSES OF PERSONALITY DISORDER
Personality disorder may be caused by the combination of the following:-

a) Parental upbringing
b) Genetic and biological factors
c) One’s (individual personality)
d) Other social factors eg the school you went, culture etc
TYPES OF PERSONALITY DISORDERS
1. Anti-social Personality Disorder

This is characterized by lack of regard for the mental/legal standards in the local culture.
There is a marked inability to get a long with others/abide by social roles; individual with
this disorder is sometimes called psycholopart
2. Avoidance personality disorder
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It’s characterized by marked social inhabitation, feeling of inadequacy and extremely
sensitive to criticism. Individuals with this personality disorder are fearful of involvement
with others. They are terrified because of the thought of being embarrassed in front of
others. They avoid situations that give them social discomfort and this in many cases
leads to social withdrawal.
3. Borderline personality disorder

It’s characterized by lack of own identity with rapid changes in mood and stable
interpersonal relationship and instability in self image.
4. Dependent personality disorder

It’s primarily characterized with extreme need of other people; in some cases it reaches a
point where the person is unable to make any decision and to take any independent stand
on their own. There is fear of separation and an aspect has been submissive to others.
They have a marked lack of self confidence.
5. Histrionic personality disorder

It’s primarily characterized by exaggerated display of emotional reaction, approaching
theatricality in every day behaviour. Emotions are expressed with extreme and often
inappropriate exaggeration.
6. Obsessive personality disorder

It’s characterized by perfections and inflexibility. A person with obsessive personality
disorder becomes pre-occupied with an control pattern thought and action.
THE EFFECTS OF PERSONALITY DISORDERS

g) People with personality disorder may not improve the situation since they
depend on others. Therefore they cannot develop their coping and survival
skills
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h) it can lead to poor working conditions and performance especially where
individuals are uncomfortable to be criticized of being involved with
others
i) it can lead to commitment of suicide in the cases of exaggerated display of
emotional reactive such as anger
j) Personality disorder is connected with violence especially in the case of
individuals who are perfectionists and inflexible.
k) It encourages child mistreatment especially where there is rapid change in
mood and children are exposed to unfamiliar and unfriendly situation and
can be abused eg physical abuse.
l) Individuals in personality disorder engage in gambling ie if they are not
sure of what they are doing.
TREATMENT OF PERSONALITY DISORDER

-Personality disorders are often difficult to treat because of self denial about the presence
of the problem and the pessimism of health professionals based on lack of success in
previous efforts.
-Intensive individual and group psychotherapy combined with ant-depressants and mood
stabilizers can be at least partially effective for some people.
-Individuals with borderline personality disorder have more frequent hospitalization, use
out patient psychotherapy more often, and make more emergency rooms than other
individuals with other personality disorders.
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CHAPTER 7: DEVELOPMENT DISABILITY
This is a term used to describe life long disabilities attributed to mental or physical or
combination of mental and physical impairment, manifested prior to age of 22. The term
is used most commonly in the United States to refer to disabilities that affect individual
daily functioning in the following areas
a) Lack of capacity for independent hearing
b) Lack of economic self efficiency
c) Lack of self care
d) Lack of self direction
e) Lack of movement (immobility)
f) Inability to learn
g) Use of receptive and expressive language
CAUSE OF DEVELOPMENT DISABISABILITIES

There are many social, environmental and physical causes of development disabilities.
Although for some are definite/specific causes may have to be determined.
Common factors causing development disabilities are:-
1. Brain injury or infection before, during and after birth.
2. abnormalities of chromosome or genes
3. babies born long before expected birth date, also called extreme pre-mature
4. Poor diet and health care e.g scurvy, rickets.
5. Drug miss use during pregnancy, including excessive alcohol intake and
smocking.
6. Child abuse can also have a severe effect on the development of child specifically
the social emotional development.
7. growth and nutritional problems
TYPES OF DEVELOPMENT DISABILITIES

Development disabilities can be associated to the following issues:-
Physical health issue
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There are many physical health factors associated with development disabilities. For
instance lack of access to health services, lack of understanding on the availability of
services and lack of professionals
Mental health issues

Mental health issue (dual diagnosis) is most likely to occur in people with development
disabilities than in the general population. A number of factors are attributed to the high
incidence rate of dual diagnosis which include biological factors such as brain injury,
development factors such as lack of education, poverty, limited employment
opportunities and the high likelihood of encountering traumatic events throughout their
life time
Abuse and vulnerability
Abuse is a significant issue for people with development disabilities and as a group they
are regarded as vulnerable. Common types of abuse include:-
a) Physical abuse (withholding food, hitting, punching, pushing etc)
b) Neglect eg withholding help when required eg assistance with personal hygiene
c) Sexual abuse eg rape, incest etc
d) Psychological or emotional abuse eg verbal abuse, shaming, belittling etc
e) Financial abuse eg charging unnecessary fees, holding pension, wages etc
f) Legal or civil abuse (restricted access to services)
g) Systemic abuse (denied access to an appropriate service due to perceived support
needs)
h) Passive neglect (a caregiver’s failure to provide adequate food, shelter)
Lack of education, lack of self esteem and self advocacy skills and lack of understanding
of social norms and appropriate behaviour and communication difficulties are strong
contributing factors to the high incidence of abuse.
SOCIETAL ATTITUDE TOWARDS DEVELOPMENTAL DISABILITIES

Throughout history, people with developmental disabilities have been viewed as
incapable and child-like in their capacity for decision making and development. Until the
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Enlightment in Europe, care and asylum was provided by families and the church
focusing on the provision of basic physical needs such as food, shelter and clothing.
SERVICES AND SUPPORT

Today, support services are provided by the government agencies, non-governmental
organizations and by private sector. Support services address most aspects of life for
people with developmental disabilities and are usually theoretically based in community
inclusion using concepts such as social role valorization and increased self determination.
The services and support include the following:-
1. Education and training

Education and training opportunities for people with developmental disabilities have
expanded greatly in recent times, with many governments mandating universal access to
educational facilities, and more students moving out of special schools and into
mainstream classrooms with support.
Post secondary education and vocational training is also increasing for people with those
types of disabilities.
2. At-Home and community support

Many people with developmental disabilities live in the general community, either with
family members or in their own homes. At home and community support range from one-
to-one assistance from a support worker with identified aspect of daily living to full 24hr
support which include assistance with household tasks such as cooking and cleaning, and
personal care such as showering, dressing and administration of medication, shopping ,
budgeting and paying bills.
3. Residential accommodation
Some people with developmental disability live in residential accommodation (also
known as group homes) with other people with similar needs. These homes are usually
staffed around the clock and usually house between 3 to 15 residents.
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4. Employment support
Employment support usually consists of two types of support
a) Support to access or participate in integrated employment, in a work place in the
general community. This may include specific program to increase the skills
needed for successful employment (work preparation), one-on-one or small group
support for on the job training.
b) The provision of specific employment opportunities within segregated business
services
5. Day services
Non-vocational day services are usually known as day centre, and are traditionally
segregated services offering training in life skills such as meal preparation, craft, games
and music classes and external activities.
6. Advocacy
Advocacy groups now exist in most jurisdictions, working collaboratively with people
with disabilities for systematic change such as change in policy and legislation
OTHER TYPES OF SUPPORT

1. Therapeutic services, such as speech therapy, massage, aromatherapy or drama or
music therapy
2. Supported holidays
3. short-stay respite services (for people who live with family members or other
unpaid careers)
4. Transport services such as dial-a-ride or free buss passes
5. Specialist behaviour support services, such as high security services for people
with high level, high-risk challenging behaviour
6. Specialist relationship and sex education services
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REHABILITATION AND RE-INTERGRATION OF PEOPLE WITH
DEVELOPMENT DISABILITIES
1. Through education and training opportunities- this is done to provide literacy,
numeracy and other basic skills. This is provided in special schools meant for
people with such disabilities
2. Proving home and community support- this includes assisting them in the
household activities, personal care and administration of treatment and
medication. People with potentially dangerous medical conditions such as asthma,
diabetes need full 24hr support since they are unable to mange their condition
without support.
3. Providing employment opportunities- this may include specific program to
increase their skills needed for successful employment and job training.
4. Provide them with residential accommodation- this may include group home that
usually house up to 15 residents.
5. Advocacy programs eg educating the community to accept these people
6. Providing transport services to them
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CHAPTER 8: SEXUAL DEVIATION
Sexual deviation/perversion
 Are conditions in which sexual excitement or orgasm is associated with acts of
imagery that are considered unusual within the culture. To avoid problems
associated with such there is a need to understand what causes sexual perversion.
To avoid problems associated with the stigmatization of labels, the neutral term
“paraphilia” derived from Greek roots meaning ‘alongside of’ and ‘love’, is used
to describe what used to be called sexual perversion. A paraphilia is a condition in
which a person’s sexual arousal and gratification depends on a fantasy theme of
an unusual situation or object that becomes the principal focus of sexual
behaviour. It always cause significant distress/impairment in areas of life
functioning.
 Paraphilias include fantasies, behaviour and/or urges which:
involve non-human sexual objects such as shoes or undergarments
require the suffering or humiliation of oneself or partner
involve children or other non-consenting partners
The most common paraphilias include:-
a) fetishism, or the use of non-living objects.
b) Exhibitionism or exposure of the genitals
c) Frotteurism, or touching and rubbing against a non-consenting person
d) Pedophilia, or the focus on prepubescent children
e) Sexual masochism, or the receiving of humiliation or suffering
f) Sexual sadism, or the inflicting of humiliation or suffering
g) Transvestic fetishism, or cross dressing
h) Voyeurism, or watching others engage in undressing or sexual activity
 Such practices result in to sexual malfunctioning and interfere with normal

social relationship
 Sexual perversion can be identified in behaviour such as involving non-
human sexual objects, involving children or other non-contenting partners
in sexual activity
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 Touching or rubbing against a non-contenting person, receiving of sexual
humiliation of suffering, sexual sadism, cross dressing or watching others
engage in sexual activity.
CAUSE OF SEXUAL DEVIATION

There is very little pertaining the cause of sexual deviation. Sexual deviation can be as a
result of different factors some of which include the following:-
1. Parents who humiliate and punish a small boy for strutting around with erect
penis.
2. A young boy who is sexually abused is likely to develop sexual perversion
3. An individual who is dressed in a woman’s clothes as a form of parental
punishment.
4. Inadequate counseling.
5. Social cultural factors
6. psychological problems (physical problems)
7. Psychosexual trauma eg rape
8. Fear of sexual performance or intimacy of pornographic materials
9. Mental illness
10. Excessive alcohol intake.
DIAGNOSIS
Whatever the cause, paraphiliacs apparently rarely seek treatment unless they are induced
into it by an arrest or discovery by a family member. This makes diagnosis before
confrontation very difficult. Paraphiliacs may select an occupation or develop a hobby
that puts them in contact with the desired erotic stimuli eg selling women’s shoes,
working with children in pedophilia, other coexistent problems may be alcohol or drug
abuse.
TREATMENT
Current interests focus primarily on several behavioural techniques that include the
following
45
1. a version imagery involves the pairing of a sexual arousing paraphilic stimulus
with an unpleasant image, such as being arrested or having one’s name appear on
the newspaper
2. desensitization procedures neutralize the anxiety-provoking aspects of non-
paraphelic sexual situation and behaviour by a process of gradual exposure eg a
man afraid of having sexual contact with women his own age might be led
through a series of relaxation procedures aimed at reducing his anxiety.
3. Social skills training are used with either of the other approaches and are aimed at
improving a person’s ability to form interpersonal relationship.
4. Orgasmic reconditioning may instruct a person to masturbate using his paraphilia
fantasy and to switch to a more appropriate fantasy just at the moment of orgasm.
5. In addition to these therapies, drugs are sometimes prescribed to treat paraphilic
behaviour. Drugs that drastically lowers testosterone temporarily (antiandrogen)
have been used for the control of repetitive deviant sexual behaviours.
TYPES OF SEXUAL DEVIATION
1. Homosexuality
Homosexuality can refer to both sexual behaviour and sexual attraction between people
of the same gender or to a sexual orientation.
 The term gay –often refer to a homosexual man while lesbianism refers to
homosexual woman
Physiological differences in gay men and lesbians

1. Finger length ratios between the index and ring fingers may be defferent between
straight and lesbian women
2. Gay men have slightly longer and thicker penises than straight men
3. Gay and straight people respond differently to human sex pheromones
4. Gay and straight people emit different armpit odours.
5. Three regions of the brain (medial prefrontal cortex, left hippocampus and right
amygdala) are more active in gey men than straight men when exposed to sexually
arousing material.
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Cognitive differences in gay men and lesbians
a) Gay men and lesbians are significantly most likely to be left handed than straight men
and women.
b) Gay men lesbians are more verbally fluent than heterosexuals of the same gender.
c) Gay men are better than straight men at object location memory.
2. Incest
It’s a sexual activity between persons who are related in a close kinship. It can include
sexual activity between family members of either gender and can include family
members of any age.
Endogamy and Exogamy

Anthropologists have found that marriage is governed, through often informally, by rules
of exogamy (marriage between members of different groups) and endogamy
(marriage between members of the same group). The definition of the group for
purposes of exogamy or endogamy varies considerably between societies. In most
stratified societies, one must marry outside of one’s nuclear family—a form of
exogamy---but is encouraged to marry a member of one’s own class, race or religion—a
form of endogamy.
Forms of incest:-
a) Parental incest- this is incest by parents of either sex against children of either
sex
b) Sibling incest- this is incest between similar age of brothers and sisters
c) Cousin and other distant relatives incest-this is incest between close and distant
relatives
d) Adult incest- this is incest between adults such as adult brothers and sisters.
3. Rape
It’s a form of sexual deviation when individual force another to have sexual intercourse
against that person’s will. It’s defined as sexual intercourse that takes place or is
attempted without valid consent in the parties involved. There are different types of rape
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which include marital rape, prison rape, date rape, war time rape, gang rape and
acquaintance rape.
Generally, consent is considered invalid if it is obtained from someone who is
1. Under any kind of duress (force, violence, blackmail etc)
2. Judgmentally impaired or incapacitated by alcohol or drugs (illegal or otherwise)
3. Mentally impaired whether by illness or developmental disability
4. Below the age of consent defined in the jurisdiction
Effects of rape
After being raped it is common for the victim to experience intense and sometimes
unpredictable emotions and they may find it hard to deal with their memories of the
event. Victims can be severely traumatized by the assault. This may result into acute
stress disorder symptoms, which may include:-
 Feeling numb and detached, like being in a daze or a dream, feeling that the world
is strange and unreal
 Difficulty remembering some important parts of the assault
 Relieving the assault through repeated thought, memories and nightmares
 Avoidance of things---places, thought, feelings---that remind the victim of assault.
 Anxiety or increased arousal (difficulty sleeping, concentrating)
 Avoidance of social life or place of rape.
4. Swinging
It involves a range of sexual activity in which swinger may take part in, which can
include the following:-
a) Exhibitionism – having sex with parties while being watched
b) Voyeurism- its watching others having sex, perhaps with the above mentioned
partner
c) Swap- it’s an act of having oral sex with a second, third or forth person.
d) Soft swinging or soft swap- it’s kissing, stroking or having oral sex with 3rd or 4th
persons. Soft swap may be in form of some group sex or the literal swapping of
partners.
e) Full swap- having penetrative sex with someone other than one’s partner
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f) Group sex- this is an all inclusive terms for activities involving more partners in
the same area.
Polyamory
Poliamory is the desire, practice or acceptance of having more than one loving, intimate
relationship at a time with full knowledge and consent by everyone involved.
5. Child sexual abuse

It’s an umbrella term describing criminal and civil offense in which an adult engages in
sexual activity with child/children.
There are different kinds of child sexual abuse;-
 Sexual assault- a term defining offenses in which an adult touches a minor for
the purpose of sexual gratification eg rape, sodomy and sexual penetration with
an object
 Sexual molestation- a term defining the offenses in which an adult engages in
non-penetrative activity with a minor for the purposes of sexual gratification eg
exposing a minor to pornography or the sexual acts of others
 Sexual exploitation- a term defining offenses in which an adult victimizes a
minor for advancement, sexual gratification or profit eg prostituting a child and
creating or trafficking in child pornography
 Sexual grooming-defines the social conduct of a potential child sex offender
who seeks to make a minor more accepting of their advances eg an online chart
room.
Effects of child sexual abuse

Depending on the age the size of the child, and the degree of force used, child sexual
abuse may cause infections, sexually transmitted diseases or internal lacerations. In
severe cases, damage to internal organs may occur, which, in some cases may cause
death. Other studies found that a wide range of psychological, emotional, physical and
social effects are associated with child sexual abuse including:-
49
 Depression
 Post-traumatic stress disorder
 Anxiety
 Poor self-esteem
 Somatoform disorders
 Complex post-traumatic disorder
 Emotional dysregulation
 Neurosis
And other more general dysfunctions such as sexualized behaviour, school/learning

problems and destructive bahaviour.
6. Dogging
Dogging is a British term for swinging based in Kenya that takes place in a public, but
reasonably by scheduled area. There are several known dogging spots across U.K where
people go to engaged in voyeurism and exhibitionism and to engage in group sex.
7. Hot wife
The term hot wife refers to a married woman who has sex with men other than her
spouse, with the husband’s consent. In most cases the husband takes a vicarious pleasure
to watching the wife and other male or men enjoyments.
8. Adultery
Its voluntary sexual intercourse between a married person and one who is not his/her
spouse. Some legal jurisdictions have defined it as a crime against marriage.
9. Fornication
Is having sexual intercourse before marriage
50
REHABILITATION AND RE-INTERGRATION OF PEOPLE WITH SEXUAL
DEVIATION
1. Guiding and counseling especially on behavioural change
2. Proper parental up bringing especially to children
3. through providing medical support eg surgery and medication
4. By use of behavioural techniques where individuals are advised and supported to
change their behaviour
5. Improving individual social skills through training which is aimed at improving a
person’s ability on interpersonal relationship
6. Sometimes drugs are prescribed to treat people with sexual deviation eg
cyprogerone, clomipramine, they are anti-depressants.
51
CHAPTER 9: LEVELS OF INTERVENTION
Intervention:-
To intervene is to become involved in a situation in order to improve or help it.
Interventions are needed in order to prevent impairment, disability or handicap
difficulties
We have different levels of interventions; primary, secondary and tertiary
Level one:
Primary intervention
Primary refers to the most important, the most basic, the earliest or what happens first.
Primary interventions therefore are the earliest involvement needed in order to prevent
impairment from giving difficulties.
They can be said to measures which aim to boost health and prevent impairment from
accruing. This can be done by the following among other things;
1. Reducing poverty
2. Better diet
3. Reducing accidents and stress
4. Better housing conditions
5. Improved self and safety at work
6. Better working hours especially in pregnancy
7. Better safety precautions against accidents, radiators, poor lighting conditions etc
8. Good primary health care provisions
9. Early detection and treatment of ill health, impairment and potentially disabling
conditions
10. Better material and health care, effective immunization programs, education in
health and health promotion, giving knowledge and skills to the family and
community etc
Professional social workers who have specialized in preventive approach to social

problems especially the community health workers utilize the primary intervention
measures to prevent social problems from happening.
52
Level two:
Secondary intervention measures
Secondary refers to happening after something else has taken place. They are secondary
interventions because they are implemented after impairment has taken place and are out
to prevent the said impairment from causing a disability.
They form most of what is thought to be rehabilitation. Secondary intervention measures
include the following:-
1. Medical intervention ie surgery and medication
2. Provision of orthotic and prosthetic aids
3. Speech therapy
4. Audio logical therapy, psychological and social intervention
5. Vocational training
Level three:
Tertiary intervention
Tertiary is an adjective that refers to third in order rank or importance; in comparison to
primary and secondary.
Tertiary intervention includes those measures preventing impairment or disability from
interfering with the normal social roles appropriate to a given individual. They promote
full integration of people with disabilities into society, equalizing opportunities and
maximizing their independence; they include helping people with disabilities to be
accepted as students, parents, friends, married partners etc.
Tertiary interventions involve the following:-
1. Job placement
2. Helping people with disabilities to develop positive self image so that they
advocate for their own rights as citizens
3. Promoting positive social attitude to people with disabilities including attitudes of
parents and wider community towards people with disabilities
4. Developing national policy promoting effective and accessible rehabilitation for
all
53
CHAPTER 10: EMERGING TRENDS IN SOCIAL
REHABILITATION AND RE-INTERGRATION
Emerging trends refers to the new methods used today in rehabilitation and re-
integration. It involves new approaches to be in practice at current times.
The changing fields in approaches and methods of rehabilitation will be due to, but not
limited to:
a) Information and communication technology (ICT)
b) Skills in counseling and assisting the deviants
c) New types of medicine used to treat the deviants
d) New technological development
e) Involvement of all significant others in effort to rehabilitate and re-integrate the
deviants in the society.
ICT
Modern technology and medicine has been created and used to integrate people with
disability. This has improved the quality of life for the disabled individuals.
 It has improved their level of physical, mental and social function
 Medicine is used today to improve the health situation of the disabled for
instance, neurological rehabilitation. This is a kind of treatment give those having
injuries like spinal cord injuries etc
 The roe of ICT in rehabilitation has contributed to support and care to people with
disabilities. Ict can include the use of computers to provide information, analyse
and give interpretations
The role of ICT

1. Giving regular contacts to E-mail
2. Providing emergency prone services that enable people to handle crisis
3. Providing documentation and safe custody of relevant information
4. Publication of books
54

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SOCIAL REHABILITATION AND RE-INTERGRATION

Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION TO SOCIAL DEVIATION

Impact of social deviation

Factors leading to deviation (reasons why there is deviation)

Other social factors include;

Rehabilitation and re-integration measures on school behavior

A theory is an explanation of a given phenomena or happening

2. Psychiatric/Medical model of deviant:-

5. Social learning theory:-

6. Strain theory (social structure theory) (sociology):-

7. Symbolic internationalism theory:-

8. Differential associated theory

9 . Social control theory

Criticism of crime and deviation theory

10. Rational choice theory

Examples of social deviations could be;

Cultural practices associated with social deviants

Impact of culture on deviants

Positive impact of culture on deviants and deviations

Negative impact of culture on deviants and deviation

What is physical disability?

1. Limited control of some or all voluntary muscles

a) arms- ranging from no control to abnormal coordination

2. Underdeveloped skeletal structure

Conditions such as dwarfism and the effects of thalidomide

For example, arthritis

What cause physical disability?

What causes spinal injury?

(Motor car -40%, motorbike -15%)

2. Driving accidents (1%)

Contributing factors include

3. Falls and crushes (15%)

These injuries may occur as a result of

4. Industrial accidents caused by;

a) Crushes and falls

Contributing factors may be

6. Other trauma (11%)

IMPLICATIONS FOR DAILY LIVING

Mobility and access

TIPS FOR GETTING ALONG WITH A PERSON ON A WHEELCHAIR

Spastic cerebral palsy

Athetoid cerebral palsy

Ataxic cerebral palsy

Possible Associated Disabilities

IMPLICATION FOR DAILY LIVING

MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS (MS)

IMPLICATIONS FOR DAILY LIVING

POST POLIO SYNDROME

THE MODELS OF DISABILITY

1. THE SOCIAL ADAPTED MODEL

2. THE ECONOMIC MODEL

3. THE CUSTOMER/ EMPOWERING MODEL

4. THE RELIGIOUS MODEL

COMMON WAYS PEOPLE WITH DISABILITY ARE VIEWED AND TREATED

What is a Mental Illness?

Mental illness and psychiatric disability

Facts about mental illness

MAIN TYPES OF MENTAL ILLNESSES

Facts about schizophrenia

Facts about anxiety disorders

Fact about depressive illnesses

Stress and mental illnesses

Attitudes and communication

Psychiatric disabilities- the social disadvantages