SilageZoneManual 2nd Edition

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Plant Grow Harvest Store Feed 1

CONTENTS
EDITOR AND
CONTRIBUTOR: PLANT GROW HARVEST GOALS FOR
STABLE SILAGE............................................ 134
Bill Mahanna, Ph.D., Dipl. ACAN CORN SILAGE....................................................... 6 GENERAL Low pH................................................................... 134
DuPont Pioneer Global Silage Hybrid Selection...................................... 6 RECOMMENDATIONS.............................. 84 Temperature......................................................... 134
Nutritional Sciences Manager Maturity and Moisture...................................... 84
Technology Traits................................................. 10 Proper Spectrum of
bill.mahanna@pioneer.com Length of Cut......................................................... 84 Fermentation Acids......................................... 134
Drought-Tolerant Hybrids.............................. 13
515.229.3409 Minimum Microbial/Fungal
Brown Mid-Rib Hybrids.................................. 13
Activity at Feedout........................................... 135
Floury vs Vitreous
CONTRIBUTORS: Endosperm Hybrids.......................................... 14
Minimal Protein Degradation.................... 135
Sampling Silages.............................................. 135
Scott Dennis, Ph.D. Hybrid Mixing......................................................... 17
DuPont Pioneer Rumen and Planting Date.......................................................... 17 STORE Silage Moisture Determination................ 136
Analytical Errors................................................ 140
Silage Microbiologist Fermentation Process................................... 106
Row Spacing......................................................... 18 NIRS Versus Wet Chemistry..................... 140
scott.dennis@pioneer.com Shrink Versus Dry Matter Loss............... 110
Planting Depth and Spacings..................... 19 Proximate Analysis.......................................... 142
515.535.4049 True Cost of
Emergence Issues.............................................. 20 Detergent System............................................ 142
Silage Dry Matter Loss................................. 111
Plant Population................................................... 22 Digestion Trials................................................... 143
Fred Owens, Ph.D. CORN SILAGE.................................................... 42 Role of Yeast in Dry Matter Loss........... 113
DuPont Pioneer Nutritionist Stand Evaluation.................................................. 23 CORN SILAGE.................................................... 85 Forage Additives............................................... 115 Energy Systems................................................ 144
Replant Considerations.................................. 24 Key Growth Periods.......................................... 45 High Chopping...................................................... 88 Digestion Rates................................................. 145
and Senior Research Scientist Inoculant Application..................................... 117
(retired) Growth & Development Kernel Processing............................................... 89
ALFALFA.................................................................... 26 through the Vegetative Stages................... 52 VFA Profiles.......................................................... 117 FORAGE FEEDING
Variety Selection.................................................. 26 Drought-Stressed Corn.................................. 90 Protein Degradation....................................... 118 GUIDELINES...................................................... 146
How Corn Develops.......................................... 54
Bill Seglar, DVM, P.A.S. Reduced-Lignen Alfalfa................................... 27
Frosted Corn.......................................................... 91 Compaction and Sealing............................ 119 Alfalfa........................................................................ 146
Determining
DuPont Pioneer Senior
Nutritionist and Veterinarian Lodging-Resistant Varieties......................... 27 Corn Leaf Stages................................................ 56 HIGH-MOISTURE CORN........................ 92 Managing Drive-Over Piles........................ 123 High-Moisture Corn........................................ 147
Alfalfa Blends......................................................... 28 Scouting for Problems..................................... 57 Value of Cob and Husk................................... 94 Baleage................................................................... 123 Corn Silage........................................................... 149
(retired)
Fall Dormancy....................................................... 30 Wind/Hail Damage............................................. 60 Kernel Damage..................................................... 94 Kernel Damage.................................................. 149
Fungicides................................................................ 61
Dan Wiersma, M.S.
DuPont Pioneer Alfalfa
Winterhardiness and
Winter Survival...................................................... 31 Fertility........................................................................ 63
ALFALFA..................................................................... 95
RFV Versus RFQ.................................................. 95
FEED Starch...................................................................... 150
Protein..................................................................... 150
Business Manager Managing Weeds................................................ 66 Feedout Management.................................. 125
Disease Considerations.................................. 31 Harvest Maturity................................................... 96 Feed Delivery...................................................... 152
daniel.wiersma@pioneer.com Impact of Moisture & Feedout Safety.................................................. 126
Insect Considerations...................................... 33 Growing Environment....................................... 66 Harvest Maturity of Mixed Stands........... 97 Common Forage Analysis
515.535.0394 Silage Storage Safety Reminders......... 127
Seed Coatings...................................................... 33 Methods to Monitor Terminology................................................................ 153
ALFALFA..................................................................... 74 Harvest Maturity................................................... 98 Silo Gas.................................................................. 127
Pure Live Seed Counts................................... 33 Notes.............................................................................. 159
Autotoxicity.............................................................. 79 GDU Method.......................................................... 99 Nitrates.................................................................... 128
Field Preparation.................................................. 34 Prussic Acid......................................................... 128
Fertility........................................................................ 79 Scissor Cutting Method.................................. 99
Planting Depth...................................................... 35 Field Molds........................................................... 129
Weed Control in PEAQ........................................................................ 100
Planting Dates....................................................... 35 Established Stands............................................ 80 Storage Molds.................................................... 130
Extending Harvest with
Seeding Rate......................................................... 36 Disease and Insect Different Varieties.............................................. 101 Moving Silage..................................................... 133
Hard Seed................................................................ 36 Considerations...................................................... 80 Cutting Height.................................................... 101
Using a Nurse Crop........................................... 37 Fungicides................................................................ 81 Wheel Traffic Damage................................... 102
Weed Control at Stand Established....... 37 Yield and Nutritional Impact Harvest Timing................................................... 102
of Growing Environment................................. 82
Mixed Stands......................................................... 38 Late-Fall Harvest in
Northern Climates........................................... 103
Over-Seeding Thin Stands............................ 39
Biology of Alfalfa Wilting/Drying.............. 104
Stand Evaluation.................................................. 39
2 Feed Store Harvest Grow Plant Plant Grow Harvest Store Feed 3
INTRODUCTION
Ensiled forage and cereal crops, utilized in the feeding of livestock, have long been
a fundamental link in the food chain. The ensiling of forage and grains allows for
year-round availability of nutritious and palatable feed while utilizing a smaller land
base than grazing. By their conversion into milk and meat products, ensiled feeds
contribute to the nourishment of mankind.
With proper management, many different crops can be ensiled as livestock feed.
However, when analyzed individually, various crops have differing potential to satisfy
livestock nutritional requirements. For example, ensiled cereal grains like high-moisture
corn are an excellent source of energy, while alfalfa is utilized primarily as a fiber and
protein source.
Feed cost represents the largest single expenditure on most livestock operations. The
production of high quality silages can help reduce the cost associated with feeding
concentrates and supplements. For dairy and beef producers, whole-plant corn, high-
moisture corn, alfalfa, cereal, and a variety of grass species are the silages of most
economic significance. This manual will focus primarily on corn silage, high-moisture
corn and alfalfa silages.
The Silage Zone® Manual has been developed to provide a concise source of relevant
PL A NT
information on the five most important aspects of silage production: PLANT, GROW,
HARVEST, STORE and FEED. A profitable silage program hinges on the success
and interaction of each of these unique and important functions.
4 Plant Grow Harvest Store Feed 5

CORN such as 50% milk line.
Seed companies may conduct research
trials comparing their approach to
by totaling accumulated GDUs for a
specific time period. Canada uses a
different system called CHU (corn heat
unit) to track accumulated heat units
Longer-season hybrids generally have
more yield potential than shorter-
season hybrids. GDU to physiological
maturity (black layer) is probably the
assigning maturity to competitors and
SILAGE HYBRID SELECTION make subtle adjustments to how they
are reporting hybrid maturities. For
and define the maturity of corn hybrids.
Just like relative maturity ratings,
best overall indicator to determine if
a hybrid can mature for grain harvest
example, if a seed company observes GDU’s are also difficult to compare based on comparisons with long-term
The five most important considerations companies can be challenging.
a disadvantage in harvested grain across seed companies. This can be GDU accumulation records for that
when choosing a hybrid for silage or Hybrids within each individual seed
moisture levels, they will want to be sure due to the use of different formulas particular geography. The length of
high-moisture corn has to be: company are typically rated for CRM
they are aligning their maturity ratings as or the use of formulas not accounting time for the grain to dry down to 20-
1) hybrid maturity, (Comparative Relative Maturity) or RM for the length of time maximum or 22% harvest moisture can also vary by
2) desired technology traits (e.g. closely as possible to key competitors.
(Relative Maturity) and in the U.S., this minimum temperatures were held, or hybrid drydown rate (also typically given
herbicide resistance, corn borer, is reported in calendar days (e.g. 105- It is important to read individual the location of research stations used a relative score in most seed catalogs).
corn rootworm, black cutworm day hybrid). In Canada, hybrid maturity seed company footnotes to clearly to generate GDU values.
and western bean cutworm), is reported as CHU or Corn Heat Units understand the rating definitions. A grain
3) agronomic stability (e.g. stress (e.g. 3100 CHU). Multiplying the CRM hybrid will typically be given an overall
emergence, drought tolerance), of a U.S. hybrid by 30 will approximate CRM, a silking CRM and physiological GROWING DEGREE UNIT REQUIREMENTS
4) inherent genetic resistance to the CHU rating (e.g. 100-day CRM ~ CRM (black layer or zero milkline). FOR GROWTH STAGES OF A 2700 GDU HYBRID
yield robbing diseases such leaf 3000 CHU hybrid). Physiological CRM can be particularly
diseases (e.g. gray leaf spot, important for growers harvesting high- GROWTH
The most important word in the CRM STAGE PLANT CHARACTERISTICS GDU
northern and southern leaf blight, moisture corn or snaplage. Hybrids
acronym is “relative” because the
common and southern rust) and within the same genetic family, but Planting 0
values are based on comparisons
ear rots (e.g. fusarium, gibberella, containing different technology traits,
within each seed company’s own Two leaves fully emerged 200
diplodia) and proven yield potential will often be assigned the same
hybrids, not necessarily against
(e.g. tonnage and starch). maturity. However, depending upon Four leaves fully emerged 345
competitive hybrids. The most
5) proven yield potential (e.g. tonnage level of insect infestation, these hybrids
common approach to assigning a new Six leaves fully emerged (growing point above soil) 476
and starch) may differ by 2-3 days in maturity. For
grain CRM is to compare grain harvest
example, a hybrid with corn borer and Eight leaves fully emerged (tassel beginning to develop)
It is recommended to select silage maturity (20-22% kernel moisture) to 610
rootworm resistance traits will likely be Vegetative
hybrids that are 5-10 days longer than other current commercial hybrids in Ten leaves fully emerged
healthier under heavy insect infestation 740
would be grown for grain because the the company lineup. This overall grain
compared to the same base genetics
heat units are not needed to mature CRM is a function of when the plant Twelve leaves fully emerged (ear formation) 870
Corn silage is increasingly becoming lacking these technology traits.
the crop to typical grain (combining) reaches physiological maturity (black
the forage of choice for many livestock Most seed companies also report Fourteen leaves fully emerged (silks developing on ear) 1000
maturities. This approach will help layer or zero kernel milkline) and the
producers due to factors such as high maximize silage yield and starch dry down characteristics of the hybrid. average GDUs (growing degree units, Sixteen leaves fully emerged (tip of tassel emerging) 1135
yields of a high energy (starch) crop, a content. If maturity is too long for the With this approach, growers have a also known as Growing Degree Days
single harvest period, and the ability or Heat Units) to silking and GDUs Silks emerging/pollen shedding (plant at full height) 1400
growing zone, starch levels and total “relative” idea of how hybrids from the
to utilize relatively high amounts of yield may be compromised by a frost same company will advance through to physiological maturity (kernels 30- Kernels in blister stage 1660
waste water/manure. Matching the incident. the various reproductive stages but it 34% moisture). There are different
product selection for each acre based does not represent actual days from methods of calculating GDU heat unit Kernels in dough stage 1925
on a grower’s tillage practices, drought Corn hybrid maturity ratings help planting or emergence to harvest accumulation, but the most common Reproductive
growers select and compare Kernel denting 2190
potential, soil fertility, disease, pest moisture. Some companies also report is the Base 50 Method. This method is
prevalence and harvest capacity are hybrids, manage agronomic risk, and silage CRM based either on comparing based on the use of minimum (50ºF) and Kernels dented 2450
critical to the total success of a corn spread harvest timing. What is often whole-plant moistures to known silage maximum (86ºF) temperatures for corn
misunderstood by growers is there Physiological maturity 2700
growing program. check hybrids or regressing grain data growth and development. GDUs can
is no industry standard for these to a silage kernel maturity standard be used to predict crop development Adapted from the National Corn Handbook
ratings, so comparing hybrids across
65% of the energy) and given the value are less important simply because there starch digestibility is an important
GDU (Growing Degree Unit) CALCULATION of grain, must factor heavily in silage are minimal genetic differences between measurement for nutritionists switching
hybrid decisions. these traits among commercial hybrids. from long-stored corn silage to new-
GDU Base 50 = Neutral detergent fiber digestibility Sugar is another trait found on some crop silage, it is not a trait that should
(NDFD) tends to be the measurement plot reports. Difference in sugar content be given consideration when selecting
[(daily maximum temp in degrees Fahrenheit + daily minimum temp in degrees Fahrenheit)/2] – 50
of most interest, especially among is primarily due to maturity differences silage hybrid genetics.
nutritionists. However, while small between hybrid entries. Sugar is Research by corn breeders suggests
If the minimum temperature is below 50ºF, then 50 is used as the minimum temperature. translocated and deposited in the kernel
Similarly, the upper limit is 86ºF. If maximum temperature exceeds 86º F, then 86 is used as the NDFD differences do exist among that to be 95% confident in selecting the
conventional silage hybrids (2-3 as the plant matures, and those hybrids best hybrid for silage yield or nutritional
maximum temperature. higher in sugar are typically less mature
percentage points), the biggest traits, a minimum of 20 direct, side-by-
Example: when daily high = 86ºF and daily low = 65ºF; then GDU = (86 + 65/2) – 50 = 25.5 influence over NDFD is the growing as evidenced by higher whole-plant side comparisons (in the same plot) are
environment that plants receive during moistures and lower starch content. recommended. Hybrids should also be
the vegetative growth stage (see Fiber values such as the quantity of acid compared within the same maturity,
more in the GROW section). Pioneer detergent fiber (ADF), neutral detergent seed treatment, technology segment,
CHU (Corn Heat Unit) CALCULATION researchers have concluded that fiber (NDF) and undigested neutral planting population and chop height.
growing environment is three-times detergent fiber (uNDF) are important It is also desirable to compare hybrids
in total ration formulation. However,
CHU = more influential over fiber digestibility in multiple environments and growing
than genetics. This is why the seed their importance in evaluating hybrid seasons to better understand hybrid
[1.8 (daily minimum temperature in ºC – 4.4) + 3.3 (daily maximum temperature in ºC – 10)
industry has resorted to the use of genetics is minimal because their stability when exposed to extremes
– 0.084 (daily maximum temperature in ºC – 10) ²] / 2 absolute values are impacted from
brown mid-rib (BMR) genetics as the in growing conditions. Data from a
only practical approach to significantly dilution by starch and sugar. single plot, while certainly of interest
As with GDU, this calculation assumes no corn growth with night temperatures below 4.4ºC or
improve NDFD. When evaluating Some nutritionists also request to growers wanting to know how a
daytime temperatures below 10ºC and an upper threshold of 30ºC
NDFD, be sure you note the incubation ruminal starch digestibility values on hybrid may perform on their farm,
An approximate conversion between the two systems is to multiply the CRM day length of a time point (e.g. 24 vs. 30 vs. 48-hour) silage plot reports. Most university is essentially meaningless from a
hybrid by 30 to approximate maturity in terms of CHU. when comparing values from different and seed company silage hybrid statistical perspective. This is due
laboratory reports. testing programs do not provide to the variability caused by soil
Example: a 100-day CRM hybrid is approximately a 3,000 CHU hybrid
Some growers also like to evaluate starch digestibility values. This is compaction, previous crop history,
hybrids based on indexes such as Net understandable given the fact that fertility/manure history, soil type, water
Energy of Lactation (NE-L) or University starch digestibility, as influenced by the availability, tillage, and insect damage.
Some growers like to reduce risk silking hybrids generally move north of For silage producers, a focus on the
of Wisconsin’s “Milk per Ton” and “Milk amount of hard or vitreous starch in the To overcome the possibility of a “one-
by spreading the pollination period their adapted zone and more readily three important traits of agronomic
per Acre.” While they can be useful in kernel, is a trait also lacking in significant year wonder,” some university silage
between hybrids. However, planting adapt to higher elevations. If moved stability (over diverse growing
ranking hybrids, it still makes sense to variation among commercially available programs also show multiple year data
hybrids with different CRM ratings too far north or in elevation, late silking seasons), yield and starch content
evaluate the absolute value of the traits hybrids. While differences clearly if the hybrid was entered in their plots
(e.g. 105 day) may not always provide hybrids may not reach physiological will help in sorting through the reams
(yield, starch, fiber digestibility) that exist in the amount of vitreous starch more than one year.
the desired effect because they could maturity before first frost, or may of silage hybrid data. University of
influence these index values. Sharing among hybrids harvested at grain Most university silage plot programs
both have similar GDU to silking. It is have reduced grain yield potential if Wisconsin research shows that silage
the relative importance of key silage (combining) maturity as evidenced offer statistical parameters to help
best to consult GDU to silk ratings to abnormally late silking exposes the crop tonnage (dry matter yield) is primarily a
traits with seed representatives can by differences in test weights, there evaluate the robustness of the
see the relative difference in timing to cooler temperatures during grain fill. function of:
help them better sort through their are minimal differences in the amount comparison data. Typically this is in the
of pollen shed and silk emergence. The best source of information on 1) harvest timing,
lineup to suggest a suitable hybrid of vitreous starch among corn silage form of an average (mean) value for the
Remember that it is difficult to compare hybrid maturity is the local Pioneer 2) hybrid genetics (plant height and
rather than selecting a hybrid based hybrids harvested when kernels are trait and a Least Significant Difference
GDU to silk across companies. To help sales professional or agronomist. They starch yield) and
on composite index values where input pre-blacklayer maturity (e.g. 1/2-3/4 (LSD) which is used to determine if the
determine if a new hybrid will adapt to will certainly know their hybrid lineup 3) planting date.
traits may be weighted differently than milk line). Furthermore, the length of hybrids are statistically (rather than just
local conditions, compare the silk rating and have likely seen competitors in Harvest timing is important because desired by an individual grower. time silage kernels are exposed to the numerically) different. If the difference
to a well-known hybrid (from the same various plots to help put company grain (starch) typically contributes fermentation environment influences between the two hybrid values are
company). Research shows that earlier differences in perspective. Traits like crude protein and oil content
about half of the dry matter yield (and ruminal starch digestibility. While equal to or greater than the LSD value
(at the 10% level), then 90% of the time, It is best to secure as much information with catalog scores (e.g. 1-9). Seed for important silage traits compared putting too much credence in “beauty- ensure that all entries were chopped at
the hybrids are statistically different for as possible on the performance of companies serious about silage will against their own hybrids as well as pageant” forage contests where yield is the same height.
that particular trait. a silage hybrid. Do not be satisfied be able to provide absolute values competitors. Finally, be cautious about not considered and there is no way to
Corn Traits and Technology* (as of July 2016)

TECHNOLOGY TRAITS Insect Efficacy Levels Herbicide
Resistance
The accompanying table lists the corn technology segments providing herbicide and
Southwestern Corn Borer #

above- and below-ground insect control important in most corn growing areas.
Western Corn Rootworm#
Northern Corn Rootworm

Western Bean Cutworm#
Southern Cornstalk Borer
Mexican Corn Rootworm

Lesser Cornstalk Borer
Stalk Borer (Common)

European Corn Borer
Fall Armyworm#
Sugarcane Borer
Corn Earworm#
Black Cutworm
Technology
Glyphosate
Segment
Liberty®
Identifiers Corn Technology Traits
RR2 Roundup Ready® Corn 2 E
LL LibertyLink® E
VYHR, LL, RR2 Optimum® Leptra® (Corn Borer/Corn Earworm)*** E E E E E E V E E V E E
CHR, LL, RR2 Optimum® TRIsect®, LibertyLink, Roundup Ready Corn 2 (Corn Borer/Rootworm)** E M M E V E V E E V V V E E
YHR, LL, RR2 Optimum® Intrasect®, LibertyLink, Roundup Ready Corn 2 (Corn Borer) E G M E V E V E E G E E
YXR, LL, RR2 Optimum® Intrasect® Xtra, LibertyLink, Roundup Ready Corn 2 (Corn Borer/Rootworm) E G M E V E V E E G E V E E E
CYXR, LL, RR2 Optimum® Intrasect® XTreme, LibertyLink, Roundup Ready Corn 2 (Corn Borer/Rootworm)** E G M E V E V E E G E E E E E
CYHR, LL, RR2 Optimum® Intrasect® TRIsect®, LibertyLink, Roundup Ready Corn 2 (Corn Borer/Rootworm)** E G M E V E V E E G V V V E E
AM, LL, RR2 Optimum® AcreMax®, LibertyLink, Roundup Ready Corn 2 (Corn Borer) E G M E V E V E E G E E
AM1, LL, RR2 Optimum® AcreMax® 1, LibertyLink, Roundup Ready Corn 2 (Corn Borer/Rootworm) E M M E V E V E E E V E E E
AML, LL, RR2 Optimum® AcreMax® Leptra®, Liberty Link, Roundup Ready Corn 2 (Corn Borer/Corn Earworm)*** E E E E E E V E E V E E
AMX, LL, RR2 Optimum® AcreMax® Xtra, LibertyLink, Roundup Ready Corn 2 (Corn Borer/Rootworm) E G M E V E V E E G E V E E E
AMXT, LL, RR2 Optimum® AcreMax® XTreme, LibertyLink, Roundup Ready Corn 2 (Corn Borer/Rootworm)** E G M E V E V E E G E E E E E
AMT,LL,RR2 Optimum® AcreMax® TRIsect®, LibertyLink, Roundup Ready Corn 2 (Corn Borer/Rootworm)** E G M E V E V E E G V V V E E
AMRW, LL, RR2 Optimum® AcreMax® RW, LibertyLink, Roundup Ready Corn 2 (Corn Rootworm) E V E E E
HX1, LL, RR2 Herculex® I, LibertyLink, Roundup Ready Corn 2 (Corn Borer) E M M E V E V E E E E
HXX, LL, RR2 Herculex® XTRA, LibertyLink, Roundup Ready Corn 2 (Corn Borer/Rootworm) E M M E V E V E E E V E E E
E = Excellent V = Very Good G = Good M = Moderate Blank = Not Labeled
DROUGHT-TOLERANT HYBRIDS
The seed industry has recently by reducing the size of the plant’s leaf inch of water in the early 1900s to 10
introduced transgenic and surface pores (stomata) to reduce bushels per acre per inch of water in
conventionally-bred hybrids that leaf rolling, improving the efficiency the 1990s. Drought-tolerant hybrids
exhibit increased tolerance to the of root systems and improving have made even greater gains, yielding
lack of water. Drought tolerance is synchronization of pollination and 5 to 7 percent better than other leading
TECHNOLOGY SEGMENT: AM1 - Optimum® and corn rootworm. RW,YGCB,HXX,LL,RR2 a complex trait involving multiple silking even under high heat or water hybrids in water-limited environments.
AcreMax ® 1 Insect Protection System with (Optimum ® Intrasect ® XTreme) - Contains Efficacy levels based on DuPont Pioneer genes acting at different times of stress conditions. Modern corn hybrid These newer drought-tolerant hybrids
an integrated corn rootworm refuge solution the Agrisure ® RW trait, the YieldGard Corn and/or independent university entomologist
includes HXX, LL, RR2. Optimum AcreMax 1 Borer gene, and the Herculex ® XTRA genes for results against susceptible insect populations. plant development. The approach to genetics have improved corn grain have also been shown to perform
products contain the LibertyLink ® gene and resistance to corn borer and corn rootworm. Product responses can vary by location, pest improving drought tolerance has been yield from 3 bushels per acre per equally well in normal growing
can be sprayed with Liberty ® herbicide. The Optimum Intrasect XTreme will be the major population, environmental conditions, and conditions so there is no yield penalty
required corn borer refuge can be planted component of Optimum AcreMax XTtreme. agricultural practices.
up to half a mile away. AMRW - Optimum ® RW,YGCB,HX1,LL,RR2 (Optimum® Intrasect ® * All scores of integrated refuge products are for planting these hybrids In fields that
AcreMax ® RW Rootworm Protection system
with a single-bag integrated corn rootworm
TRIsect ® ) - Contains the Agrisure ® RW trait
for resistance to rootworm, the YieldGard®
based upon the major component.
** Contains Agrisure ® RW trait.
DROUGHT TOLERANT PHENOTYPES may only occasionally experience
water stress. Planting drought-tolerant
refuge solution includes HXRW, LL, RR2. AM - Corn Borer gene, and the Herculex ® I genes for
Optimum ® AcreMax ® Insect Protection system resistance to above ground pests. Optimum *** Contains the Agrisure Viptera® trait. MINIMAL LEAF FIRING hybrids for silage typically results in
with YGCB, HX1, LL, RR2. Contains a single-bag Intrasect TRIsect is the major component of # With these pests, a decrease of higher biomass and starch yields.
integrated refuge solution for above-ground Optimum AcreMax TRIsect. RW,HX1,LL,RR2 susceptibility to certain technology traits
insects. In EPA-designated cotton growing (Optimumv TRIsect ® ) - Contains the Herculex in corn has been observed in some insect
counties, a 20% separate corn borer refuge I gene for above-ground pests and the populations, which may result in lower efficacy
must be planted with Optimum AcreMax
products. AMT - Optimum® AcreMax ®
Agrisure ® RW trait for resistance to corn
rootworm. AVBL,YGCB,HX1,LL,RR2 (Optimum ®
than depicted in this chart. Please contact
your authorized Representative or consult BROWN
TRIsect ® Insect Protection System with
RW,YGCB,HX1,LL,RR2. Contains a single-bag
Leptra® ) - Contains the Agrisure Viptera®
trait, the YieldGard Corn Borer gene, the
with your local University Extension for more
information regarding insect resistance MID-RIB
refuge solution for above- and below-ground
insects. The major component contains the
Agrisure ® RW trait, the YieldGard® Corn
Herculex ® I gene, the LibertyLink ® gene,
and the Roundup Ready ® Corn 2 trait. HX1 -
Contains the Herculex ® I Insect Protection
management guidelines, best management
practices and to understand whether there
has been insect resistance documented in
HYBRIDS
Borer gene, and the Herculex ® I genes. In gene which provides protection against your area. Brown mid-rib (BMR) corn silage
EPA-designated cotton growing counties, European corn borer, southwestern corn WH (white) and WX (waxy) hybrids are also
a 20% separate corn borer refuge must be borer, black cutworm, fall armyworm, western Drought Resistant Hybrid Non Tolerant Check hybrids have been on the market for
available in some of the trait combinations
planted with Optimum AcreMax TRIsect bean cutworm, lesser corn stalk borer, listed above. nearly two decades. BMR mutants
products. AMX - Optimum® AcreMax ® Xtra southern corn stalk borer, and sugarcane were first discovered in 1924 at the
YieldGard®, the YieldGard Corn Borer
Insect Protection system with YGCB, HXX,
LL, RR2. Contains a single-bag integrated
borer; and suppresses corn earworm. HXRW
- The Herculex ® RW insect protection trait Design and Roundup Ready ® are registered MINIMAL LEAF-ROLLING University of Minnesota and BMR
refuge solution for above- and below-ground contains proteins that provide enhanced trademarks used under license from Monsanto genes have been introduced into
insects. In EPA-designated cotton growing resistance against western corn rootworm, Company.
sorghum, sudangrass, millet and corn.
counties, a 20% separate corn borer refuge northern corn rootworm and Mexican corn Herculex ® Insect Protection technology by
must be planted with Optimum AcreMax rootworm. HXX - Herculex ® XTRA contains Dow AgroSciences and Pioneer Hi-Bred. BMR derives the name from plants
Xtra products. AMXT (Optimum ® AcreMax ® the Herculex I and Herculex RW genes. YGCB Herculex ® and the HX logo are registered displaying reddish-orange coloration
XTreme) - Contains a single-bag integrated - The YieldGard® Corn Borer gene offers a trademarks of Dow AgroSciences LLC. on the underside of the leaf mid-vein
refuge solution for above- and below-ground high level of resistance to European corn Liberty ®, LibertyLink ® and the Water Droplet
insects. The major component contains the borer, southwestern corn borer and southern (mid-rib) starting at the 4-6 leaf stage.
Design are trademarks of Bayer.
Agrisure ® RW trait, the YieldGard® Corn cornstalk borer; moderate resistance to corn BMR hybrids will exhibit lower lignin and
Borer gene, and the Herculex ® XTRA genes. earworm and common stalk borer; and above Agrisure ® and Agrisure Viptera® are
registered trademarks of, and used under improved NDFD but the reduced lignin
In EPA-designated cotton growing counties, average resistance to fall armyworm. LL -
a 20% separate corn borer refuge must be Contains the LibertyLink ® gene for resistance license from, a Syngenta Group Company. content makes standability an issue for
planted with Optimum AcreMax XTreme to Liberty ® herbicide. RR2 - Contains the Agrisure ® technology incorporated into these BMR hybrids relegating their use for
seeds is commercialized under a license from Drought Resistant Hybrid Non Tolerant Check
products. YGCB,HX1,LL,RR2 (Optimum ® Roundup Ready ® Corn 2 trait that provides silage only. Early BMR hybrids were
Intrasect ® ) - Contains the YieldGard® crop safety for over-the-top applications of Syngenta Crop Protection AG.
Corn Borer gene and Herculex ® I gene for labeled glyphosate herbicides when applied Dryland Corn (V11) plagued with agronomic and drought-
resistance to corn borer. YGCB,HXX,LL,RR2 according to label directions. AVBL,CB,LL,GT - Source: Soderlund, S., F. N. Owens and C. Fagan. 2013. Field experience with drought-tolerant
tolerance issues and had reduced
(Optimum ® Intrasect ® Xtra) - Contains the Contains the Agrisure Viptera® 3110 trait stack: corn. Presentation at the Joint Annual Meeting of the American Dairy Science Association (ADSA) and silage yield (10-30%) compared to
YieldGard® Corn Borer gene and the Herculex Agrisure Viptera®, Agrisure ® CB and Agrisure ® American Society of Animal Science (ASAS), Indianapolis, Indiana, July 2013.
XTRA genes for resistance to corn borer GT traits. non-BMR silage hybrids. Modern
BMR hybrids have much improved and feed passage allows for higher the kernels are at a ½ to ¾ milk line
agronomics and disease resistance forage diets, improved rumen health maturity. BMR hybrids are subject CORN KERNEL PHYSIOLOGY
and often produce yields of total dry and the potential to remove some to the same effects of growing
This is a post-blacklayer
matter and starch very comparable to supplemental energy or protein (from environment as conventional hybrids
non-BMR silage hybrids. higher rumen microbial production) and can vary significantly in NDFD from (combining maturity) kernel.
BMR corn typically has 20-30% less from the diet. The higher starch year to year (or field to field) depending This is NOT what the
lignin and reduced cross-linkages content in certain BMR hybrids will also upon the unique growing environment. kernel looks like at silage
act to dilute undigestible NDF (uNDF) As with non-BMR hybrids, attention to
with other cell wall carbohydrates. or HMC maturity.
Lignin is an indigestible component levels in the corn silage and in the kernel damage during harvest is critical
of fiber. Each gram of acid detergent diet. Lower levels of uNDF have also to assure maximum ruminal starch
lignin (ADL) binds with 1.4 grams of been associated with improved intake availability. BMR silage also tends to
fiber (hemicellulose) and renders the potential of forages. be more prone to aerobic stability
complex indigestible by mammalian The majority of BMR is grown in problems (heating) due to extremely
enzymes. There are four BMR mutants separate, high fertility fields to minimize high levels of sucrose in the stalk. This
and being a single gene recessive trait, agronomic risks. BMR needs to be tendency for heating at feed-out can Floury Endosperm “dent”
they must be in both parents. The bm1 managed and harvested similar to be significantly reduced with the use
and bm3 genes are most common in conventional hybrids, ideally when of inoculants containing Lactobacillus
the industry. In the pathway in which buchneri. Starch granules are surrounded
plants convert phenylalanine to lignin, by hydrophobic proteins
there are slight differences in how the
two genes down-regulate enzymes FLOURY VERSUS VITREOUS (prolamin or zein) which repel
involved in lignification. The bm3
gene confers reduced COMT (caffeic
ENDOSPERM HYBRIDS water to prevent premature
starch hydration that could
Vitreous Endosperm “flinty”
o-methyl tranferase) activity and the There has been an explosion of interest name because this softer starch “dents interfere with germination.
bm1 gene confers reduced CAD among silage growers about the in” at the top of the kernel as it matures.
(cinnamyl alcohol dehydrogenase) differences in the type of kernel starch Vitreous starch is the higher-density, More mature kernels tend to have more prolamin (zein)
activity. In a 2015 trial conducted found in hybrids due to some seed yellowish-colored starch granules
by Miner Institute, there were no companies suggesting higher starch found on the outer edges of a mature
statistically differences in lignin content digestion among floury endosperm kernel which are more tightly bound in
or NDFD between two different hybrids genetics. This is referencing the amount a starch: protein matrix. Popcorn or CORN DENSITY AND STARCH VITREOUS COMPARED hybrids grown in North America range
containing bm1 and bm3 genes. of floury (also called soft or dent) Indian corn would be considered nearly 100
between 54-72% vitreous starch. That is
Flinty at full physiological, combining maturity
The reduced lignin in BMR silage endosperm versus vitreous (also called 100 percent vitreous starch. Vitreous 90
glassy, hard or flinty) endosperm found starch in dent kernels becomes more (post black layer). The range would be
results in a 4-10 point higher NDFD-24 80 much narrower among kernels at silage
hour value when analyzed in the lab. in the kernel. In fact, flint hybrids can prominent as the kernel approaches dry
be found in Europe and South America grain harvest maturity (post black layer)
70 harvest maturity (R5).
Vitreousness, %
72
In the lab, the BMR sample cannot 60
escape the analysis vessel. But in the where growing conditions favor their and contributes to test weight. Hybrids 54 Research comparing the starch
cow, the net effect is a faster rate of early plant vigor but they are not grown with more floury starch generally have 50 digestibility of floury genetics versus
NDF digestion with the more fragile in North America because of their poor lower test weight due to kernel reduced 40 flinty hybrids has certainly furthered
Vitreous range
BMR fiber exiting the rumen much yield compared to dent hybrids. density (more air space between starch 30 of typical dent
the understanding of the mechanisms
quicker than non-BMR corn silage. Floury endosperm contains the white- granules). However, only about 40 hybrids at dry of starch digestion. However, caution
20
This typically results in higher intakes colored starch granules found in percent of the variation in grain density grain maturity is needed when extrapolating these
10
of the entire diet (especially important the center of kernels grown in North can be attributed to test weight. The Floury “bookend” comparisons to what
in transition and early-lactation cows) America. Floury endosperm is more remainder is due to the influences 0 producers will observe from high-
1.10 1.15 1.20 1.25 1.30 1.35 1.40
which usually drives higher milk loosely bound in a starch: zein protein of kernel size, shape, maturity, germ yielding, commercially-available hybrids.
Specific Density, g/cc
yields. The improved rate of digestion (prolamin) matrix. Dent corn derives its content, and pericarp slickness. Most Source: Mestres et al. 1995 and F.N. Owens
According to Ohio State researchers, IN VITRO START DIGESTIBILITY AT 7 HOURS It appears counterproductive to small percentage of a second hybrid in idea has been tried as an approach to
the level of kernel vitreousness between recommend any hybrid selection the seed hopper so there were plants improve standability of BMR in the case
hybrids has little, if any, impact on the 50 pressure for floury endosperm given of that hybrid scattered throughout the of strong wind events. However, the
Full Maturity
digestibility of starch in (R5) kernels Half Milk Line these facts: field. However, the positive results seen idea has not been embraced by most
49.6
when fed as fermented corn silage or 49 1) seed companies typically do in “within row” or in narrow “side-by- agronomists due to the complexity
high-moisture corn. Company Difference: P=0.73
not have data on the level of side” strips has not proven repeatable in of matching pollination/silking dates.
Maturity Difference: P=0.65 numerous university studies conducted Furthermore, diluting the higher NDFD
Furthermore, much of the claims vitreousness at silage or high-
of companies promoting floury
48 48.1 moisture grain harvest maturity at an entire field level. While the use and lower uNDF advantage BMR with
endosperm neglect to present yield 47.7 and data from combine-maturity of multiple hybrids across an entire a non-BMR hybrid may not make the
47.5 farm is recommended to spread best use of BMR genetics, particularly
data and also focus only on ruminal 47 corn is not valid,
digestion, when total tract (ruminal and agronomic risk, there appears to be no when further diluted with other dietary
2) vitreousness of grain harvested justification, given current knowledge, ingredients. By the time the cow
intestinal) starch digestibility typically at silage maturity is considerably
exceeds 96 percent for adequately 46 for mixing hybrids in the same field. consumes the mixed silage diet, intakes
DuPont Pioneer Floury Hybrids lower than for dry grain,
processed and fermented corn silage As technology advances, with planters among fresh and high-production cows
or high-moisture corn. 3) adverse effects of vitreousness capable of changing hybrids on the may not reach levels typical of 100%
submitting to a lab for fecal starch harvested at either half-milk (R 5.5, in dry, unfermented corn can be go, there will likely be potential for the BMR-based diets.
It is well proven that while starch analysis. The goal is to have less than silage) maturity or black layer (full kernel largely alleviated by fine-grinding, concept of planting different hybrids in a
digestibility differences between hybrids 3-5% starch in feces and most herds maturity). single field; if that field contains distinctly
at silage maturity do not exist, the
ruminal starch digestibility in all ensiled
are below this level despite growing
hybrids that are not advertised as floury.
In another Pioneer field study, five
4) fermentation significantly reduces
the impact of vitreousness,
different soil types or fertility levels. PLANTING DATE
hybrids does increase over time in Pioneer® brand commercial dent Mixing two or more hybrids in a field
5) selecting hybrids for reduced Corn growers are typically aggressive
fermented storage. Microbial activity If corn kernels are fed fully mature hybrids were harvested at three stages is not the same as planting a “silage
vitreousness likely depresses grain in pushing planting dates given the
during fermentation and the chemical and not fermented, as in the case of of maturity (1/2 milk line to black blend.” Most silage blends are a mix
yields and possibly causes more growing number of acres that need
action of various fermentation end- dry corn grain, research from France layer maturity). In contrast with some of several unnamed hybrids, often
ear molds. to be planted and the desire to boost
products (acids, yeast-generated with true flinty hybrids indicates that previously published research: ones that the seed company for one
fine-grinding can remove the negative Rather, it seems more prudent to reason or another chose not to sell as yields with today’s longer season
alcohol) alter the kernel storage proteins, 1) prolamin content did not increase hybrids. Ideal planting dates vary
impact of vitreous endosperm on select silage hybrids for traits where individual hybrids. Most silage blends
removing most of the negative effects of as kernels matured, considerably across North America but
total tract starch digestibility. This is there are significant genetic differences don’t state the names of the individual
zeins (prolamins) on starch digestibility. USDA statistics indicate that average
something nutritionists have learned 2) prolamin and prolamin/starch ratio such as agronomic stability, tonnage, hybrids comprising the blend. How
This is evidenced by a strong positive planting dates are about a week earlier
simply by watching cows (and manure) were only weakly correlated with grain (starch) yield, and trait packages good a silage blend performs depends
relationship between the level of soluble than in the 1990s. Research does
and is the reason for feeding fine- 7- hour in vitro ruminal starch necessary to protect yield against on the hybrids in the blend. The fact is
protein (or ammonia nitrogen) from support that yields are less affected by
ground dry corn (600 to 1,000 microns) digestion (R2 = 0.22-0.30) and specific pest and weed challenges. that seed companies can (and often do)
the degraded kernel proteins in corn planting too early rather than planting
grain and the improved ruminal starch rather than rolled or cracked corn to 3) prolamin content increased as field change the makeup of hybrids in the
high-producing cows. blend from year to year. Just because too late.
digestibility of corn grain over time in nitrogen fertility and kernel protein
fermented storage. Typically about 70%
of the starch will be ruminally degraded
DuPont Pioneer has conducted several content increased (R2 > 0.60). HYBRID MIXING a silage blend did well one year doesn’t
mean it will be the same hybrids in the
Timing of planting has the biggest
impact on stand establishment. Soil
studies investigating the ruminal For corn fed as fermented corn
in corn silage and will increase by The concept of planting a mix of hybrids blend the next year even if labeled as the temperature, seedbed condition
digestion of Pioneer® brand hybrids silage or high-moisture corn, more
about 2% units per month, stabilizing with differing maturity in the same field same maturity sold by the same seed (moisture) and weather following
grown in the same plot as hybrids vitreous hybrids with large kernels
after about 6 months of fermented has been proposed as an approach to company. Despite the fact that many planting are also key elements in the
from companies claiming higher starch (reduced pericarp: endosperm ratio)
storage. If properly processed, what extend pollination periods and reduce silage blends are usually less expensive, successful emergence of any hybrid.
digestion due to floury endosperm. appear preferable. This is because
is not digested in the rumen will be inbreeding depression resulting in relying on a silage blend does have Early plantings have a better chance
When averaged across hybrids, no they typically have higher grain yields,
digested in the intestines. Validation higher grain (starch) and grain protein inherent risks. of success in well-drained soils with
statistical difference in 7-hour in vitro and the process of fermentation
of the extent of starch digestion can ruminal starch digestibility was detected yields. Most of this research has been There has also been recent interest in limited residue cover. Selecting hybrids
(protein matrix solubilization and
be further accomplished by collecting between kernels from five Pioneer® done with alternating strips of two mixing brown mid-rib (BMR) and non- with high stress emergence ratings and
acid hydrolysis) will minimize most of
fecal samples from 10-12 cows and brand hybrids and two floury hybrids hybrids, though some trials blended a BMR hybrids in the same field. This using premium seed treatments can
the adverse effects of vitreousness.
provide critical protection in stressful effectiveness are certainly important Twin rows accounted for less than over 30-inch rows. This supports the Yield environment does not appear
environments. Cool, wet soils are
most conducive to seedling disease
but so are seedbed conditions and
the genetic potential of the hybrid
ROW SPACING 0.2% of the 2009 corn crop, yet the
practice is gaining interest as a way
accumulated body of University and
industry research concluding that a
to affect twin row yield response,
although research data from low yield
Corn planted in narrow rows has
development and also delay emergence to emerge from cold, wet soils. The to potentially increase yields without transition from 30-inch rows to twin environments are limited. The most
more equidistant plant spacing, down
and plant development. These delays trend towards reduced tillage and the the machinery cost associated with rows would not provide a wide-scale promising applications for twin row
and across the row, decreasing plant
keep seedlings from outgrowing accompanying higher infield residues switching to narrow row production. yield benefit across the majority of corn appear to be where narrow rows
competition for available water, nutrients
damage by soil borne diseases that often results in slower seedbed drying Pioneer twin row research conducted the Corn Belt. There is also a lack of have been most successful, such as the
and light. In 2015, estimates are that
attack seeds and seedlings. Seed and colder soil temperatures. This can in 2010 on 179 paired comparisons evidence that new hybrids and higher northern Corn Belt, in silage production,
about 92% of the North American corn
treatments are extremely beneficial, cause seed emergence stress even in across 31 locations showed no overall plant populations will broadly favor twin and in southern wide row systems.
crop was planted on 30-inch rows
but are generally limited to about Southern and Western corn growing grain yield advantage to twin rows row production in the near future.
or wider. Only about 4% of the crop
two weeks of protection. If cool, wet regions. The guideline for planting
was planted on 15- or 20-inch rows.
conditions persist longer than two to corn is to wait until soil temperatures
Research showing significant grain or
are at least 50°F. Corn is a warm
season plant with over 85°F as the
silage yield response (3-10% increase)
to narrow rows occurs primarily in the
PLANTING DEPTH AND SPACINGS
optimal temperature for emergence.
northern Corn Belt which is limited in Planting corn to a depth of 1½-2 Symptoms of irregular planting depth Corn planted too shallow is unable to
It is not unusual for early planted
solar radiation and may be lacking in inches is optimal for nodal root include uneven emergence, non- uptake water and nutrients through
corn to take three weeks or longer to
fertility or soil moisture. development. Two inches is best uniform mesocotyl length and varying the roots. They also can develop a
emerge if planted into 50° to 55°F soil
temperatures compared to less than a Across- and within-row under normal conditions; 1½ inches plant height. It is recommended to set condition called “rootless or floppy
week if planted into 70°F soils. spacing (in inches) in various row may be favorable when planting early the planting depth in the field, while corn syndrome” where the root
configurations at 36,000 plants/acre. into cool soils but never plant corn the planter is at full operating speed to tip desiccates prior to reaching
University of Wisconsin research
shallower than 1½ inches. Planting check for good seed-to-soil contact. soil moisture. The aboveground
conducted in 2003-2012 with full-
depth can easily be determined after Slowing the planting speed can help appearance of the corn plant may
season hybrids (104-108 RM) indicates
seedling emergence. The nodal root improve uniform planting depths. appear fairly normal until a windy day
that the planting date window for silage
area (crown or growing point) typically Pioneer research studies have shown when plants fall over due to the lack of
is slightly longer than the same hybrid
develops about ¾ of an inch beneath that grain yields, averaged across
planted for grain and should planting
the soil surface regardless of the seed multiple locations and hybrids, were
be delayed, growers can stick with
depth. Measure the mesocotyl length 13% greater for 1.5 inch plantings than
full-season hybrids longer than if corn
(the area between the seed and crown the 0.5-inch planting depth. Much of
will be used for silage rather than
three weeks, crop stands are at risk. or growing point), then add ¾ inch to the yield decrease was attributed to a
grain. While the number of leaves,
determine the planting depth. reduced final stand count from more
Growers should choose hybrids the size of the stalk, shank and husk
“runts” in the shallow planted plots.
based on the local growing season is largely genetically controlled, silage
and specific field environment. Cool starch content does tend to decrease
temperatures restrict root growth and with later planting dates which can
nutrient uptake. Banding fertilizer can reduce milk per acre (quality + yield).
help increase nutrient availability and Digestibility of stover does not seem Distances (inches) between plants
in alternating and parallel twin rows 3/4 inch
early growth. Shallow planting may to be significantly affected by planting at 36,000 and 42,000 plants/acre.
provide a warmer environment for date. Earlier research at the University
seeds when planting early, but always of Wisconsin showed that corn silage mesocotyl
plant at least 1.5 inches deep for planted in Wisconsin between April 18
normal plant development. and May 25 produced about 18,000
The yield of a particular corn hybrid is lbs of milk per acre. This started to Rootless Corn Syndrome
greatly influenced by stand density and decline significantly after May 15 and
uniformity. Planter maintenance and by June 1, 279 lbs of milk per acre was
lost with each day of delayed planting.
nodal root development in the dry soil.
Shallow planting can also expose corn
spacing. Types of non-uniform plant
spacing include misplaced plants EMERGENCE WHAT IS THE IMPACT
seedlings to salt injury from fertilizer
and herbicide residues increasing the
(definitely reduces yield), skips (yield of
adjacent plants will increase, but not ISSUES OF UNEVEN EMERGENCE ON YIELD?
potential for herbicide injury. enough to compensate for the missing
Corn is a warm season crop. Optimal
Uniform plant spacing helps maximizes plant) and doubles (may increase yield
temperature for emergence is % of Relative
yield. Pioneer studies show that slightly if stand is below optimum). Yield Early Medium Late Maximum Yield Contribution
85º-90ºF, so it is almost always under
individual plant yield reaches a of doubled plants as well as adjacent Emergence (1 1/2 week delay) (3 week delay) Potential to Total Yield
some degree of cold stress. Corn will
maximum level when plants are within plants will decrease, but the yield of the
germinate at 46ºF but the common
2-3 inches of perfect equidistant extra plant will generally compensate
thumb-rule is to delay planting
for this reduction.
until soil temperatures reach 50°F 100%
because prolonged exposure to soil
temperatures below this promotes
Yield potential may be reduced in this
field due to uneven plant spacing seed deterioration and seedling
disease. Cold imbibition causes
physical damage making seeds more 95%
prone to attack by insects and disease.
Extended cold delays emergence
and further damages seeds, and the
surviving seedlings are likely to produce
runts.
88%
It takes a coordinated effort for proper
emergence to occur so that the
coleoptile (pointed protective sheath
covering the emerging shoot) is 94% Early: 85%
pushed above the soil surface allowing Medium: 15%
the first leaf to unfurl. This sequence
of events can be compromised if the
Evenly spaced plants are in the best

seed absorbs (imbibes) water less than
50° to 55°F. This is termed imbibitional
91% Early: 61%
position to capture available sunlight Medium: 39%
chilling damage where brittle cell
membranes can rupture causing
abnormalities such as corkscrew
or fused coleoptiles. This is further 90% Early: 96%
aggravated by leaked cell contents
Late: 4%
inviting pathogen invasion.
The potential for cold water damage
falls as seedlings emerge and if initial
imbibition occurred above 50°F. This 79% Early: 82%
partially explains why early planted Late: 18%
corn, followed by warm weather, tends Data from Carter, P.R., E.D. Nafziger, and J.G. Lauer, Uneven emergence in corn,
to emerge better than later planted North Central Regional Extension Publication No. 344
corn emerging into cold weather or
snow cover. Emergence damage a greater grain response to higher population for that hybrid if planted for hybrids planted at populations
caused by cold, wet soils is generally PLANT POPULATION populations followed by 101-113 grain. Higher populations might provide ranging from 25-40,000 PPA showed
irreversible and difficult to detect as the CRM hybrids and finally longer-season more yield of stover but reduce yields of no significant effect of increasing
problems with stand density/uniformity It is important to target plant somewhat the result of improvements hybrids (>113 CRM). Researchers starch (grain). Higher plant populations population on fiber digestibility. There
take several weeks to become visible. population based on individual hybrid in seed treatment options. theorize that higher populations tend to decrease stalk diameter and are some silage growers who prefer
recommendations. Typical seed corn Growers should be cautioned not overcome some of the disadvantages increase potential for lodging. This is to plant at lower populations, more
Seed companies routinely test
germination is about 95%. Overplanting to rely on ear flex scores when of smaller stature and lower leaf area much less of a concern for silage than optimal to grain yield, in an attempt to
experimental hybrids for stress
by at least 5% can help reduce the considering planting populations. index exhibited by shorter-season for grain corn harvested at a much later increase the starch content of silage in
emergence by planting them into a wide
effects of germination-induced skips Ear flex refers to the ability of a plant hybrids. Pioneer provides a planting maturity. Research has consistently response to increasing supplemental
range of stressful (cold, no-till, corn-on-
and for expected reductions due to to extend ear size as plant density is rate calculator on their website (www. demonstrated that higher populations grain prices. A healthy corn crop
corn) environments. Some companies
insects and soil conditions. reduced or as growing conditions pioneer.com) to determine economic (upwards of 40-42,000 PPA) increase can deposit as much as 0.5 to 1.0%
also employ proprietary laboratory
assays for hybrid advancement Summarizing corn population research improve. Many seed companies grain planting rates based on hybrid silage yield while decreasing quality units additional starch per day from
decisions and to support marker- is difficult because varying maturities have abandoned evaluating ear flex genetics, yield environment, seed cost only slightly. The decrease in quality 1/3 milkline to physiological maturity
assisted breeding efforts to improve across diverse growing environments and advise growers to rely on actual and grain price. is caused by increased stover yield (black layer). Newer hybrids containing
tolerance to emergence stress. Stress make it difficult to draw sweeping population recommendations from Silage is a more complex situation. diluting the grain (starch) portion of the technology traits deliver excellent late-
emergence and high-residue suitability conclusions. However, over the last 25 research trials planted at upwards of Traditional recommendations have plant causing slightly higher fiber levels. season plant health so delaying harvest
ratings found in seed catalogs reflect years the average U.S. corn planting 70,000 PPA. Ear flex scores have their been to increase plant populations Some earlier research suggests the until 3/4 milkline (or later) will result
genetic variability for tolerance to population has risen from 23,000 primary utility in deciding if a hybrid in hybrids destined for silage by 10- smaller diameter stalk found in higher in higher starch corn silage without a
environmental stresses. They are not plants per acre (PPA) to about 30,000 has the ability to deliver higher yields 20% per acre. However, with the populations altered the rind: pith ratio significant decline in fiber digestibility. If
a rating for specific disease resistance. PPA. High-yielding environments allow under possible replant situations such increasing value of starch, newer causing slightly lower fiber digestibility. the crop is stressed or diseased, there
However, injury to emerging seedlings for increasing populations to 36-38,000 as emergence problems or hail which recommendations suggest planting More recent research conducted in is increased tendency to have a lower
can promote seedling disease, PPA depending upon individual hybrid reduces populations to less than silage at no more than 2,000-3,000 2008 and 2009 by Cornell University fiber digestibility from delaying harvest
especially in growing environments genetics. Higher population increases 12,000 PPA. PPA above the recommended planting with conventional, leafy and BMR to these later stages.
with heavy disease pressure. competition among plants for water, It is important to differentiate between
sunlight and soil nutrients. Pioneer has grain and silage production when
Planting into warmer soils typically
favors seedling growth and reduces
potential for soil pathogens, such
conducted studies comparing hybrids
sold during previous decades. There
discussing plant populations. In
low grain yielding environments
STAND EVALUATION
is modest improvement in grain yield (<130 bushels/acre), response to
as Fusarium and Pythium. The use
production due to higher leaf area
Many different stress factors are Corn yield is influenced by stand LENGTH OF ROW
of seed treatments (fungicides, plant population is more significant capable of reducing corn stands, such density as well as stand uniformity.
index, efficiency of leaf photosynthesis, although grain yields tend to drop off
EQUATING TO 1/1000TH
insecticides, biological) are extremely as cold or wet soils, insect feeding or Variation in plant size can have a
popular and provide protection against
number of kernels per ear and weight gradually with higher populations. unfavorable weather conditions. To negative impact on yield, and uneven
OF AN ACRE AT VARIOUS
target organisms for 10 to 14 days
of each kernel. However, the genetic This is contrasted to drastic drops determine stand counts, determine emergence timing leads to uneven ROW WIDTHS
selection of corn hybrids for stress encountered among hybrids of 30
after planting during which the seed the number of live plants from plant size. Late emerging plants are ROW WIDTH LENGTH OF ROW
tolerance has accounted for the vast years ago which were more prone to
has a high vulnerability to infection. 1/1,000th of an acre taken from at a competitive disadvantage with
majority of the 1-1.5 bushels/year grain barrenness under high plant densities. 38 Inches 13 ft 9 in
To optimize seed emergence, avoid several representative locations in the larger plants in the stand and will have
yield increase over the past 80 years. This presumably makes variable rate
planting ahead of a cold event, plant field. Multiply the number of plants by reduced leaf area, biomass, and yield. 36 Inches 14 ft 6 in
This is a result of higher population seeding more beneficial in lower yield
into moist well-drained, low residue 1,000 to obtain an estimate of plants Several factors can lead to uneven
increasing the number of ears per environments. With improved hybrid 30 Inches 17 ft 5 in
fields first, use the right seed treatment per acre. It is best to wait a few days emergence including variation in soil
acre. More precise soil fertility practices stress tolerance, many seed companies
and choose hybrids with good stress to perform a stand assessment after a moisture, poor seed to soil contact 22 Inches 23 ft 9 in
and technology traits which improve are routinely evaluating hybrids at
emergence scores suited to high frost or hail event occurs, allowing for a due to working or planting into wet soil,
resistance to insect and weed pressure plant populations as high as 42,000 20 Inches 26 ft 2 in
residue. better plant health determination. variation in soil temperature caused by
have also significantly improved PPA. There also appears to be slight uneven crop residue distribution, soil 15 Inches 34 ft 10 in
average yields. Further driving yield differences in ideal plant populations crusting and insects or disease.
is that the average grower is planting by maturity (CRM). Shorter-season
about two weeks earlier than in the past, hybrids (<100 CRM) tend to show
REPLANT CONSIDERATIONS
PLANT POPULATION (1,000 plants/acre)
10 15 20 25 30 35 40
The factors to consider in deciding if In cases of early-season flooding, corn Also look for stand uniformity such MIDWEST
% MAXIMUM GRAIN YIELD
replanting corn is economical include: prior to the V5-V6 growth stage can as frequent long gaps in the rows. PLANTING DATE
plant density, uniformity and health of also survive for two to four days in An uneven stand will yield less than APRIL 25 57 70 81 91 97 100 100
the current stand, date of the original saturated soils. Warm temperatures a relatively even stand with the same
planting and potential replanting, costs can shorten this survival time to only 24 number of plants. Stand counts should APRIL 30 57 70 80 90 96 99 99
associated with replanting and crop hours. Check the growing point of corn be taken randomly across the entire MAY 5 57 69 79 89 94 97 96
insurance provisions. In situations such plants to determine if they are soft and area being considered for replant. The
MAY 10 56 68 77 86 92 94 93
as flood damage, only a portion of the discolored or firm and healthy. Flooding accuracy of stand estimates logically
field may need to be considered for depletes soils of oxygen and increases improve with the number of locations MAY 15 54 66 75 84 89 91 90
replant. Frost or hail can damage a wide disease infections and nitrogen losses. sampled. When plant populations MAY 20 52 64 73 81 86 88 87
area so plant density and health should Weather conditions following flooding are lower than optimum, and will no
MAY 25 51 63 71 79 84 86 84
be assessed across the entire field. are important to plant survival. Cool, wet longer produce a maximum yield, be
conditions favor disease development. sure to compare the lower yield due to MAY 30 49 61 69 77 82 83 81
In severe cases of stand reduction,
growers will need to determine if Very hot, windy conditions may dry late planting of a short-season hybrid JUNE 4 45 56 64 72 76 77 75
replanting will be more profitable than soils too quickly, causing crusting and with the yield potential of the reduced
restricted plant growth. stand. Another factor to consider is the JUNE 9 40 51 59 66 70 71 69
keeping the current crop. The first
step in a replant decision is assessing JUNE 14 36 47 54 61 64 65 63
the current stand by evaluating the JUNE 19 32 42 49 56 59 59 57
number of lost or weak/injured plants.
For hail or spring-frost events, it is best
uncertainty of obtaining a good stand you will see the new growth in a matter Other factors such as fuel, labor,
to wait a few days to assess the stand Soft translucent with a late planting and the possibility of hours, certainly within one day. The equipment, previous weed control
to allow time to see how plants recover tissue near the of a reduction in yield due to moisture center of the cut plant grows fastest, applications, seed cost, insurance
because the growing point of corn will growing point
stress at silking time. Flex-ear hybrids so you will observe a pyramid shape compensation, average first frost dates
be about 3/4 of an inch below the soil indicates
will increase the size of the ear (both where just hours before there was a flat and availability/cost of feed alternatives
surface until the V5-V6 growth stage. this plant
will not recover. kernel number and kernel size), and cut surface. need to be factored into whether
Symptoms of early frost will show up
sometimes the number of ears per Weed control is typically improved with replanting will result in an economically
1-2 days after a frost with leaves that
plant, when the plant population drops later plantings due to tillage effects sound decision. If replanting is delayed
turn brown, but new green leaves
below the optimum. on germinated weeds and improved past a reasonable time for corn to
should emerge within 3-4 days. If
Once the surviving plant stand has seedling vigor due to warmer soils. mature, it may be more economical to
new leaves not appearing, check the
been determined, check the health However, later plantings may incur consider soybeans (e.g. after June 1 in
growing point for any color variation
of the plants. Plants that are severely more feeding from second-generation Wisconsin) or forage sorghum, sudan-
from the normal creamy white to light
Growth of green injured or defoliated will have reduced corn borers and silk feeding by grass or sorghum-sudan crosses
yellow coloration indicating the growing
tissue near the photosynthetic capability and lower rootworm beetles. which can be planted into July. Corn
point has been killed. In general, frost
growing point yield. Check if the plant tissue at the is still one of the best options where
damage in early vegetative stages Once a stand has been evaluated,
indicates growing point is a healthy white or total biomass production is the primary
exerts very little impact on yield. the expected yield can be compared
this plant would cream color with normal texture. For goal to meet emergency forage needs.
Research from Wisconsin indicates to expected replant yield. In general,
have recovered.
evaluating frost damage to corn plants As with all cropping decisions, working
that even if all the leaves were killed in Midwest corn yield potential increases
6” or less in height, use a knife to cut with your seed sales professional or
a V2 stage plant, yet the growing point with increased stand up to the
some frosted plants off about an inch consulting agronomist will help seal the
still alive, the loss in grain yield would optimum of 35,000 plants/acre, and
above the soil. If the plant is still alive replant decision.
only be 8%. declines with planting dates later than
April 20 and earlier than April 10.
ALFALFA REDUCED-LIGNIN ALFALFA
High quality varieties marketed as
having higher NDF digestibility (NDFD)
The development of genetically-
modified, reduced-lignin alfalfa took
varieties allowing for extending harvest
intervals to capture more yield while still
have been available via conventional more than 10 years to achieve approval maintaining acceptable levels of fiber
VARIETY SELECTION alfalfa breeding techniques for several and commercialization. Scientists at digestibility. Also, lodging susceptibility
years. These varieties were selected for the Noble Foundation identified and was no different than with conventional
The following factors should be corn hybrids where each plant of the is simply a mix of the two parent 5-10% lowered lignin content resulting suppressed several lignin genes. After varieties. Technology fees for this
considered when selecting an alfalfa same hybrid is genetically the same, varieties and the cross, rather than in higher NDFD. Reducing lignin a testing and selection process by a technology must be weighed against:
variety: yield and quality expectations, individual alfalfa plants within a variety a true hybrid. This can be observed became the breeding focus because team of alfalfa breeders, commercially 1) the improved harvest flexibility and
winter survival, soil types and drainage, are not genetically identical. Alfalfa by the variability among plants in a cell wall content (measured as NDF) viable products were developed reduced risk of delayed harvest due
disease control (e.g. anthracnose, plants within a variety are like siblings commercial hybrid alfalfa field which increases and cell wall digestibility and introduced to the market in to weather and
bacterial, verticillium and fusarium in a family; they are similar but not would not be expressed if alfalfa (measured as NDFD) decreases with 2016. Commercial products, known 2) the value of harvesting a higher
wilts, root rots such as phytophthora identical. were a true hybrid like corn. Much increasing maturity (and yield) from as HarvXtra® alfalfa, combine the digestible crop (maintaining
and aphanomyces race 1 and race Alfalfa cannot be truly hybridized. Due of the increased yield in hybrid alfalfa vegetative through bloom stages. The reduced-lignin gene and Roundup aggressive cutting schedules) or
2), pest pressure (e.g. leafhoppers, to the tetraploid nature of the alfalfa varieties entered into University plots decreasing level of digestibility is due Ready® technology. In research the savings from eliminating one
aphids, nematodes), rotation and plant genome, it is not possible to is due to the fact that “synthetic 1” primarily to the production of lignin conducted by Pioneer and Forage cutting during the season.
stand life expectations, and ease of breed homozygous inbreds, like in seed was submitted which will express which the plant lays down to provide Genetics International, alfalfa varieties
harvest (lodging susceptibility). 7-10% higher yield. However, this yield structural support as plants grow taller. containing the HarvXtra® trait reduced- Estimates are that harvesting alfalfa
corn. Without true inbreds to cross,
advantage disappears due to general Lignin is a complex organic compound lignin 10-15% resulting in 10-15% can cost upwards of $50/acre. If a
It is important to understand that there can be no true hybrid alfalfa.
self-incapability in alfalfa when actual which is indigestible by ruminants. As increases in NDFD and RFQ. 50-lb bag of reduced lignin alfalfa
alfalfa is genetically different from other Breeders who claim to have developed
parent seed for commercial varieties is it forms cross-linkages with cellulose it will seed approximately 3.3 acres,
crops. Most crops have two copies inbred alfalfa are essentially crossing Studies showed a slower change in
produced. causes a decrease in the digestibility of eliminating one cutting per year would
of each chromosome, but alfalfa is two alfalfa varieties, to produce seed quality with advancing maturity when
alfalfa cell walls result in a $165 savings every year of
an autotetraploid, meaning it has four from the cross. However, the resultant compared with conventional alfalfa the stand life.
copies of each chromosome. Unlike seed from this male sterile approach
LODGING-RESISTANT VARIETIES
One of the more recent innovations in
alfalfa genetics is the commercialization Crown Buds
of lodging-resistant varieties. They
have much improved standability when Ground
exposed to wind and rain events due
to a more upright stem and crown Root
architecture. Lodged alfalfa is more These
difficult to harvest. Every inch of uncut branches
stem equates to 0.13-0.15 tons per will lodge
when they
acre of lost hay yield. Uncut stems get longer
left in the field can turn ‘woody’ and or heavier
lower the forage quality of subsequent
cuttings. Research also shows that Non-Lodging
Types
more vertical plant architecture which Lodging Types
reduces lodging has no effect on
lowering fiber digestibility.
LODGING-RESISTANT VARIETIES ALLOW FOR MORE HARVESTABLE YIELD
AND REDUCE LOWER QUALITY RESIDUE IN SUBSEQUENT CUTTINGS
Conventional Variety
Lodging-Resistant Variety
ALFALFA BLENDS
When considering the value economic impact of increased possessing no seed production,
proposition of an alfalfa blend, most variability and reduced performance conditioning or bagging capability.
blends can vary considerably from lot- expected performance. Be cautious rates accordingly. Some blends are
growers understand the need to of blends in fields seeded down only There are a few major seed brands to-lot, and almost certainly from year- when a premium blend approaches sold with descriptive information that
critically compare price against seed every 3-5 years. that also offer blends, typically from to-year. the price of a pure variety. Unless you narrows the range of variation, such as
purity and quality. Alfalfa blends from There are two main sources for blended their own genetics and produced
Some seed companies have built know all the varietal components of a stating if the product is a “fall dormant”
most reputable seed suppliers contain alfalfa seed in the marketplace. One is through their normal production
name recognition around premium blend, and have a specific reason for or “non-dormant” alfalfa blend. More
relatively high quality seed, however, “common seed” sold as variety not channels. These blends are sold
blend products. These higher-priced their inclusion levels, you will likely be reputable seed suppliers take extra
depending upon the supplier; blends stated (VNS) products produced by without stating the variety to allow
blends may vary in variety but have better off purchasing a pure variety that measures to insure that blends meet
are certainly more variable and can individual farmers who allow a field seed companies the option of selling
a consistent branded name with a fits your specific needs. minimum disease resistance criteria
range from high germination and to go to seed. This is not legal if it end-of-lifecycle products or excess
guaranteed specification for some Growers should rely on the bag tag for the specific region the blend will
high purity, to products with lower involves patented varieties or varieties inventory due to over-production.
trait such as a minimum DRI (Disease to evaluate any seed purchase. The be sold. Beware of blends with a tag
germination (often older seed) and containing proprietary transgenic Blends can also include excess parent
Resistance Index), or having a stated tag will indicate the crop species, showing lesser crop purity. If the tag
low purity. Blends may have suitable traits. This “farmer source” seed seed, experimental varieties that do
level of a known variety. Premium germination level, crop purity and says there is 3% “other crop,” don’t
performance for short rotations, or generally finds its way into the market not advance to commercial status or
blends reduce the company’s options weed seed content. Discerning be surprised if your new alfalfa seeding
field situations where specific pest through seed brokers. Rather than the inventory that may not meet purity
for inventory management, but offer growers should look at the seed tag for looks like a mixed stand.
resistance traits or performance of traditional VNS, these products often specifications for outcrosses or self-
a pure variety are neither needed growers more information about germination levels, and adjust seeding
get sold as micro-brands marketed fertilized plants due to failed isolation
nor valued. Carefully consider the through retailers and companies standards. For all these reasons,
FALL DORMANCY WINTERHARDINESS AND WINTER SURVIVAL
Alfalfa varieties have a range of in the fall and then given a numerical varieties initiate regrowth more quickly Winterhardiness is a general term in the roots. Younger, healthy plants Winterhardiness was historically
dormancy from very dormant to non- rating as shown in the table. A rating of than more-dormant varieties, leading referring to the ability of plants to survive have a greater capacity to store associated with fall dormancy, where
dormant. Dormancy allows alfalfa one on the scale indicates the greatest to higher yield potential. Non-dormant all the factors influencing winter survival food reserves. These plants will be varieties that are more dormant had
plants to “shut down” in late fall for the fall dormancy with the least fall plant varieties have shallow crown depth including temperature, moisture, more tolerant of cold temperature lower winterhardiness scores. However,
purpose of winter survival by storing height while a rating of eleven indicates and often suffer winter damage and disease, insects, and previous crop stress and have a greater capacity to alfalfa breeders have “broken” the
carbohydrates in the roots and crown. the least fall plant dormancy with the reduced winter survival. In modern management. Alfalfa varieties are initiate regrowth in the spring. Alfalfa genetic link between fall dormancy
Dormancy is measured by comparing greatest plant height. varieties, fall dormancy does not classified using a standard test. can usually survive temperatures of and winterhardiness. Modern fall
the amount of vegetative growth equate to winterhardiness. Alfalfa plants accumulate carbohydrate 15ºF at the crown. It likely will take dormancy 4 to 6 varieties have very
In general, less-dormant alfalfa
produced during a specific period reserves in the root and crown tissue multiple weeks of exposure to these good winterhardiness scores when
during fall regrowth. These feed the low temperatures to actually kill crown evaluated by stand persistence. With
plant over winter, and help initiate buds. Four inches of snow cover modern alfalfa varieties, fall dormancy
FALL DORMANCY provides enough protective insulation does not equate to winterhardiness.
regrowth in the spring. Fall regrowth
DESCRIPTIONS facilitates additional nutrient reserves to allow a 20ºF difference between air
FOR ALFALFA and crown temperature.
FD
RATING DESCRIPTION
1-2 Very Dormant DISEASE CONSIDERATIONS
3-4 Dormant The major alfalfa diseases include:
1) stem and crown disease
ALFALFA RESISTANCE RATINGS
5 Moderately Dormant
(anthracnose),
6-7 Semi-Dormant 2) bacterial, fusarium, and verticillium
wilt and LOW
8-9 Non-Dormant RESISTANCE
3) Root rots such as phytophthora 7-14%
10-11 Very Non-Dormant and aphanomyces (race 1 and
race 2). MODERATELY
WINTER SURVIVAL Root rots are especially problematic RESISTANT
RATINGS in susceptible varieties when planted 15-30%
FOR ALFALFA in poorly drained soils with free water
in excess of field capacity. Alfalfa is SUSCEPTIBLE
WS 0- 6%
RATING DESCRIPTION not a good crop choice for poorly
drained soils.
1 Extremely Winterhardy RESISTANT
The fact that alfalfa plants within a 31-50%
2 Very Winterhardy variety are not identical, not all the
plants within a variety will carry the HIGHLY
3 Winterhardy
same genes for insect and disease RESISTANT
4 Moderately Winterhardy resistance. Therefore, alfalfa breeders >50%
measure gene frequencies within
5 Slightly Winterhardy
a variety to determine the level of
6 Non- Winterhardy
Source: National Alfalfa & Forage Alliance (NAFA)
pest resistance. The gene frequency The alfalfa Disease Resistance Index companies have added a seventh
percentages determine the resistance (DRI) was developed by the University disease, Aphanomyces Race 2, for INSECT CONSIDERATIONS
level for a given pest trait, and of Wisconsin. It represents a tally of a possible total of 35 points. The
the variety is then classified in a points determined by how a variety closer the DRI score is to 35, the Alfalfa pests of concern vary depending If a grower is successfully scouting intense PLH pressure spans multiple
resistance class for each pest trait. rates for the six main alfalfa diseases more general disease resistance the on growing region and whether the (sweep netting weekly) and spraying cuts during most growing seasons. As
This rating scale is standardized in North America. Each variety is variety will exhibit. There is no industry crop is grown commercially or for for control of leafhoppers, a with disease resistance, not all plants
throughout the alfalfa seed industry. assigned points, between 1 and 5, standard for DRI. Pioneer uses the 35 seed. Varieties are typically rated for leafhopper-resistant variety may not will exhibit the same level of resistance
based on its resistance class. With point, modified DRI scoring system but resistance to spotted aphid, pea aphid, be required. However, for growers in a leafhopper-resistant variety.
For example, if a variety has 88% of plants
six major diseases and the highest some seed companies still use the 30 blue aphid, northern and southern who are not scouting, or who notice
expressing anthracnose resistance, it
individual score being 5, varieties can point DRI scale. nematode and stem nematode. leafhopper damage in their alfalfa
meets the threshold of >50% resistant
score up to 30 points on the original However, the potato leafhopper is the despite spraying, then a leafhopper-
plants, and merits a rating of “High
DRI index. Over the years, some most impactful insect pest of alfalfa resistant variety might be a better
Resistance” to anthracnose.
in the Eastern half of North America. option. Varietal resistance comes
Leafhopper-resistant varieties have from small hairs on the stems which
ALFALFA DISEASE RESISTANCE RATINGS been available for more than a decade. repel the leafhopper. These varieties
are especially recommended where
% RESISTANT
PLANTS RESISTANCE CLASS CLASS ABBREVIATIONS
<6 Susceptible S
SEED COATINGS PURE LIVE SEED COUNTS
7-14 Low Resistance LR
Many seed companies sell coated Pure live seed (PLS) can be calculated germination, divided by 100. Pure
15-30 Moderately Resistant MR alfalfa seed. A common heavy- from information found on an alfalfa live seed is the seed you can expect
coating contains 34% limestone. variety seed tag. It is the percent pure to germinate and contribute to stand
31-50 Resistant R Heavy-coated or limestone-coated seed multiplied by the percent total establishment. If the tags states
>50 Highly Resistant HR seed has no consistent advantage
in cloddy or dry soil conditions. In
fact, a heavy coating can slow water IMPACT OF SEED COATING AND SEEDING RATES
EXAMPLE OF HOW AN ALFALFA VARIETY uptake under moderate to dry soil ON ALFALFA SEEDS PLANTED PER SQUARE FOOT
moisture conditions. Pioneer offers a
IS ASSIGNED A DISEASE RESISTANCE INDEX SCORE light 9% polymer seed coating. The
9% 34%
LIGHT-COAT HEAVY-COAT
DISEASE RESISTANCE CLASS POINTS seed treatment process first applies
SEEDING RATE ACRES SEEDED PLS PLANTED
fungicide directly on the seed. Next, a (LBS/A) PER 50 LB UNIT PER SQUARE FOOT
Bacterial Wilt HR 5 separating layer of mica and polymer
is applied. This is followed by a layer 26 1.9 110 80
Verticillium Wilt R 4
of rhizobia, and then a final layer of 24 2.1 101 74*
Fusarium Wilt HR 5 mica and polymer. Mica is a smooth
mineral similar to talc, and acts to 22 2.3 93 67
Anthracnose HR 5 enhance flowability and plantability of 20 2.5 85 61
alfalfa seed. This multi-layer approach
Phytophthora Root Rot HR 5 18 2.8 76* 55
to coating Pioneer® brand alfalfa
Aphanomyces Race 1 HR 5 seed minimizes dust-off for improved 16 3.1 68 49
fungicide safety, ensures excellent
Aphanomyces Race 2 R 4 14 3.6 59 43
rhizobial activity, and enhances seed
plantability. 12 4.2 51 37
DRI Score 33
*Recommended final pure live seed (PLS) count at planting is 70-75 alfalfa seeds per square foot
PLANTING
91% pure seed (excluding coatings, agencies do include hard seed as seeding rate in pounds per acre (lbs/A),
inert matter, weed and other crop viable seed. Practically, the hard seed and the seed coating impact on the
seed) and 90% total germination,
multiply 90% pure seed, times 90%
ends up being out competed by
seeds which germinated earlier. Given
number of seeds per square foot. To
obtain 70-75 seeds per square foot,
DEPTH
germination, to equal 82% pure live that hard seed is included in the total growers would have to seed 24 lbs/A Depth of planting is critical for alfalfa
seed. By contrast, varieties with 34% germination on the seed tag, it needs of heavy-coated alfalfa seed, but only given the extremely small seed size. It
heavy coating and 90% germination to be included in the PLS calculation. 18 lbs/A of light-coated seed. When is recommended to seed ¼-½ inches
start with just 59% PLS. Pioneer scarifies seed lots in order to a grower plants a heavy-coated seed deep on clay or loam soils and ½-¾
Hard seed is viable seed that does keep hard seed at 8-10% or less of but does not increase the seeding inches deep on sandy soils. Topsoil
not germinate within the seven day finished seed. High percent hard seed rate, there is a higher risk of thin/ moisture may be inadequate to sustain
germination test period. There is from some suppliers tends to indicate weedy stands, stand establishment young seedlings with shallow planting,
sometimes confusion about whether a lack of scarification, and may lead to failure and reduced yield over the total and seedlings may not be able to push
to count hard seed when calculating lower than expected stand counts. life of the stand. The level of coating to the surface with deep planting.
pure live seed. State seed certifying The accompanying chart shows the can dramatically impact the cost of
alfalfa seed.
PLANTING
FIELD PREPARATION DATES
Soil tests are needed to determine is critical for healthy alfalfa root 7.0 provide the best environment for Alfalfa requires 37ºF soil temperatures
fertility needs before ground development and potassium is needed nodule bacteria to fix nitrogen. A firm to germinate compared to 46ºF for
preparation begins. Phosphorus for high yields. Soil pH levels of 6.2 to seedbed is critical for successful alfalfa corn and 55-60ºF for soybeans. The
establishment. It improves seed-to-soil fact that alfalfa germinates at much
contact and prevents the seed from lower soil temperatures is why we are
being planted too deep. Soil clods can able to plant alfalfa earlier in the spring
cause uneven seeding depth, impede than many other crops.
emerging seedlings and cause soil In dormant alfalfa growing regions,
surface to dry rapidly. spring seeding typically takes place
No-till seeding can also be a viable between April 1 and May 15 when extremely early seeding can be risky August 1 to August 15 are typical dates
option because the seedbed is already there is less chance of frost, along with if temperatures turn cold leaving for late summer seeding with reduced
firm and top soil moisture is generally reduced potential for moisture stress the stand susceptible to seedling weed competition and less concern
good. Take special care to adjust and crusting problems. Clear seeding diseases. The growing point of alfalfa about diseases (Pythium, Phytophthora
seed depth gauge wheels for field (no nurse crop) in the spring will usually (like soybeans) is above the soil for and Aphanomyces) on heavy, poorly
conditions, and adjust press wheels allow for at least two cuttings during up several weeks after germination. drained soils. Alfalfa seedlings need at
for optimum seed-to-soil contact the seeding year. Clear seeding is best This risk of stand injury from low least six weeks of growth prior to killing
during planting. With attention to these on level fields where soil erosion is temperatures exists until contractile frost (~23ºF) to grow large enough
details, no-till stand establishment can minimal. growth is completed (about when the and lay down adequate root reserves
be very successful. The critical period for stand survival is second trifoliolate leaf has emerged) to survive the winter and thrive in the
the two week period after emergence. and the growing point (crown buds) spring. It is possible to also seed alfalfa
Premature seeding can increase the is protected below the soil surface. after a small grain or vegetable crop,
risk of poor germination from seed Freezing danger is actually greater if harvest occurs by early August, field
rotting in cold, damp soils. Young alfalfa after alfalfa plants loose cold tolerance conditions are suitable and previously
seedlings can tolerate temperatures when they are about 4 inches tall (3rd or used herbicide will not harm new
as low as 20ºF (for a few hours) but 4th trifoliate leaf stage). seedlings.
SEEDING RATE USING A NURSE CROP
Seeding rates in alfalfa traditionally Research suggests that only about needed to hit the target seeding rate Seeding alfalfa with oats, barely or Italian ALFALFA SEEDING OPTIONS
focused on how many pounds per 50% of planted seeds will emerge as (assumes 220,000 seeds per lb and ryegrass as a nurse-crop is a common
acre to plant. A more precise method seedlings in three to four weeks, with 90% germination). practice in geographies seeking erosion
DIRECT SEEDING COMPANION SEEDING WITH NURSE CROP
is to set a target seeding rate in another 50% lost by the next spring. control during early stand establishment
While seed cost, spread over the typical
terms of seeds per square foot. Most So at a seeding rate of 70 seeds/ or when additional early-season • Recommended for • Suitable for land prone to wind or water erosion
life of a stand (4-6 years), equates to
university researchers recommend square foot, we would typically have forage is needed. To avoid excessive high quality forage
a small percentage of the total alfalfa
planting between 60-70 seeds/ft2. High 15-20 alfalfa plants by the beginning of completion with alfalfa seedlings, • Select suitable early-maturity, short-stature
planting and harvesting investment,
seeding rates (70-80 seeds/ft2) allow the second year (1st year after seeding). growers using a nurse crop should • Balances seeding companion crops like oats, spring barley, or
proper seedbed preparation and
alfalfa seedlings to better compete This is within guidelines of 15-25 plants seed it at less than optimum seeding year tonnage, spring triticale
seeder calibration makes sense to help
with weeds and help compensate for per square foot as a goal for the first rates, and harvest it in the boot stage of forage quality, and
reduce seed and technology costs • Seed at 1bu/A (sandy soil) - 1.5 bu/A
cloddy soil conditions in non-optimal production year. growth. The primary disadvantage of a alfalfa establishment
as much as possible, especially as (heavy soils) at a planting depth of 1-2 inches
seedbeds. Seeding at lower rates nurse crop is increased competition for success
Planter adjustments are required to technology fees increase for important deeper than alfalfa
(50-60 seed/ft2) may be adequate in moisture and nutrients, and therefore
compensate for seed coatings, inert alfalfa transgenic traits. • Select fields with low
optimal soil conditions or sandy soils, not recommended for late summer
materials, and germination (found on erosion • Limit nitrogen applications. Not >30lb/acre
however low rates increase risk of non- alfalfa seeding.
seed tag). Use the accompanying to prevent increased lodging in cereals and
uniform or spotty stands which can
hurt production over the entire life of
table to help determine how many
pounds per acre (“out-of-the-bag”) are HARD SEED With the use of glyphosate resistant
alfalfa, nurse crops can be eliminated
• Weed control options
include traditional
N for weeds
the stand. early with a timely application of herbicides or • Harvest early (boot stage) - recommended
Alfalfa produces a percentage of
glyphosate herbicide. This practice glyphosate-based
seed with an impermeable seed coat, • Harvesting for grain/straw - not recommended
provides early season erosion control system
ALFALFA SEEDING RATES referred to as hard seed. Hard seed
fails to absorb water and does not
benefits, along with improved weed
control and more rapid alfalfa growth
What is your target seeding rate at planting?1 immediately germinate when planted
for higher alfalfa yields and quality in the
in a field, but rather is delayed by
80 70 60 50 seeding year.
anywhere from one week to two
months or more. Since hard seed
WEED CONTROL AT STAND ESTABLISHMENT
What should your planter’s seeding rate
be set at to achieve you target?2 (lbs/ac) does not improve stand establishment
or yield, seed companies minimize
9% Coating3 19 17 15 12 the amount of hard seed in a bag of One of the most important limiting without herbicidal control, weeds can use a well-chosen herbicide.
seed through scarification (mechanical factors of alfalfa production is weed emerge and outgrow seedling alfalfa to No-till seeding or late-summer seedings
34% Coating3 27 23 20 17 abrasion) of the seed coat. Once control. When growers eliminate weeds dominate the stand in just a few weeks. may offer less weed competition
scarified the hard seed germinates from an alfalfa stand, both alfalfa One option in this situation is to take an during stand establishment, especially
How many acres will your like normal seed, although even after yields and forage quality are frequently early first clipping which may contain
bag of seed plant? (acres/bag) if the prior crop was not weedy. No-till
scarifying, some hard seed remains. improved. Weed-free stands can also more weeds than alfalfa. As long as avoids bringing soil-borne weed seeds
Seed quality is determined after the result in longer stand life. Growers have weeds do not smother the young to the surface where germination
9% Coating 2.6 2.9 3.3 4.2
final batch is blended and the seed tag several options in the seeding year to alfalfa plants, it will tend to outgrow will occur. Clear seeding of alfalfa in
34% Coating 1.9 2.2 2.5 2.9 will then reflect the new germination control weeds and to promote vigorous, most weeds. An alternative option a no-till environment works best in
percent. Alfalfa seed tags will show healthy establishment of alfalfa. some growers choose is to plant up conjunction with a burndown herbicide
Notes: 1) Universities recommend 60-70 viable seeds per sq. ft. hard seed percentage in addition to to ten more lbs/A than recommended
2) Assumes alfalfa has 220,000 seeds per pound, germination is 90%, and a unit or bag of For spring seedings, growers to eliminate weeds in the field. Growers
total germination. Ideally, hard seed seeding rates to crowd out weeds.
alfalfa contains 50 lbs. frequently use conventional tillage can then assess the need for a post-
3) Seed coating includes fungicide, inoculant, and other inert materials should be less than 10-15% of total Today the seed cost versus the cost
field preparation which provides emergence herbicide as the alfalfa
germination. of herbicidal weed control, means it is
a clean initial seedbed. However, grows to manage weed pressure.
less expensive and more efficacious to
Non-glyphosate alfalfa herbicide options
frequently provide adequate weed
provides yet another weed control
option. Weed control needs are
stunting. When planting alfalfa with
glyphosate resistance it is important OVER-SEEDING THIN STANDS
control including both pre-emergence different depending on the growing to spray these fields with glyphosate
Growers are sometimes tempted to stems/ft2. Older alfalfa stands that be harvested only one or two more
and post-emergence products. environment. In drier growing regions during the early seedling establishment
over-seed additional alfalfa into a thin carry a heavy weed load should likely cuttings. Early harvest of cereals and
However, traditional alfalfa herbicide like the Western US, alfalfa is not very phase (3rd to 4th trifoliate stage of
stand. The problem with over-seeding be rotated rather than over-seeded. annual grasses (prior to boot stage)
products often have limitations on the competitive against weeds. Similarly, growth). This eliminates the 3-7% of
alfalfa into alfalfa stands that are over Over-seeding with legumes such as will maximize quality and likely yield a
spectrum of weeds controlled or may the southern US has grass weed alfalfa plants without resistance to
one year old is autotoxicity (discussed red clover can yield forage suitable for second cutting. Perennial grasses are
have a small reduction of alfalfa yield in species like fescue which are hard to glyphosate. Also, alfalfa growers may
in the GROW section). Over-seeding lactating dairy cattle when harvested at usually harvested slightly later as they
the seeding year. control with other herbicides. The use of need to make additional glyphosate
with cereals, Italian ryegrass, sorghum- typical late-bud maturity. Grasses over- will need a longer initial establishment
The introduction of alfalfa varieties with glyphosate resistant alfalfa technology applications as new weeds emerge
sudangrass, orchardgrass or clover seeded into alfalfa stands generally period. Legumes added to a thin alfalfa
resistance to glyphosate herbicide provides an excellent tool to control during the life of the stand because it
into alfalfa can extend the stand life produce higher yields of forage than stand should be inoculated prior to
these weeds without plant injury or does not have residual activity.
one or more growing seasons when when over-seeded legumes. Adding seeding to ensure adequate nodulation
economics or conservation planning a perennial like orchardgrass is useful and nitrogen fixation. Cereals and
MIXED STANDS require maintenance of the current thin

alfalfa stand.
if extending the stand life beyond the
current growing season is desired.
grasses may need additional nitrogen
(depending upon previous manure
University of Wisconsin extension has Annual grasses and cereal grains applications) to support yield and
If soil conditions are suitable for range in heading date between the grass in fields where soil test potassium
summarized the research around over- provide tonnage early in the growing forage quality.
growing alfalfa, it is difficult to beat earliest and latest timothy varieties, levels are medium to low. While the
seeding and suggests it is not beneficial season, but decline by mid-summer
pure alfalfa stands for yield or forage and a similar range with orchardgrass. initial stand may perform well, once
unless the alfalfa stand has less 40 so best suited to a stand that will
quality. However, when growing The challenge for mixed stands in the grass becomes established their
conditions are more challenging (e.g. the future may be identifying a forage root system will take up potassium to
fields with variable drainage), mixed grass with the maturity to match the the detriment of the alfalfa. Start with
alfalfa-grass stands may have merit
being somewhat less susceptible to
modified harvest schedule of reduced-
lignin alfalfa.
adequate soil test potassium levels and
maintain potassium fertility throughout
STAND EVALUATION
diseases associated with wetter soils, Orchardgrass needs well-drained soils the life of the stand. It is best to check the viability of alfalfa
winter-heaving, winterkill and pests
such as potato leafhopper. Timothy,
and has poor tolerance of ice sheets. fields after they have started to green ALFALFA STEM COUNT AND YIELD POTENTIAL
orchardgrass, perennial ryegrass, and
Timothy has a wider range of soil RECOMMENDED RATES up in the early spring. Check for bud
adaption but doesn’t yield well once FOR GRASSES SEEDED and new shoot vigor. Healthy crowns
endophyte-free tall fescue are the most the soil warms up in the summer and are large, symmetrical and have many High Productivity
WITH ALFALFA* 6 Rule of Thumb: >55 stems Soils
common grasses seeded with alfalfa. in a mixed stand often doesn’t persist shoots. Watch for delayed green-up,
In general, mixed stands will be seeded per sq ft allows maximum yield
longer than about two years. Tall fescue RATE lopsided crowns, and uneven growth 5
with 10-40% grass seed. Seeding rates has become popular due to tolerance SPECIES (LBS/ACRE) of shoots. If any of these characteristics Medium Productivity
Dry Matter Yield

will vary due to differences in seed size exist, investigate further by digging a
of moderate drainage and low pH, Reed Canarygrass 5-7 4 Soils
(tons/acre)
given that orchardgrass has 400,000 and it produces well from spring into few plants 4-6 inches deep and look at
seeds per pound while timothy has Smooth Bromegrass 6-10 the taproot for any signs of browning
fall with a relatively narrow range in 3
over 1,100,000 seeds per pound. heading dates. Perennial ryegrass is or dehydration indicating root damage.
Timothy 2-5
A key in choosing the proper forage better suited to Southern climates as If heaving is evident, also dig some 2
grass for seeding with alfalfa is the they don’t survive winter as well as Orchardgrass 2-5 Stems/sq.ft. Recommendation
plants to determine if the taproot is >54 Not yield limiting
heading date of the grass. Many forage other grasses. Smooth bromegrass Tall Fescue 4-8 broken. Plants with broken tap-roots 1 40-50 Usually keep stand but some yield reduction
grasses head out before the alfalfa is at does not mix well with alfalfa because may green-up, but perform poorly <40 Consider replacing stand due to high yield loss
the ideal (late bud) stage for harvest. it cannot handle the intense cutting Festulolium 4-8
and eventually die. Slightly heaved
Some forage grass species have a schedule of alfalfa and typically requires Perennial Ryegrass 4-8 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
plants can survive, but their longevity stems per square foot
wide range in heading date among a 6-week cutting schedule to persist. *Alfalfa seeding rate, 7-10 lbs/acre and productivity will be reduced.
the varieties. There can be a two week It is not recommended to seed alfalfa- Source: University of Minnesota Crowns that are heaved one inch or
less are not as likely to have a broken breaking taproots. loss with stem counts between 40 and
taproot. With time these plants can When alfalfa growth is 4-6 inches in 50. Consider replacing the stand if there
reseat themselves. Raised crowns are height, use stem counts (stems per are less than 40 stems per square foot;
susceptible to weather and mechanical square foot) as the preferred density and the crown and root health is poor.
damage. Raise cutter bars to avoid measure to evaluate if thin stands Stem counts are an effective evaluation
damaging exposed crowns. Using a tool for stands of all ages. Older stands
GR OW
need rotating. Count only the stems
cultipacker or roller to push the crowns expected to be tall enough to mow. A have fewer plants per square foot, but
back in the ground can do more harm stem density of 55 per square foot has older plants produce more stems than
than good by damaging crowns and good yield potential. Expect some yield younger plants.
CORN SILAGE
while the ear (female flower) produces
ovules that become the seed. There is
a vertical separation of about three to
four feet between the flowers, which Tassel
Corn growth and development is can add to the challenge of successful
pollination.
typically categorized by assigning VEGETATIVE STAGES (V) VEGETATIVE STAGES
a developmental stage. The most The tassel can produce more than
• Stages before ear development VE Emergence
commonly used staging system 1,000,000 pollen grains, and the ear
divides plant development into • Vn represents the last leaf stage before V1-Vn Leaf Stages can produce more than 1,000 silks.
vegetative (V) and reproductive tasseling for the particular hybrid Consequently, there are approximately
(R) stages. Subdivisions of the V grown and often varies by hybrid and/ VT Tassel 1,000 to 1,500 times as many pollen
stages are designated numerically or environmental influences. grains as silks produced. In theory, 20
as V1, V2, V3, through Vn, where “n” REPRODUCTIVE STAGES to 30 plants could fertilize all the silks in
simply represents the last leaf stage one acre, but not all the pollen shed by Silk
before tasseling. The first V stage is R1 Silk a plant lands on a silk.
designated as VE, for emergence, and REPRODUCTIVE STAGES (R) R2 Blister Pollen shed occurs discontinuously for
the last V stage is VT, for tasseling. The a period of approximately five to eight
• Ear development stages R3 Milk
final leaf stage, Vn, varies by hybrid days, and only sheds when temperature
and/or environmental influences. • Starch development occurs R4 Dough and moisture conditions are favorable.
Corn is a monoecious plant, which • Silage harvest usually occurs Pollen shed in a field can last up to 2
during R5 R5 Dent
means it produces separate male and weeks. The peak time for pollen to shed
female flowers on the same plant. The R6 Black Layer is mid-to-late morning. The average life
tassel (male flower) produces pollen, span of a pollen grain is approximately
20 minutes after it is shed, and most
of the pollen that is shed by a plant
falls within 20 to 50 feet of that plant.
WHAT IS CORN SILAGE? However, pollen can be transported
much greater distances by the wind.
It has been estimated that roughly
HIGH MOISTURE CORN 97 percent of kernels produced are
fertilized with pollen from another plant.
ATTACHED TO A HIGHLY DIGESTIBLE GRASS… Silks emerge from the husk over a
period of three to five days, starting from one of these pollen grains of the cob to which this ovule is
Source of energy contribution in corn silage with those silks attached at the successfully fertilizes the ovule. attached becomes barren.
• 65% grain lower middle portion of the ear and Immediately after fertilization, the ovule Kernel set (actively growing kernels
• 10% cell contents progressing toward the ear tip. creates an abscission layer at the base after pollination) can be checked two or
• 25% NDF (fiber) Depending on the environment, an of the silk that restricts entry of genetic three days after pollen shed stops by
Increased grain (starch) is responsible for most of the nutritional value individual silk continues to grow for material from other pollen grains. The carefully removing the husks from an
over the growth of the corn plant about seven days or until the silk silk then detaches from the developing ear and then gently shaking the ear to
intercepts pollen grains. Research kernel, begins to desiccate, and turns see if the silks are detached. Silks drop
Fiber influences energy density dry matter intake and rumen health (mat studies have shown that typically, a brown. If the ovule is not successfully off ovules that have been successfully
development and stimulation of cud-chewing to buffer the rumen) minimum of five pollen grains must fertilized within this seven day window, fertilized (kernels), but any ovule that
land on each silk and start pollen tube the silk dies, the unfertilized ovule retains a silk has not been fertilized and
growth to ensure that genetic material eventually disappears, and the portion no kernel will develop.
It is important that pollen shed and silk
emergence happen concurrently to KEY GROWTH PERIODS
ensure successful pollination, which
is called “nick.” However, with today’s Once planted, corn seeds absorb
modern hybrids, it is not unusual to see water from the soil and begin to grow.
silks emerging from the husks one or VE (emergence) occurs when the
two days before full tassel emergence coleoptile (spike) pushes through the
occurs. This is a large change from soil surface. Corn plants can emerge
hybrids of a few decades ago, and within five days in ideal heat and
has resulted in a greatly improved moisture conditions. But in practice,
pollination process and higher yields. due to early planting under seasonably
cool conditions, at least two weeks
are normally required from planting to
emergence. With below average spring
temperatures, corn seeds may be in the
ground for three weeks or more before
seedlings emerge (reinforcing the value
Purple corn
of seed treatments). The growing point
(stem apex) is 1 to 1.5 inches below
the surface. The seminal root system Most of the corn grown in the United purple pigment when exposed to cold
is growing from the seed. The seminal States contains five of eight genes temperatures have been found to
roots do much of the early work, but required to produce purple color. contain as much chlorophyll (the green
growth slows after VE as nodal roots The other three genes are present pigment) as hybrids that remain green
Corn ear at R1 with husk removed, begin to grow. only in certain hybrids and some of when grown under the same cool
showing attached silks where ovules Approximately 90-120 GDUs are these genes are cold sensitive. When conditions.
were not pollinated.
required for a corn seedling to emerge exposed to cool temperatures, they During early vegetative stages (V1-
following planting, but the exact induce purpling in young plants. V5), there is minimal stalk (internode)
CORN SEEDLING DEVELOPMENT FROM GERMINATION THROUGH V2 number required may be affected Purpling can be triggered when elongation, which is somewhat
by planting depth, solar radiation, daytime temperatures are above 60º F dependent on soil temperature. Corn
moisture, tillage, or other factors. followed by nighttime air temperature is a rather hardy plant when it comes
Although air temperature is monitored below 50º F. Testing of corn plants to recovering from early season stress
and reported, the speed of germination, that exhibit genetic purpling at the such as frost damage because prior
seedling emergence, and subsequent seedling stage has shown no evidence to V5 the growing point is still below
first
true leaf growth while the growing point is of adverse effects on metabolism, the ground and protected from low air
below the soil surface is governed by growth, chlorophyll production, or temperatures. A shoot initiates at each
soil temperature (soil GDUs) at the yield. The cold temperature stress node (axil of each leaf) from the first leaf
growing
point seed zone. Soil GDUs play a dominant which induces purpling, however, does (below ground) to approximately the
© Iowa State University Extension

role as the corn seed germinates and affect early plant growth. Regardless 13th leaf (above ground). Shoots that
a progressively diminishing role as the of whether the corn is purple or green, develop at above ground nodes may
seedling grows through V stages until cool temperatures slow growth. differentiate into reproductive tissue
about V6. Air temperature inserts its Researchers studying purple corn (ears or cobs), and shoots that develop
dominant influence on the rate of corn have observed no difference between below ground may differentiate into
growth after the growing point rises cold-stress effects associated with vegetative tissue (tillers or suckers).
above the soil surface. purple seedlings compared to green Permanent roots develop at five nodes
seedlings. Hybrids that develop the
below the surface, one at the soil nutrients from the soil at the maximum surface around V6, and the plant is period for grain yield determination.
surface, and potentially one or more rate. Corn plants develop leaves based now susceptible to environmental or At this point, the upper ear shoot
nodes above the soil surface. Roots on their relative maturity and growing mechanical injuries that may damage becomes dominant. VT occurs when
above the soil surface are commonly environment. Locally adapted hybrids the growing point. As a result of this the last tassel branch has emerged and
referred to as “brace” or “anchor” roots in the United States Central Corn rapid growth, the lower three or four is extended outward. VT overlaps with
and may support the stalk and take up Belt (Iowa, Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio) leaves, including the first true leaf, may R1 when visible silks appear before
water and nutrients if they penetrate typically develop 20-21 leaves. Early become detached from the stalk and the tassel is fully emerged. Vegetative
the soil. The uppermost roots may maturing hybrids may have as few decompose. development is now complete and
not reach the soil because the plant as 11-12 leaves at full maturity, and Rapid growth syndrome occurs when maximum plant height is nearly
stops growing when it switches the latest maturing hybrids in tropical corn leaves fail to unfurl properly and achieved. Stalk cells will continue to
from vegetative to reproductive environments may develop 30 or more the whorl becomes tightly wrapped lignify to improve stalk strength as
development. The development of this leaves. Between VE and V14, each and twisted. It most commonly occurs the plant transitions to reproductive
stage is dependent on genetics and new collared leaf will appear after the at the V5-V6 growth stage, but can development (R1).
the environment. accumulation of approximately 66 to be observed as late as V12. It is R1 officially starts when silks are
Starting at about the V5-V6 stage 84 GDUs, depending on the hybrid. generally associated with an abrupt visible outside the husks and typically
of growth, a corn plant will begin to Between V15 and VT, leaf development transition from cool temperatures to occurs a couple of days after tasseling.
determine yield potential. It is during happens faster with each new collared warmer conditions, resulting in a sharp Once a pollen grain lands on a silk
leaf appearing after the accumulation Corn plants in rapid growth phase showing wrapping of leaves
this period when the number of acceleration in plant growth rate. The (pollination), a pollen tube forms and
kernels around the ear, or ear girth, is of approximately 48 to 56 GDUs, rapidly growing new leaves are unable
determined. For this reason, minimal depending on the hybrid. to emerge and will cause the whorl In the Central Corn Belt of the United
V6
stress at this time is essential for plants During the mid-vegetative stages (V6- to bend and twist as they try to force States, the number of rows of kernels
to maximize ear girth potential. V12) the corn plant begin a period of their way out. As with many weather- around the cob is established at about
very rapid internode elongation. The related stress effects, it is common V7 stage at which time the ear shoots,
V6 to VT represents the rapid growth
growing point moves above the soil for some hybrids to be more prone to and/or tillers and tassel are visible, as
period when the plant will be utilizing
rapid growth syndrome than others. well as the tassel. For Northern latitude
Twisted whorls can also have other hybrids this occurs earlier (V6), and
• Begins rapid growth stages
Corn GDU
CORN GDUREQUIREMENTS
Requirements causes, most notably herbicide injury. for tropical hybrids it happens later.
• Begin to determine
Growth regulators and acetamides There will always be an even number
Vegetative (50-80 d) Reproductive (55-60 d) are the herbicides most commonly of rows, as a result of cellular division. yield potential
associated with twisted whorls or Most mid-maturity hybrids average 14, • Poor time to stress crop
110 day hybrid
“buggywhipping.” Other herbicides 16 or 18 rows of kernels. Lower row due to lack of water
may also interfere with leaf unfurling in numbers are highly correlated to early
100 day hybrid
rare cases. Leaves of affected plants maturity hybrids. The absolute number • Ear Girth and number of
usually unfurl after a few days. Newly is strongly controlled by hybrid genetics kernels around the ear is
90 day hybrid
emerged leaves will often be yellow and often consistent within a hybrid determined
as a result of being twisted up inside at a given location. Severe metabolic
the whorl, but will green up quickly stresses during these stages, such as
Planting R1 Silking R6 Black Layer once exposed to sunlight. Affected timing of some herbicide applications,
leaves may be wrinkled near the base may reduce the number of kernel rows
~1250-1400 GDU’s ~2000-2700 GDU’s
and will remain that way throughout produced.
the growing season. Development Soon after tasseling (VT), the plant
Base 50 GDU formula of individual plants may be slightly
GDU formula for corn: Daily high limit: 86 F
0 begins the “reproductive” stages of
delayed due to rapid growth syndrome growth. The transition from vegetative
Corn typically requires
(Daily high + daily low) – 500 F Daily low limit: 500 F 16 around 20 around
2 however yield is unlikely to be reduced. development to reproductive
about 120 GDU to emerge
development (VT to R1) is a crucial
takes about 24 hours to go down the of total grain yield is related to the total time may reduce the number of kernels determined earlier in the corn plant’s temperature on grain fill. After kernel maximum ear length is achieved. Silks
silk to the ovule. Silage growers should number of kernels produced per acre produced in each row; however, the development, number of kernels actually number had already been set, plants from fertilized kernels dry and turn
note the date when corn plants silk and approximately 15% of the total ultimate kernel number is determined set is largely determined near the time were grown in outdoor pots and then brown. Unfertilized silks may be visible
(R1) and count ahead about seven grain yield is related to the weights of during and after pollination. Water and of pollination. Once pollination begins, moved into controlled-temperature among the brown silks.
weeks to begin checking fields for these kernels. fertility requirements are significant maximum yield potential has been set growth chambers 18 days after silking. R3 occurs 18 to 22 days after silking
kernel maturity. The old thumb rule that The length of the ear (number of kernels during these stages and shortages within the plant and only environmental The lowest temperature regime (77°F when the kernels are about 80 percent
corn will reach silage maturity in 35- per row) is determined the last few significantly reduce yield. factors such as drought, late-season day, 59°F night) resulted in the greatest moisture, inner fluid is milky white from
45 days (900 GDUs) after silking was weeks prior to tasseling. Stress at this While number of kernel positions is insects, disease, and environmental grain yield per plant as well as the accumulated starch (endosperm). The
based around silage being harvested events (e.g. hail, high wind) negatively longest grain fill duration. Increasing embryo and the endosperm are visually
at 70% moisture (30% dry matter). influence final harvestable yield. night temperature to 77°F significantly distinguishable upon dissection.
Modern hybrids have improved late- Reduction in kernel number may result reduced yield per plant. Increasing the Stress-related kernel abortion is still
season plant health so to avoid effluent from incomplete pollination due to day temperature to 95° F also resulted
VT (Tassel)
possible at this time.
and also significantly increase starch asynchrony of pollen shed and silking in lower yield per plant, regardless of
deposition, it is now recommended to (“silk delay”), ovary dysfunction due to night temperature. Dough stage (R4) occurs 24 to 28
delay harvest of healthy plants until the low water potential, or abortion of the days after silking. Kernels are about
Current research supports two 70 percent moisture and the inner
kernels are closer to ¾ milk line. Most newly formed embryo due to insufficient hypotheses that may explain why
of the difference between hybrids of • Water & fertility requirements carbohydrate availability from reduced fluid thickens to a pasty, dough-like
are significant higher night temperatures during the consistency and they have attained
different relative maturities is between plant photosynthesis (shading or grain filling period reduce grain yield:
emergence and silking, not from silking • Next stage is “Reproductive” disease). around one-half of their mature dry
1) the rate of respiration in the corn weight. Hybrid specific cob color (white,
to the 62-68% whole-plant moisture • Ear size/length and From full canopy through the plant increases, requiring more pink, light or dark red) begins to develop.
(38-32% DM) that is considered ideal number of kernels per row reproductive period, any shortage sugar for energy thus making less Husks begin to turn brown on the outer
for corn silage. is determined of sunlight is potentially limiting to sugar available for deposition as edges. Stress during this stage does
Corn grain yield can be thought of starch yield. When stresses such as starch in the kernel and not generally cause kernels to abort, but
as a 2-step process. The first step is low light limit photosynthesis during 2) higher temperature accelerates it can reduce the starch accumulation
to establish the maximum potential kernel starch fill, corn plants remobilize the phenological development of rate and average kernel weight.
yield or the maximum number of stalk carbohydrates to the ear. This the corn plant so the corn plant
fertilized ovules that can be produced. may result in stalk quality issues and Dent stage (R5) occurs 35 to 42 days
matures sooner.
The second step is to convert the lodging at harvest. Sensitive periods of after silking and accounts for nearly one
Although higher night temperatures half of the reproductive development
maximum number of fertilized ovules to crop development, such as flowering undoubtedly increase the rate of
harvestable kernels. During all stages and early grain fill, are when plants time. Kernels are comprised of a hard
respiration in corn, research generally starch outer layer surrounding a soft
of the corn life cycle, meristematic are most susceptible to stresses, suggests that accelerated phenological
cells are extracting nutrients, water including insufficient light, water, and/ starch core. An indentation (dent) forms
development is likely the primary at the top of the kernel when the softer
and energy from the corn plant. These or nutrients. mechanism affecting corn yield.
cells must be properly fed every day. If starch core begins to lose moisture and
Corn originated in the central highlands Blister stage (R2) occurs 10 to 14 days shrinks. The amount of denting that
the corn plant faces a stress in which of Mexico and adapted during its
it cannot supply all of these necessary after silking. Developing kernels are occurs is dependent on genetics and
evolution to the predominant climatic about 85 percent moisture, resemble growing conditions. Flint hybrids grown
nutrients, water, and energy, some VT - Tasseling conditions of this region, consisting of
of these meristematic cells die. For a blister, and the endosperm and the in South America and Europe generally
warm days and cool nights. Research inner fluid are clear. Stress-related produce very little to no dent because
grain yield, stress factors become has shown that above-average night
particularly important during pollination kernel abortion may occur during this the kernels contain primarily hard,
temperatures during reproductive time. Kernels fertilized last (near the tip) vitreous starch and do not collapse. To
when the meristematic cells are the growth can reduce corn yield both
ovules and young, fertilized embryos, are often aborted first (nosing back). optimize starch concentrations, corn
through reduced kernel number and Kernel abortion risk is highest within silage will typically be harvested during
and during early grain fill when these kernel weight. A 1983 University of
young fertilized embryos are gaining the first 10-14 days after pollination or late dent stage, but prior to black layer
R1 - Silking Guelph study examined the effect of
size and weight. Approximately 85% until the kernels reach R3. At this stage, formation (R6).
each stage. At a ¼ milk line, kernels are early milk line ¼ milk line
about 55 percent moisture and have
accumulated about 45 percent of their
total dry matter, and about 90 percent
of total dry matter by R5.5 (½ milk line).
Healthy plants can accumulate from
0.6 to 1.0 percentage points of starch
in corn silage every day until reaching
black layer (R6). Harvesting corn
silage at too early a milk line stage will
severely reduce starch concentrations.
Kernel physiological maturity is
achieved at the R6 (black layer) stage
in about 60 to 65 days after silking. ½ milk line ¾ milk line
Kernel moisture is approximately 35
percent and kernels have reached their
Reduced kernel set (nosing back) due to drought stress near pollination maximum dry weight. The milk line,
or hard starch layer, has advanced to
the kernel tip. Cells at the tip of the
kernel lose their integrity and collapse
causing a brown to black abscission
layer to form, commonly referred to
as “black layer”. Black layer formation
progresses from the tip of the ear to the
R2 - Blister base. If the corn plant dies prematurely
from disease or a killing frost (prior
to physiological maturity) the black
layer still forms, but may take longer,

and yield may be slightly reduced.
endosperm The “premature” kernel black layer
formation is related to the reduction or
embryo termination of sucrose (photosynthate)
available to the developing kernels.
R6 is very near the ideal high-moisture
Progression of black abscission layer formation

corn (or snaplage) harvest kernel
Kernels from a R3 plant. moisture of 30-34% to capture the most
energy from the kernel and the cob.
Monitoring kernel “milk” line is a tip. Milk line stages are generally is Once the black layer forms, starch
practical approach to field evaluations referred to as ¼ milk line, ½ milk line, and moisture can no longer move in
for timing of silage harvest. The milk or ¾ milk line as it moves toward the or out of the kernel, with the exception
line forms as a visible separation cob. The total time for this movement of moisture loss through evaporation.
between hard starch and soft starch. is related to temperature, moisture R5 - Dent
Drying rates are normally 0.4-0.8% Silage Maturity
Primary ear at R2, with and It forms at the crown of the kernel and availability, and hybrid genetics but moisture per day. Ideal combining
without husks and silks. progresses toward the base, or kernel typically there is about a week between harvest moisture for corn is 15-20%, Kernel abscission (black Layer)
Growth and development
VT Stage
How a corn plant develops: V18 Stage

Silks from the basal ear ovules elon-
The VT stage arrives when the last
branch of the tassel is completely
through the vegetative stages.

gate first. Silks from the ear tip ovules visible. VT begins about two to three
V15 Stage
follow. This illustration represents days before silk emergence. The plant
This is the start of the most crucial
about eight to nine days of reproduc- is nearly at its full height. Pollen shed
period for determining grain yield. Upper
tive organ development. Brace roots begins, lasting one to two weeks. The
All corn follows a similar pattern of development with variations based on hybrids, seasons, planting ear shoot development overshadows
V12 Stage (aerial nodal roots) grow from the time between VT and R1 can fluctuate
dates and locations. This illustration shows the key phases of corn d
evelopment through the vegetative lower ear shoot development. Every one
The number of ovules (potential ker- nodes above the soil surface to help considerably depending on the hybrid
(V) stages. Most of the information comes from “How a Corn Plant Develops,” by Iowa State University to two days, a new leaf stage occurs.
nels) on each ear and the size of the support the plant and take in water and the environment.
and applies to a central Iowa corn hybrid (see www.extension.iastate.edu/hancock/info/corn.htm). A Silks begin to grow from the upper ears.
ear are determined at the V12 stage. and nutrients during the reproductive
look at corn development from tasseling through harvest will appear in a future issue. By V17, the tips of upper ear shoots may Tips: With the tassel and all leaves
The number of kernels per row isn’t be visible atop the leaf sheaths. The tip stages.
V9 Stage exposed, the plant is extremely vulner-
Dissection of a V9 plant shows many determined until about a week before of the tassel also may be visible. Tips: The plant is about a week away able to hail from VT to reproductive
V6 Stage ear shoots (potential ears). These de- silking, at about V17. The top ear
from silking. Ear development is rapid. phase 1 (R1). Total removal of leaves
velop from every above-ground node shoot is still smaller than the lower Tips: Water stress can cause yield
V3 Stage The growing point and tassel Stress can delay ear and ovule devel- can devastate yield potential. If ovules
except the last six to eight nodes ear shoots, but many of the upper reduction starting two weeks before
At V3, the growing point is still rise above the soil surface opment more than tassel development. aren’t fertilized they produce no kernel
Germination and emergence (VE) below the tassel. Lower ear shoots ears are close to the same size. silking until two weeks after silking. The
below the surface. The stalk at about the V6 stage. The Such a delay means a lag between on the cob.
Once planted, corn seeds absorb grow fast at first, but only the upper closer to actual silking, the more yield
(stem) hasn’t elongated much. stalk begins to elongate. The pollen shed and silking. Severe stress
water from the soil and begin to Tips: Moisture or nutrient deficien- reduction from stresses such as nutrient
Root hairs are growing from the nodal root system grows from one or two develop a harvestable ear. may delay silking until after pollen
grow. VE (emergence) comes when nodal roots as seminal roots cies from V10 to V17 are critical. deficiencies, high temperatures or hail.
the three to four lowest stalk The tassel begins to develop rapidly. shed, resulting in unfertilized ovules.
the coleoptile (spike) pushes through cease growing. All leaves and They can seriously reduce kernel When fields are dry avoid applications of
nodes. Some ear shoots or Stalks lengthen as the internodes
the soil surface. Corn plants can numbers and ear size. Earlier-matur- fungicides, pesticides and the associat-
ear shoots the plant will ever tillers are visible. Tiller (or grow. By V10, the time between new
emerge within five days in ideal heat produce form from V3 to about ing hybrids progress through growth ed surfactants. (Read and follow label
sucker) development depends leaf stages shortens to about every
and moisture conditions. But under stages in less time and produce directions.) This is a critical period for
V5. A tiny tassel forms at the tip on the specific hybrid, plant two to three days.
cool and wet — or even under very smaller ears than later-maturing irrigation.
of the growing point. Above- density, fertility and other
dry conditions — they can take Tips: At about V10, rapid increases hybrids. Thus early-maturing hybrids
ground plant height typically is conditions.
more than two weeks to emerge. need high plant densities for maxi-
about 8 inches. in nutrient and dry weight accumu-
The growing point (stem apex) is Tips: Precise fertilizer place- mum yields.
lation begin. This continues into the
1 to 1.5 inches below the surface. Tips: The growing point is great- ment is less critical as roots reproductive stages. Soil nutrient and
The seminal root system is growing ly affected by soil temperatures. spread. Watch for signs of water requirements are very high.
from the seed. The seminal roots do Cold soils may increase the time nutrient deficiencies. Foliar or This is to meet greater demands due
much of the early work, but growth between leaf stages, increase soil applications may help, but to the increased growth rate at this
slows after VE as nodal roots begin the total number of leaves deficient soils are best correct- stage.
to grow. formed, delay tassel formation ed before symptoms appear.
and reduce nutrient availability. Nitrogen sidedressing may
Tips: Longer-season hybrids gener- At this time, hail, wind and frost help up to about V8 in moist
ally have more yield potential than have little effect on the growing soil. Begin to scout for insect
shorter-season hybrids. However, point or final grain yield. How- damage such as lodged plants
growers should choose hybrids ever, flooding can kill the corn (rootworms) or leaf feeding
based on the local growing season plant. Weed control reduces (corn borers).
and specific field environment. competition for light, water and
Cool temperatures restrict nutrient nutrients.
absorption, slowing growth. Banding
fertilizer can help early growth.
Shallow planting may provide a
warmer environment for seeds when
planting early.
How corn develops: This illustration shows phases of corn development during the reproductive stages through maturity. Most of this i nformation comes from a website
Reproduction through maturity

feature, “How a Corn Plant Develops,” by Iowa State University and applies to a central Iowa hybrid (see www.extension.iastate.edu/hancock/info/corn.htm).
However, all corn follows a similar pattern with variations due to hybrids, seasons, planting dates and locations. Development from germination through
the vegetative stages appears in Pioneer GrowingPoint® magazine, March 2010.
R1 stage: Silking R2 stage: Blister R3 stage: Milk R4 stage: Dough R5 stage: Dent R6 stage: Physiological maturity
(10-14 days after silking) (18-22 days after silking) (24-28 days after silking) (35-42 days after silking) (55-65 days after silking)
The R1 stage begins when silk is visible outside the husks.
Pollination occurs when these moist silks catch falling R2 kernels are white on the outside and The R3 kernel is yellow outside, while the inner Continued starch accumulation in the At R5, all or nearly all kernels are dented By the R6 stage, kernels have attained their maximum dry
pollen grains. Pollen takes about 24 hours to move down resemble a blister. The endosperm and its fluid is now milky white due to accumulating endosperm causes the milky inner fluid or denting. The shelled cob is dark red. The weight or dry matter accumulation. The hard starch layer has
the silk to the ovule where fertilization occurs. The now-abundant inner fluid are clear. The starch. The embryo is growing rapidly. Most to thicken to a pasty consistency. Usually kernels are drying down from the top, where advanced completely to the cob. A black or brown abscission
ovule becomes a kernel. Generally, all silks on an ear are embryo is still developing, but it now contains of the R3 kernel has grown out from the four embryonic leaves have formed as the a small hard layer of starch is forming. This layer forms, moving progressively from the tip ear kernels to the
pollinated in two to three days. The silks grow 1.0 to 1.5 a developing miniature corn plant. Much of surrounding cob. Silks are brown and dry or embryo has grown dramatically from the R3 starch layer appears shortly after denting as basal kernels of the ear. It’s a good indication of physiological
inches each day until fertilized. The R1 kernel is almost the kernel has grown out from the surrounding becoming dry. stage. The shelled cob is a light red to pink. a line across the back of the kernel (the non- maturity and signals the end of kernel growth. The husks and
engulfed in cob materials and is white on the outside. The cob materials. The cob is close to full size. Toward the middle of R4, the embryo will embryo side). With maturity, the hard starch many leaves are no longer green, although the stalk may be.
Tips: The kernels, well into their rapid
inner material is clear with little fluid present. Silks are darkening and beginning to dry out. stretch across more than half of the width layer and line will advance toward the cob.
rate of dry matter accumulation, are about Tips: A hard early frost before the R6 stage may halt
Starch has just begun to accumulate in the of the kernel side. Just before R5, kernels Accumulated starch is hard above the line but
Tips: The number of ovules fertilized is determined 80 percent moisture. Cell division within the dry matter accumulation and cause premature black layer
watery endosperm. Kernels are beginning to along the length of the ear begin to dent or still soft below the line.
at this stage. Those not fertilized will degenerate. endosperm is essentially complete, so growth formation. This could reduce yields by causing delays in
accumulate dry matter. Seed-fill is beginning. dry. The fifth (last) embryonic leaf and the
Environmental stress at this time can cause poor pollination is mostly due to cell expansion and starch-fill. Tips: Stress at this stage will reduce yields harvest (frost-damaged corn is slower to dry). To reduce
lateral seminal roots have formed. If this seed
and seed set. Moisture stress, in particular, affects the silks Tips: Nitrogen and phosphorus are Final yield depends on the number of kernels by reducing kernel weight. At the beginning potential frost problems, choose a hybrid that matures about
is planted, these five embryonic leaves will
and pollen grains, which may result in a scatter-grained accumulating rapidly and relocating from that develop and the final size or weight of of R5, kernels have about 55 percent moisture three weeks before the average date of the first killing frost.
appear the following season after germination
ear or an ear with a barren tip. Watch for corn rootworm vegetative to reproductive parts of the plant. the kernels. Stress can still impact yield by content.
and VE. Kernel moisture averages 30 to 35 percent, but this can
beetles feeding on the silks and treat if necessary. At this The kernels are about 85 percent moisture and reducing both factors.
vary considerably between hybrids and environmental
point, potassium uptake is about complete. Nitrogen and will dry down from this point. Tips: The embryo continues to develop
conditions. Safe storage requires 13 to 15 percent moisture.
phosphorus uptake is rapid. Nutrient content of the leaf very rapidly. Kernels are about 70 percent
Growers usually let the crop dry in the field before harvesting.
correlates highly with final yield. moisture and have accumulated about half
their mature dry weight.
which typically occurs 2 to 4 weeks
after R6. The rate of field drying STANDARD MEASUREMENTS SCOUTING FOR PROBLEMS
after R6 is highly dependent on air
temperature, air movement, relative A typical ear of corn has 500 to 800 kernels, based on favorable environment It should go without saying that control methods and tillage systems. (e.g. brown stink bugs, corn flea
humidity, and grain moisture content. and production practices. walking fields and digging roots (e.g. With all the options available, this area beetle, slugs), diseases (Goss’s Wilt,
Drydown is also highly related to hybrid Average kernel weight at 15.5 percent moisture is approximately 0.012 ounces monitoring corn rootworm) pays of management Is best discussed with Stewart’s Wilt) or weed pressure that
characteristics, such as ear orientation, (350 mg), with a range of 0.007 to 0.015 ounces (200 to 430 mg). big dividends. Insects can cause consulting agronomists and seed or could affect early vigor of the plant.
plant density, tightness and length standability issues, rob nutrients, and chemical company representatives. From V5 to tasseling, water stress,
A standard bushel weighs 56 pounds (25.5 kg) and contains approximately
of husks, and kernel hardness. As a increase ear molds and premature Walking corn fields is important to foliar diseases, and first generation
90,000 kernels, with a range of 59,000 to 127,000 kernels per bushel (2.3 to
general rule, it requires 30 GDUs to plant death. The value of above- and monitor for yield-robbing pests and insects are key factors that could limit
5.0 million kernels per metric ton).
remove one point of moisture from the below-ground pest management will diseases. From emergence to V5, yield. From tasseling to silage harvest
grain early in the drying process (30 to be based on crop rotation, hybrid attention should be paid to seed maturity, second-generation insects,
25 percent), and 45 GDUs to remove and environments. For example, corn of heat units, but the additional energy selection, class of insects that are of placement and emergence issues foliar diseases and mold issues are
one point of moisture late in the drying dries better on a 50°F (10°C) sunny day provided by the radiant energy on a primary concern, available insecticide along with looking for early insects important to monitor.
process (25 to 20 percent). Grain than on a 50°F (10°C) rainy or cloudy sunny day dramatically improves the
drying rates will vary between hybrids day. Both days have the same number drying process.
DETERMINING CORN LEAF STAGES

The “leaf collar” system developed at line between the leaf blade and the leaf
Iowa State University is the method
most widely used by extension
sheath. The oval shaped first leaf, or
“seed leaf,” is the reference point for V5
and seed company agronomists
to determine leaf stages. With this
counting upward to the top visible leaf
collar. The oval seed leaf is counted as Corn Plant
method, each leaf stage is defined the first leaf of a corn plant when staging Leaf #5
according to the uppermost leaf whose vegetative growth. If a plant has four Blade –
leaf collar is visible. This makes it easier visible leaf collars, then it is defined as no visible
Collar yet
to distinguish between stages, rather being at V4. Normally a plant at the V4
than using other indicator systems, stage will have parts of the fifth and sixth
such as plant height or exposed leaves. leaves visible, but only four leaves with
Leaf #4
These other systems include the leaf tip distinct collars.
number and the plant height systems Collar –
Another way to determine the plant 5th Node
(used by herbicide labels). The number stage is to identify the sixth leaf. Find
of leaves exposed or plant height the node at the soil surface, and if
systems are not as accurate as the Leaf #3
the soil has not been disturbed (no Sheath
leaf collar system. Plants will respond cultivation), this will typically be the sixth
to different environments/stresses and node. Identify the leaf attached at the
may be older than they appear if looking Leaf #2
sixth node (leaf 6) and count successive Coleoptile
only at plant height. The leaf number collared leaves above that to determine Leaf
system does not require collar formation Leaf #1
the vegetative stage. A field is defined
to count, so it is open to interpretation, as being at a given growth stage when
and may lead to less consistent staging. at least 50% of the plants show collars
The first part of the collar that is visible is for that leaf number.
the back, which appears as a discolored
COMMON CORN INSECTS CORN FOLIAR DISEASE DIAGNOSIS
AND MANAGEMENT TIPS
• Select resistant hybrids • Time planting
• Manage residue properly • Apply fungicide in high-risk fields
European Corn Borer Japanese Beetles Black Cutworm
Eyespot Lesions Northern Leaf Spot
Fall Armyworm Wireworms Southwestern Corn Borer
Southern Leaf Blight Gray Leaf Spot
Western Bean Cutworm Spider Mites Corn Earworms

Common Rust Northern Leaf Blight
Corn Rootworm White Grubs Aphids Southern Rust Goss’s Wilt
The next step is to determine the week window prior to tasseling (V10- yield will depend on a number of factors:
WIND/HAIL DAMAGE amount of leaf loss. The amount
of defoliation and the stage of
VT). Plants at that stage are growing
rapidly such that stalks are brittle and
1) the percent of plants broken,
2) the distribution of broken plants,
Storm damage to the growing corn damaged by hail may have difficulty curved appearance. The impact of development at the time of a hailstorm very vulnerable to breaking when high 3) the location of the break on the
plant includes root lodging and stalk regrowing. Plants with leaves loosely root lodging depends largely on the will determine the effect on grain yield. velocity winds occur. Breakage early in stalk, and
breakage from wind, along with leaf bound in the whorl usually grow or growth stage when it occurred. Most Leaf loss early in the growing season, the growing season when plants are
4) the growth stage of the crop.
loss and stem bruising from hail. blow out, and continue with normal plants straightened upright within three particularly major amounts of leaf loss, knee-high causes a reduction in stand,
Yield potential of hail-damaged crops development but plants with leaves days and yield loss was dependent is thought to set back the corn plant or and the calendar date may be such Yields are affected least when the
depends largely on the growth stage, very tightly bound in the whorl usually on the growth stage when damaged. delay the maturity. However, research that replanting is not economically stalk breaks above the uppermost ear.
remaining plant population and the don’t grow out. These plants are often Research at the University of Wisconsin shows no appreciable delay in tassel feasible. Plants that are not broken will Plants adjacent to broken plants will
type and severity of damage. referred to as buggy whips or ties. The showed that grain yield was reduced emergence, silking date, or kernel compensate somewhat for reduced partially compensate and produce more
leaves remain so tightly wrapped that by less than 5% when damaged at the moisture content at harvest resulting competition from adjacent plants, but grain weight per plant because of less
Recommendations from the University competition, especially for sunlight.
of Minnesota are to wait three to five some of the uppermost leaves and the V10 to V12 stage, by 5 to 15% when from partial or complete leaf removal grain yield will be lowered because of
tassel are unable to emerge from the damaged at the V13 to V15 stage, and for plants between leaf stages five and the lower plant population. Breakage Yields are reduced more when the stalk
days following a hail storm to allow is broken below the uppermost (top)
time for regrowth for better evaluation whorl. It is impossible to determine if by up to 30% when damaged at V17 thirteen. Significantly shorter plants is also common just before tasseling.
these plants will recover or the degree or later. occur due to complete defoliation at Concerns about inadequate pollination ear compared with when the stalk is
plant survivability given the growing broken above the top ear. At the tassel
point of corn will be about 3/4 of an to which they will recover. Although The initial step is to determine the these growth stages when the stalk is arise when tassels are lost due to stalk
some of these tied plants might shoot elongating. Plants can be as much as breakage. However, individual tassels stage, the potential size of the second
inch below the soil surface until the V5- viable plant population in the affected ear has been determined with the plant
V6 growth stage. For hail damage in an ear and produce some grain (tassel field. The length of row equivalent to 8-10 inches shorter due to complete generally produce over two million
emergence is not necessary on each defoliation during this time. Corn pollen grains. Assuming 800 silks per expecting to fill kernels on the top
more mature plants, they will regrow if one thousandth of an acre for various ear and, under most situations, there
the growing point is still healthy. Plants plant to allow pollination), they should row spacing is provided in the PLANT will grow more slowly following leaf ear, this corresponds to 2,500 pollen
not be counted as living plants when removal, depending upon the amount grains per silk, indicating great potential usually is little or no grain produced on
with damaged growing points or stalks section. Measure the distance for the second ear. At this stage, the plant
broke below the growing point will the population count is made. They are 1/1000th of an acre for your row spacing of leaf area lost and the weather that for adequate pollination of neighboring
not likely to contribute significantly to follows, but the shorter plants that plants with lost tassels. cannot adjust the number of kernels that
not recover. Locate the growing point and count the number of live plants in can be produced on the second ear.
by splitting a stalk down the center; a grain yield. that row section. Then multiply by 1000 grow after defoliation are not set back The effect of stalk breakage on grain
healthy growing point will be white to When soils are saturated, strong winds to determine the number of healthy in maturity. Complete defoliation of
light green in color and firm in texture. If can cause corn plants to lean over due plants per acre. Several checks should young corn plants up to the 7-leaf stage
FUNGICIDES
the growing point has been damaged, to pulling of shallow roots. Within a few be made throughout the field as scouting will usually result in little or no reduction
bacteria will often invade the plant and days, root-lodged plants will typically the entire field may identify areas of the in yield. As the plant gets older, the
the growing point will be brown and straighten upright and stalks have a field that do not need replanting. loss of leaf area will increasingly affect
yield. Leaves are sometimes torn or Keeping corn free of stresses caused infection on the ear leaf and above
soft and these plants will not recover. by leaf diseases and stalk rots is from these diseases as the plant
Bruising of stalks by hail limits the EFFECT OF LEAF AREA DESTROYED shredded due to high velocity winds
or hail. Leaf tissue remaining on the important to achieving maximum yield. enters the reproductive stage.
plant’s ability to translocate water and ON CORN GRAIN YIELD plant, and green in color, continues to Diseases like Gray Leaf Spot, Northern Fungicides have various modes of
nutrients and also reduces standability. & Southern Leaf Blight, Common action including electron blockers
Plants with stalk bruising should have PERCENT LEAF AREA DESTROYED function and contribute to grain filling.
Only leaf tissue completely removed, or & Southern Rust, Anthracnose and within the mitochondria or specific
their stalks split to determine the LEAF STAGE* 20 40 60 80 100 Eyespot can quickly reduce a crop’s enzyme blockers which limit the
severity of the bruising. Plants with brown in color, should be considered
PERCENT YIELD LOSS when determining the percentage of green leaf area, photosynthetic fungal ability to metabolize nutrients
damage extending beyond the leaf capacity and grain (starch) yield. In to fuel their growth. The need for
sheaths and into the pith either will 7 0 1 4 6 9 leaf area destroyed or removed.
addition, reduced photosynthesis can foliar fungicide applications for corn
not recover or likely will have large 8 0 1 5 7 11 Stalk breakage, often referred to as cause depletion of stalk carbohydrates disease management has increased
reductions in yield. Fields with severe greensnap, may occur because of during ear fill, resulting in higher risk of due to a number of factors, from the
stalk bruising should be harvested 9 0 2 6 9 13 high velocity winds. Stalk breakage stalk rots and lodging. increase in continuous corn acres, and
early to avoid significant losses from 10 0 4 8 11 16 can occur any time after corn plants reduced tillage practices, to variable
stalk lodging. have reached knee high, but most The goal of fungicide application
*Leaf stage corresponds to number of leaves, which are arched over, and pointing downward. is to protect yield by preventing environmental conditions. Factors
Some plants that are severely Source: Hicks, D. The Corn Growers Field Guide For Evaluating Crop Damage And Replant Options
frequently occur in the one-to two- influencing hybrid yield response to
foliar fungicide include: environmental non-treated corn to corn treated with lesions by tasseling and silking (VT- Silage growers have also questioned 4) residual activity, 5) curative properties, foliar fungicides. The most damaging
conditions and weather patterns, a foliar fungicide between tasseling R1). This level of infection, at such an if fungicide application would have 6) adjuvant recommendations, 7) diseases affecting corn after hail are
disease pressure, previous crop and and brown silk. Across these trials, the early growth stage, will likely increase any negative effect on the anaerobic redistribution capability to ensure bacterial and fungicides have no effect
tillage, hybrid disease susceptibility, average yield response to fungicide in severity and reach the economic bacteria plant populations which coverage deep in the leaf canopy and 8) on these bacterial diseases.
hybrid maturity and planting date. application was an increase of 7.9 threshold of over 15% leaf area infection are responsible for fermentation in required time from application to harvest. Do not expect fungicides to always
There are strong opinions on both bushels/acre. While yield response resulting in a significant decline in the silages that are not inoculated with a Research to date suggests that foliar return a profit, nor to necessarily
sides of the fungicide debate. varied from location to location and year ability of the plant to deposit starch commercial product. The fact is that fungicides do not consistently reduce reduce mold and mycotoxin problems.
Recommendations from the University to year due to different environmental throughout the reproductive stages. foliar fungicides inhibit aerobic fungi and disease or increase yield in hail- However, there is data suggesting that
of Wisconsin suggest that there is not conditions, a positive yield response Some growers also apply fungicide at do not have an effect on the anaerobic, damaged corn. While there is still fungicides can be a very effective tool
a consistent economic return from due to fungicide application occurred V5-V6 when side dressing nitrogen or natural (epiphytic) plant-borne bacteria debate on the subject, University of for managing foliar diseases and deliver
fungicide usage and that growers in 82% of the trials. applying herbicide, but unless scouting that initiate silage fermentation. Minnesota plant pathologists agree healthier plants with higher grain (starch)
should focus primarily on hybrid There does seem to be agreement reveals early fungal infections, it may Practical issues to discuss with with studies at Iowa State University content. Modern fungicides should
resistance to foliar diseases. Results as to conditions which favor foliar be best to wait until more leaf area is an agronomist or chemical sales and the University of Illinois that there certainly be considered as a defensive
of a three-year joint research study fungicide applications. These include: exposed (around tasseling, VT), given professional when selecting a is no consistent increase in corn or insurance-type management tool,
by the University of Tennessee and that most foliar diseases don’t become fungicide include: 1) disease threshold diseases are due to hail damage, especially in challenging, high-yield
1) planting hybrids susceptible to foliar
Pioneer further reinforces the need to entrenched until later in the growing considerations, 2) r e c o m m e n d e d with the exception of common environments with hybrids susceptible
diseases, 2) fields with high residue,
focus on hybrid selection. The study season (after pollination) and that the timing of application(s), 3) any aerial smut, Goss’s leaf blight and wilt, and to foliar disease.
such as corn-following-corn, and
showed that the probability of a positive average residual period is typically only application limitations in your State, possibly stalk rots and none of these
no-till or strip-till, 3)extended warm,
economic return from using a fungicide 7-21 days. diseases are managed effectively with
wet, humid growing conditions and 4)
was directly related to the susceptibility planting at very high populations. While There have been limited fungicide
of a hybrid to the predominant leaf no research data exists on narrow-row studies with corn silage, although
diseases in that growing environment.
It is clear that corn grain and corn silage
silage corn (15 inch rows), this may also
contribute to a high-humidity, micro-
benefits derived for grain corn should
similarly benefit silage growers. A
FERTILITY
growers should fine-tune their hybrid environment more conducive to foliar 2007 field trial conducted by University Soil nutrient tests prior to planting testing, prior to planting, can inform phosphorus values at or near 20 ppm
selection process by assessing hybrid diseases. Later planted fields and/or of Wisconsin extension specialists can inform growers of the various growers of the various amounts of (Bray Test) or 16 ppm (Olsen Test)
disease ratings for foliar diseases. later maturing hybrids may also respond showed that fungicide treatment amounts of nutrients in the soil which nutrients available to the crop. General has been shown to optimize yield
Contrast that with research from the better to fungicide treatments because resulted in a 0.7 ton increase in silage are available to the crop. Soil nutrient thumb-rules of nutrient availability are responses. Potassium soil test levels
University of Illinois that showed an they are in the important grain filling dry matter yield, a 2% unit increase credits can be subtracted, or credited that nutrient uptake begins before should be maintained at 100 to 150
average 7.6 bushel per acre yield period as foliar disease development in starch content and reduced stalk from the total nutrient requirement to emergence, nutrient uptake is low ppm. At 150 bushels/acre yield, there
advantage to fungicide treatment peaks in late summer. lodging. There was also a 1.8% unit grow a corn silage crop based on yield early in the season, but nutrients are approximately 187 lbs of K2O in the
over the past three growing seasons The use of fungicides does not eliminate increase in NDFD but it is still debatable goals. Credits can be taken for previous surrounding the root must be high and grain and stover or about 11 lbs of K2O
and when the crop was under high the need for spending time walking if NDFD is really impacted by fungicide legume crop, manure application and nutrient deficiencies can be identified per ton of silage.
disease pressure, anywhere from a the crop and scouting for diseases. application. While these increases N in irrigation water. Corn silage fertility through plant symptoms. Corn grain removes approximately
15-20 bushel per acre yield response. This is especially true if considering were not statistically significant, they do programs must compensate for the Nutrients required for a corn silage crop one pound of nitrogen per bushel
Consistent with the Illinois research, early season fungicide applications appear biologically and economically large amount of nutrients removed with are determined largely by expected harvested, and stover production
ten small-plot research locations (e.g. prior to the 5th leaf collar stage) encouraging. This study also found the whole plant. Soil fertility can improve yields. The table below shows the requires a half-pound for each bushel
harvested in 2009 by Pioneer showed which can be attractive by eliminating no significant reduction in mold, yeast the forage quality of corn silage primarily nutrient amounts removed per ton of of grain produced. Nitrogen rates
fungicide yield responses varied one application expense when mixing and mycotoxin levels, but it should by enhancing grain yields. harvested silage. Crop availability of should be increased by about 20 lbs/
from 0.6 bushel to 22.6 bushels per fungicide with a post-emergence be noted that even the untreated
The starting point is proper soil sampling nutrients in the soil varies depending acre compared to grain requirements
acre depending on disease pressure herbicide. Plant pathologists suggest plots were essentially devoid of mold
to establish the residual amounts of N, on factors such as soil pH, compaction to help maximize nutrient yields of the
and hybrid susceptibility. Between that fungicide application should be contamination. The ability of fungicides
P, and K (nitrogen, phosphorus and and other various factors. corn silage crop. Only a portion of this
2007 and 2015, Pioneer researchers considered if infection has moved to reduce mold needs further research
potassium) and applying supplemental Phosphorus is removed at the rate amount needs to be supplied by N
conducted 1,241 agronomy fungicide up through the leaf canopy such that as they would not prevent spores
amounts according to the yield of 35 lbs/10 tons of silage harvested. fertilizer; N is also supplied by the soil
trials comparing yield and moisture of over 5% of the ear leaf area contains infecting the ear by entering silk
potential of the field. Soil nutrient Maintaining soil plant-available through mineralization of soil organic
channels during pollination.
COMMON NUTRIENT DEFICIENCY
IN-SEASON SYMPTOMS IN CORN
VT - R1 R6 NITROGEN FERTILITY
NITROGEN
• One of the most important nutrients.
• Uptake continues until near maturity.
• Most prone to loss by leaching
• Can be translocated from plant parts to
from:
develop grain
V3 • High rainfall
• Nitrogen deficiency appears as a yellowish
• Excessive irrigation
coloration in a “V” pattern progressing from leaf
• De-nitrification into the end to collar and from lower to upper leaves.
atmosphere
POTASSIUM
EFFICIENCY OF • Need is completed soon after silking
NITROGEN USE BY THE • Can be translocated from plants to develop
grain
CROP (HIGHEST TO LOWEST)
• Potassium deficiency appears as yellow and
63% of plant N taken up by flowering 37% of plant N taken up by post-flowering 1. Sprinkler applied during rapid brown coloration of the leaf margins which
growth phases (V6-VT) occurs first on the lower leaves and can
Grain 62% from 38% 2. Side-dress just before rapid growth progress to the upper leaves.
N: post-flowering uptake remobilized N phases
PHOSPHORUS
3. Post-plant incorporated
• Uptake continues until near maturity.
4. Pre-plant incorporated
• Can be translocated from plant parts to
matter. On highly productive soils, N continued N uptake from the soil. yield potential, 140 to 210 lbs N/acre is 5. Fall application for next years crop
develop grain
mineralization will often supply the Ensuring a season-long N supply is needed to support grain development.
majority of N needed by the crop. critical for maximizing yield of starch. Approximately 38% of this demand is • Phosphorus deficiency appears as a purple
By silking maturity (R1), corn has remobilized from vegetative tissue with IN-SEASON FERTILITY coloration of the lower leaves.
Nitrogen for grain development
originates from both remobilized taken up approximately 63% of its the remainder supplied from continued • “Starter Fertilizer” near the root SULFUR
N (from vegetative tissues) and N requirement for the season. The uptake after flowering. In high yield zone is beneficial to early plants • Sulfur deficiency is a general yellowing
remainder is taken up during the grain- environments, post-flowering N uptake • Fertilizer should be placed in the similar to nitrogen deficiency, except the
NUTRIENT fill period (R1 to R6). For high grain can range from 85 to 130 lbs N/acre. “2 inch x 2 inch band” around the young upper leaves have more pronounced
REQUIREMENTS seed symptoms because sulfur is not mobile in the
PER TON OF SILAGE plant.
2 inches 2 inches
HARVESTED to the side to the side ZINC
(30% DRY MATTER) • Zinc deficiency can be induced by copper hoof
treatment programs in wastewater from dairy
POUNDS 2 inches below operations
PLANT REQUIRED
NUTRIENT PER TON • Fertilizer placed too close can • Corn has high zinc requirements compared to
Nitrogen 8 cause salt damage to a young other crops
plant • Zinc may be deficient in sandy soils, other
Phosphate (P2O5) 4
• Roots are not attracted to the low organic soils such as those with topsoil
Potassium (K2O) 8 fertilizer, so it needs to be placed removed or soils with high pH.
Sulfur 1 where roots will be • Seedlings may show deficiencies during cool, wet weather.
• Zinc deficiency appears on the upper leaves. The yellowing between the
Zinc .007 veins begins in the leaf middle and progresses outward.
atmospheric factors. The amount of Crop factors such as stage of a significant impact on grain yield.
MANAGING WEEDS water available for corn plants from the
soil is determined by soil texture, water
development, rooting depth, planting
density and amount of crop residue all
However, silage yields will be reduced
due to shorter plants when corn is
Weeds compete with corn for light, resistant weeds. Chemical control is incorporated, pre-emergence, or post- holding capacity, infiltration rate and impact ET from the crop standpoint. moisture-stressed during the vegetative
nutrients and water, reduce silage feed effective when weed populations are emergence), translocation in the plant ease of giving up moisture. For example, Crop residue can have a significant growth stages. The corn plant needs
quality at the later stages of growth and high and cultivation is not economical (contact or systemic), persistence, the higher the salt concentration in effect on evaporation of water from the the most moisture from about silking
can harbor destructive insect pests. A or feasible. or site of action. Understanding how the soil, the harder it is for the plant soil surface. A University of Nebraska through the blister stage. After blister
vigorous well-growing crop is the best Herbicides can provide cost-effective herbicides work provides insight into to extract water. Atmospheric factors study found that residue on the soil stage, the plant is again fairly immune
defense against weed infestations and weed control while minimizing labor. how to use the chemicals and helps include the amount of solar radiation, surface saved 3 to 4 inches of irrigation to water deficiency and irrigation can be
competition. Studies show that the However, improper herbicide use diagnose performance problems and air temperature, humidity and wind water compared to bare soil plots. terminated when the kernel milk line is at
“critical period” for preventing yield- may result in crop injury, poor weed related injury symptoms. The best speed. High solar radiation and air about 50 percent (R5.5).
During the vegetative growth of the corn
reducing weed interference in corn control, herbicide resistant weeds, source of information for herbicide temperatures, low humidity, clear skies plant, it is relatively drought tolerant and Drought can result in plants ranging
is from the V2 to V3 growth stage environmental contamination, or use is the herbicide label. Always and high wind raise ET. Cloudy, cool and can survive upwards of 60 percent soil from barren plants with no ears or starch
until V12 (approximately three weeks health risks. Herbicides kill plants in apply herbicides according to label calm days reduce evapotranspiration. water depletion in the root zones without content to varying levels of starch (grain)
through eight weeks after planting). different ways and must meet several directions.
A combination of cultural, mechanical, requirements to be effective. It must Grain yield winners in the NCGA
and chemical weed control procedures
will typically give the best results. Cultural
come in contact with the target weed,
be absorbed by the weed, move to
contest typically have more than
one mode of action in their weed CORN WATER USE
practices that keep fence lines, ditches the site of action in the weed, and management program. Most included
n Crop evapotranspiration (ET) is driven by the drying n Seasonal ET also is affected by growth stage,
and wasteland areas free of weeds will accumulate sufficient levels at the site both pre- and post-emergence
that the atmosphere exerts on soil/plant surfaces. growing season length, soil fertility, water availability
lower rates of weed infestations, as will of action to kill or suppress the target treatments. A pre-emergence followed
For corn plants range is 0.1 to 0.4 inches/day. and interactions of these factors
thoroughly cleaning tillage and harvest plant. Herbicides may be classified by post-emergence herbicide program
equipment before entering or leaving according to selectivity (nonselective, is likely to be the most reliable and • ET is increased by high solar radiation and air n Seasonal ET ranges from about 24 inches (~600 mm)
a field. Cultivation will sever or bury grass control, broadleaf control, effective under a wide range of growing temperatures, low humidity, clear skies and in the humid area of eastern Nebraska to 28 inches
weeds and is effective for herbicide- etc.), time of application (pre-plant environments. high wind. (~700 mm) for the arid southwest US
• ET is decreased by cloudy, cool and calm days.
IMPACT OF MOISTURE AND GROWING ENVIRONMENT 0.5

Tassel
12 Leaf Blister kernel
Moisture stress
The influence of growing conditions 30 inches in the more arid West. One and transport it to small openings in 0.4 early may increase Milking
(especially moisture) is a major source inch of water per acre is about 27,000 the leaves (stomata) where it exits into
Crop water use (in/day)

NDFD but will result
of the nutritional variability seen within gallons. A corn crop requiring 24 inches the atmosphere. Transpiration cools in shorter plants and Beginning dent
hybrids across years and locations. of moisture would need about 648,000 corn plants to optimize photosynthesis 0.3 less biomass yield
Researchers at the University of gallons of water. If that crop yielded a and growth. The ratio of evaporation
Illinois attributes 19% of the grain yield national average of 175 bushels per to transpiration changes as crops Maturity
0.2
performance to hybrid genetics, with acre, each bushel would require about mature and shade more soil. When
Moisture stress late
the remaining influence being the result 3,700 gallons of water. crops are young and leaf surface area does not impact NDFD
0.1 A
of weather (27%), nitrogen (26%), Crop water use, often referred to as is small, soil evaporation accounts for but can reduce grain
previous crop (10%), plant population most of the moisture loss. As the corn (starch) and tonnage.
evapotranspiration (ET) consists of soil
(8%), tillage (6%) and growth evaporation (E) and crop transpiration plant matures and canopies the soil, 0.0
regulators (4%). (T). In practical terms, ET describes transpiration becomes a significant 04/10 05/10 06/09 07/09 08/08 09/07 10/07
A high-yielding corn crop requires water in (or on) soils or plants cause of moisture loss.
Long-term daily average (black line) and individual year (green line) corn water use by growth stage from Kranz et al. (2008)
between 20 to 24 inches of water in converted to atmospheric water vapor. The corn crop’s need for water is an
the Midwest and upwards of 28 to Corn plants extract water from the soil interaction between plant, soil and
EFFECTS OF MOISTURE STRESS
CORN YIELD RESPONSE TO WATER Pioneer LaSalle, CO Research Station Pla
nt
n Under water-limited conditions, corn grain Timing of drought stress research He
igh
yields typically are associated positively with 300 t
total seasonal water use
250
• At 20 inches of available water (stored soil
Grain Yield (bu/acre)

water + seasonal precipitation + irrigation), 200
potential grain yield should be near 200 150
bu/acre
100
• With only 10 inches, maximum of
50 bu/acre can be expected 50
n Water stress during critical reproductive
growth (pollination) significantly lowers yield 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
potential Total Seasonal Crop Use or ET (inches)
Relationship of grain yield to total seasonal crop water use or Ear

n Understanding this relationship helps one
make agronomic management decisions
evapotranspiration (ET) from Grassini et al (2009)
Grain Fill Flowering Vegetative Full Water Siz
e
regarding hybrid selection, plant population, Stress = normal Stress = normal Stress = shorter
fertilization rate, and irrigation timing plant height but plant height but plants but
lower starch driving lower starch driving reasonable
less silage yield less silage yield starch yield
depending upon stress at pollination before planting: Research at Cornell University
and subsequent kernel abortion. 1) plant deeper (2 to 3 inches) to ensure suggests that moderately cool and
Energy will be partitioned more into moisture for germination, dry growing conditions improve corn
sugar and fiber in the stalk and leaves 2) prevent water evaporation from the silage nutritional quality and slight
rather than to grain. Studies conducted soil surface with residue on the soil moisture stress stimulates seed
by Michigan State University indicate surface, (grain) production. Cool temperatures
that severely stressed corn (short 3) minimize spring tillage and till at (especially at night) appear to inhibit
plants with essentially no ears), still had shallower depths, secondary cell wall development which
a feeding value of approximately 70% can negatively impact fiber digestibility. Ker
nel
4) work and plant fields as quickly as Num
of normal corn silage due to the highly The growing conditions before and after ber
possible,
digestible fiber and sugar content. Due silking (R1) affects corn silage nutritive
to the potential variability, it is important 5) minimize anhydrous ammonium
injury by applying at an angle and 8 to values in different ways. In general, dry
to analyze droughty corn silage for (or limited irrigation) conditions during
dry matter, NDF, uNDF, NDFD, sugar, 10 inches deep,
6) plant early as possible so corn the vegetative stages of plant growth
starch and nitrates (%NO3 or ppm shortens plant stature, but enhances
pollinates during less stressful times of
NO3-N) and consider segregating
storage based on fields that may have the growing season and fiber digestibility (Neutral Detergent 127 bu/A 138 bu/A 164 bu/A 226 bu/A
Fiber Digestibility, NDFD). Higher than
relatively lower nutritional value. 7) weed control is essential because Source: Soderlund, S., F. N. Owens and C. Fagan. 2013. Field experience with drought-tolerant corn.
normal temperatures tend to moderate
weeds compete with corn for moisture, Presentation at the Joint Annual Meeting of the American Dairy Science Association (ADSA) and American Society of Animal
University of Wisconsin agronomists the positive effect that low moisture Science (ASAS), Indianapolis, Indiana, July 2013.
and dry conditions reduces the
recommend the following practices if has on improving NDFD. Wetter than
effectiveness of most herbicides.
there is concern for drought conditions normal conditions during vegetative
EFFECT OF HYBRID TYPE, WATER LEVEL AND PLANT POPULATION INFLUENCE OF MOISTURE total plant digestibility. University It has been well established that
STRESS AT VARIOUS and seed company research shows growing environment is 3-times more
ON 24-HOUR NDFD (PIONEER RESEARCH, LASALLE, CO 2011) minimal genetic differences (3-4 influential on fiber digestibility than
50 GROWTH STAGES ON percentage units) between non-BMR hybrid genetics and that moisture-
CORN GRAIN YIELD hybrids for NDFD. The large variation stress is 7-times more important to
55 55.3
STAGE OF % YIELD in NDFD observed from farm-to-farm fiber digestibility (or uNDF) than heat
DEVELOPMENT REDUCTION
54.9 and season-to-season are the result of units.
Early Vegetative 5 - 10% environmental factors such as growing Corn breeders are very interested
54 conditions and harvest timing. This is
Tassel Emergence 10 - 25% in the interaction between genetics
why corn silage growers in the Midwest and environment (GxE). If GxE (in a
s
tres
Silk/Pollen Shed 40 - 50% and East, with fewer irrigated acres
53 statistical sense) is significant, it means
% NDFD, 24-hour in vitro
and more weather variability, struggle
er s
Blister Kernel 30 - 40% hybrids grown in different environments
more with quantifying and managing
wat
52.5 could rank differently for any particular
52 52.3 52.3 52.2 Dough 20 - 30% corn silage digestibility.
ing
52.0 51.9
s
rea
51
GROWING ENVIRONMENT EFFECT ON THE SAME HYBRIDS GROWN
Inc
IN MSU SILAGE PLOTS IN 2006 (WET YEAR) VS. 2007 (DROUGHT YEAR)
50
50.1 70
49.9
2007
49 2006
60
48 Hybrid Water Supply Plant Population
b a b c c b a a a a 50
47
109-day 113-day 114-day 116-day High Moderate Limited 24K/A 36K/A 48K/A
% NDFD, 48 HR, %NDF

Non-BMR BMR Optimum® Non-BMR No effect of plant
AQUAmax™ population on NDFD
Hybrid 40
a,b,c Means within rows with different superscripts differ at P<.05
growth, while improving whole-plant midrib (BMR) hybrid (hybrid #10), but more biologically pertinent comparison
30
yield (taller plants), tends to reduce that nearly half of the conventional would be to compare starch content
fiber digestibility. hybrids grown in the drought year were (which dilutes the fiber) and amount
Data from Michigan State University higher in NDFD than the BMR grown of undigestible NDF (uNDF) which has
in the wet year. Even if the laboratory been shown to be highly correlated 20
silage plots harvested in a relatively wet
growing season (2006) compared to estimate of NDFD of the non-BMR with dry matter intake potential of the
the same hybrids harvested from the hybrids look higher than the BMR feedstuff.
same plot in a relatively dry growing hybrid, the BMR silage will tend to drive During the reproductive growth stages, 10
season (2007). Hybrids averaged higher intakes among cattle because of environmental growing conditions
6.5 points higher in 24-hour NDFD in the lower lignin and fragility of the BMR appear to exert little impact on NDFD,
the drought year. It was interesting to cell walls. It is not biologically valid to but does have considerable influence 0
note that, as expected, the highest compare BMR to non-BMR hybrids on kernel starch deposition (grain 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
NDFD in both seasons was a brown with regards to NDFD alone. Perhaps a yield), starch: fiber ratios and ultimately Each block color indicates a different plot location where the same hybrid was grown in both years
CORN SILAGE SUMMARY
trait. Compare this to environmental silage yield, starch content and 24- multiple years to account for unique
influence on genetics, meaning they will hour NDFD of the same hybrid grown yearly environmental effects. Data from
rank similar across environments, but in 14 locations in Michigan in 2009. a single plot is almost meaningless due
Corn silage yield and quality are determined by the interaction of the relative magnitude of difference will This clearly demonstrates why it is not to variability caused by factors including
depend on the particular environment. valid to attribute hybrid genetics as the soil compaction, previous crop history,
G x E x M (Genetics, Environment, Management) It could also indicate the absolute primary cause of nutritional differences fertility/manure history, soil type, water
values will change with no change in when comparing hybrids grown on availability, tillage, and insect damage.
SILAGE YIELD the relative hybrid differences between
environments. The impact of GxE
different farms. This is also why seed
companies and university plots only
To put a single plot in perspective, on
average soil with 150 bushels/acre
is primarily driven by biomass (plant height at the ear) and starch content. explains why seed companies do so compare hybrids grown in the same yield potential, a hybrid with a 2-ton
• Starch (grain) typically contributes half of silage dry matter yield. much testing to determine the area location (side-by-side). per acre (30% DM) advantage has only
of adaptation of hybrids. There is no Research by corn breeders suggest a 60% chance of being the superior
• Silage yield is influenced by: harvest timing (more mature kernels delivering higher tonnage), seed genetics indication that nutritional characteristics silage yielding hybrid. The odds of
and planting date in addition to the more obvious growing environment factors of weather, soil, and fertility. that to be 95% confident in selecting the
are any more susceptible to best hybrid for silage yield or nutritional selecting the superior yielding silage
environmental interactions than either traits, approximately 20 direct, side- hybrid increase to 95% with a 2-ton
FEED QUALITY grain or whole-plant yield. by-side comparisons (in the same yield advantage demonstrated across
30 individual silage plots.
The figure below shows the relative plots), are required, preferably across
is primarily driven by starch content and secondly by fiber digestibility.
FIBER DIGESTIBILITY STARCH CONTENT STARCH DIGESTIBILITY

is influenced 3-times more by is primarily driven by genetics refers to the amount of starch digested YIELD STARCH CONTENT AND 24-HOUR NDFD
growing conditions than genetics. and growing environment. in the rumen and the intestines. OF THE SAME HYBRID GROWN
• Dry, cool weather, particularly • Drought and/or disease • Starch digestibility is influenced by kernel IN MULTIPLE MICHIGAN LOCATIONS IN 2009
during vegetative growth, tends to during plant reproductive maturity and extent of kernel processing at
increase fiber digestibility. growth lowers starch the chopper. Whole-Plant Yield, 30% DM Starch, % NDFD %, 24 HR, % NDF
• Hot, wet growing conditions tend content. • The ensiling process, in particular the 49.0
to decrease fiber digestibility. • High chopping increases length of time in storage, significantly
starch concentration increases starch digestibility.
T/A @ 30% DM / % Starch / % NDF

• BMR genetics were introduced
to improve fiber digestibility (and often improves fiber • Very little difference in starch digestibility 43.0
because very little variation in fiber digestibility. exists among dent hybrids grown in North
digestibility exists between non- America when harvested at similar kernel 37.0
BMR hybrids grown in the same maturities. These small genetic differences
environment and harvested at the are dwarfed by the influence of harvest
same maturity. maturity, processing, and storage effect. 31.0
25.0
SUMMARY:
Silage growers should focus on genetics (G) with appropriate disease/trait package and yield stability for your
growing environment. Choose genetics that deliver high biomass yield (taller plants) and high starch content. For the 19.0
ity
le
d
ac
lia
ie
are
er
ky
highest fiber digestibility, choose BMR genetics. Beyond that, the growing environment (E) (moisture, heat units,
sto
dis
Alt
lan
vil
Els
ck
er
er
ha
nC
us
ran
Cl
se
wl
wl
an
ay
De
ard
tp
nd
disease) is the primary driver of yield and quality. At harvest, management (M) around harvest timing (higher yield with
Sa
rso
Ca
Fo
Fo
W
St
es
Sa
bb
Ca
W
more mature kernels), chop height and degree of kernel processing (biggest influence on starch digestibility) are the
Hu
Source: Dann Bolinger, M.S. – DuPont Pioneer Dairy Specialist, Michigan
primary influencers.
ALFALFA ALFALFA SEEDLING GROWTH AND ESTABLISHMENT
Alfalfa is very small with about 220,000

seeds per pound. This makes proper ALFALFA GERMINATION AND EMERGENCE Unifoliate leaf
planting and seed placement critical Trifoliate leaf
Unifoliate leaf
to the success of a stand. Alfalfa • Begins after seeds absorb approximately 125%
germination and seedling emergence of their weight in water and swell, breaking the Trifoliate leaves
occur in 3-7 days depending upon seed coat
soil moisture and temperature • Ideal temperature is 65-77° F (18-25°C)
conditions. Alfalfa seed can germinate
Cotyledons
at temperatures above 37ºF but
optimum soil temperature is between • The radicle emerges through the seed coat • Cotyledons are the first visible • The second leaf to appear is a • As leaves develop, cotyledons
65-77ºF. Higher soil temperatures • Radicle anchors itself in the soil as an unbranched portion of an alfalfa seedling as trifoliate leaf (three leaflets) fall off
facilitate increased metabolic activity taproot it emerges – Some varieties produce multi- – Alfalfa plant adds new shoots
and water movement into the seed. • The first true leaf to develop foliate leaves (four or more in their place
Under good growing conditions, the is a unifoliate leaf (one leaflet) leaflets per leaf) • At the two-leaf stage, the seedling
• As the radicle grows, portion nearest the seed
seedling is fully developed by 10 to 15 – Leaf stages are counted by can manufacture all of its energy
forms a hook
days after planting. the number of fully expanded through photosynthesis
• Seedling emerges through the soil’s surface
trifoliate leaves
• Drags cotyledons and seed coat with it Photos courtesy of University of Madison-Wisconsin
• Small root hairs develop on the lower radicle

• Absorb water and nutrients from the soil
Photos courtesy of University of Madison-Wisconsin
ALFALFA CROWN FORMATION AND DEVELOPMENT
Within four weeks of germination, root low soil pH or heavy nitrogen (manure) • The crown is the area between the soil surface and the cotyledonary nodes
hairs on the radicle become infected application during seeding year. – Growth points
with a nitrogen fixing bacteria and Within about four months, the lower- Nitrogen • Contractile growth pulls the lowermost axillary buds below ground to form
begin to form nodules. Atmospheric fixing
most buds have been completely nodules crown buds
nitrogen fixation occurs within these pulled into the ground forming the
Nitrogen nodules, which results in the availability – Begins as early as one week after emergence
fixing crown. Winterhardy varieties have
nodules of nitrogenous compounds for their several nodes pulled below the soil – Usually complete within 16 weeks
host plants. Only Rhizobium meliloti will surface in the seeding year. This is • Crown buds are formed during the fall
infect alfalfa root hairs as other strains termed contractile growth and involves
of the bacteria cannot infect alfalfa. – Source of growth the following spring
a shortening and widening of the cells
Approximately 5% of alfalfa root hairs in the upper portion of the primary root • Plants with deep crowns are more persistent
become infected with the bacteria, as a result of carbohydrate storage.
but only about 30% of these infections Lowermost buds have been pulled – Increased soil protection from cold temperatures
This pulls the lower stem nodes 1-3 below ground to form the crown.
result in nodule formation. The alfalfa inches beneath the soil surface and
plant can utilize soil nitrogen should improves winter survival of the crowns.
nodulation not occur as in the case of
Spring growth occurs from the CARBOHYDRATE RESERVES IN ALFALFA ROOTS
crown buds relying on carbohydrate
reserves contained in the root and 50 ALFALFA VEGETATIVE GROWTH ALFALFA BUD DEVELOPMENT
crown. Following harvest, subsequent 45 SPRING GREEN-UP EARLY BUD
Typically need 6-8 inches of growth before enough
plant growth is primarily from the leaves to replenish carbohydrate root reserves. • Growth comes from crown buds formed the previous • Buds form in the top 1 or 2 leaf axils
40
crown buds, but can also be from year during late summer and fall • Appear as small swellings in leaf axils
the auxiliary buds (where the leaf 35
• Occurs when the buds located in the crown begin to • Forage cut at this stage will be very high quality
attaches to the stem) if cutting is high 30 grow in response to warm spring temperatures
enough. Vegetative growth of alfalfa
25 • Timing of spring green-up depends on :
is comprised of three stages: early
– Plant health
vegetative, mid vegetative, and late 20
– Genetic fall dormancy of the variety
vegetative. During early vegetative 15 – Amount of dormancy developed in plants
growth alfalfa has insufficient leaf
10 during fall
area to produce enough energy from
photosynthesis to support growth. The 5
carbohydrates and nutrients stored in
the root and crown supply the energy Growth 6 to 8 Bud Full Mature
needed for regrowth. When the alfalfa Initiated in. tall Bloom Seed
Photo courtesy of University of Madison-Wisconsin

plant has reached approximately eight
inches tall, leaf area and photosynthesis vegetative development. Important to determining the number of stems
have increased. This will supply factors that impact plant growth during on each plant. A high leaf-to-stem
adequate energy for continued growth this stage include soil pH, fertility, ratio results in higher nutritional value
and replenishment of root and crown moisture, and pest pressure. (more protein from leaves and less fiber
carbohydrate reserves. The maximum from the stem). Leaf-to-stem ratio is
The growing conditions during the first
number of stems per plant and weight lower for spring compared to summer
two weeks following harvest are critical LATE BUD
of each stem are determined during regrowth and also declines as the plant
• Buds begin developing on three or more leaf
axils lower on the stem
ALFALFA GROWTH STAGES Alfalfa stems • Flower buds are large and lengthen rapidly
representing
MATURITY INDEX STATE OF MATURITY maturity index 0-6 REGROWTH AFTER CUTTING
0 Stem length less than 6 inches • Regrowth is primarily from crown buds
1 Stem length 6 to 12 inches – May also come from axillary buds if cutting is high
Photos courtesy of University of Madison-Wisconsin

• Number of stems that develop from axillary or crown
2 Stem length greater than 12 inches buds depends on:
Early bud, 1-2 nodes with visible buds, no flowers or – Variety
3 seed pods – Developmental stage at time of cutting
– Health of crown
Late bud, more than 2 nodes with visible buds, no visible – Cutting height
4 flowers/pods
• Maximum number of stems on a plant is determined
5 Early flower, 1 node with at least 1 open flower within 14 days after cutting
6 2 or more nodes with an open flower – Declines as plant matures
• Stress can reduce number of stems produced
Source: Cornell University.
during regrowth
AUTOTOXICITY
Growers are sometimes tempted to (more tightly bound in heavy soils), stand. If alfalfa directly follows alfalfa,
over-seed additional alfalfa into a thin temperature (warmer soils speed it is advised to kill the established
stand. The problem with over-seeding microbial degradation), rainfall (more stand in the year (fall) prior to (spring)
alfalfa stands over one year old with rain facilitates leaching) and tillage seeding. If alfalfa is planted in the same
additional alfalfa seed is autotoxicity. practices (plowing helps dilute and year in which the established stand
Alfalfa plants exhibit autotoxicity reduce levels). was killed, a late-summer seeding is
designed to reduce competition by the the best option followed by waiting at
The degree of autotoxicity is directly
production of chemical compounds least three weeks before re-seeding.
related to the amount of time between
which are toxic to other alfalfa Planting alfalfa into an established
killing the old stand and establishing
plants. When an alfalfa stand is killed stand to increase declining yields is not
the new stand. The University of
by winterkill, spraying or plowing, recommended. Research conducted
Wisconsin suggests the best way to
these compounds are released into at the University of Missouri showed
avoid autotoxicity is to rotate to some
the soil. The result is arrested root significant yield loss when new
other crop for at least a year before
development in new alfalfa seeds seedlings were planted within 8-16
seeding the same field back to alfalfa.
planted into the same field. The length inches of an existing plant.
All other options can lead to potential
of time these alfalfa-toxic compounds
yield losses in the newly established
are active is influenced by soil type
increases in maturity from vegetative

to full flower. Total alfalfa yield is a
YIELD VS QUALITY AT DIFFERENT GROWTH STAGES AUTOTOXICITY IN ALFALFA ZONE OF INFLUENCE
cumulative function of number and Forage Yield Stem Yield Leaf Yield Forage Quality Low survival of seedlings
weight of each individual stem. 100 close to existing plant
90 (70% yield loss)
Shortening days and declining
temperatures in the fall cause varieties 80
Survival at this distance
to change vegetative growth patterns. 70 but yield reduced by 25%
This typically results in winter hardening 60
when dormant alfalfa varieties alter No effect on yield
50
their metabolism in preparation for 6”
winter by using sugar as an anti-freeze 40
to protect the crown, crown buds and 30 16” When seed is sown into a declining thin stand,
roots in soil temperatures as low as most new seed will be within the affected distances;
20 24”
17ºF. During the winter, plant tissue therefore having little value in improving yield.
10
below the soil surface is insulated from
cold air temperatures by soil and layers 0
of snow. Without snow cover, extreme Veg. Bud 1st Flower Full Flower Post-Flower FERTILITY
cold may cause the soil temperature
to drop below 17ºF, which can kill or The Cornell University plant growth A soil test should be used to lime, P and K for new seedings. root nodules. Soil pH levels above 6.5
injure plants. Injured plants become staging scheme used in assessing determine fertility needs before ground provide the best environment for nodule
Alfalfa has a high requirement for
less vigorous and are slow to recover stand development is shown in the preparation. Phosphorus (P) is critical bacteria to fix nitrogen. Alfalfa has a
nitrogen because it is high protein
in the spring. accompanying charts. for healthy root development and high requirement for potash (K2O),
forage. There is no need to apply
potassium (K) is needed for high yields. and high yields require maintenance
nitrogen fertilizer because rhizobium
If needed, broadcast and incorporate applications in most soils. Try not to
bacteria fix nitrogen from the air in
exceed 200 lbs K2O per application ALFALFA NUTRIENT REMOVAL RATES most impactful alfalfa insect pest in the resistant alfalfa. New seeding of a Canada, but are a more significant
to avoid luxury consumption. It is not Eastern half of North America. There is leafhopper-resistant variety should problem in Western alfalfa production
POUNDS PER TON OF YEARLY REMOVAL YEARLY REMOVAL
recommended to seed alfalfa-grass in NUTRIENT ALFALFA DRY MATTER 4 TON DM YIELD 6 TON DM YIELD no reliable method to forecast damage, be scouted and managed similar to a regions.
fields where soil test potassium levels so scouting fields and using a sweep net non-leafhopper-resistant variety. As a
are medium to low. While the initial Nitrogen 60 240 360 is the only effective method to monitor thumb rule, spraying is justified when
stand may perform well, once the PLH activity. Once visible symptoms of leafhopper counts per ten sweeps
grass becomes established their root P205 12 48 72
hopperburn and plant stunting become of a sweep net exceeds the average
system will take up potassium to the evident, it is too late for corrective plant height in inches. For example,
detriment of the alfalfa. K20 60 240 360
action. The greatest impact on the crop if a field has eight inches of regrowth
Response to potassium is unlikely when Sulfur 5 20 30 is yield reduction. Severe damage can and ten representative sweeps yield
soil test for K2O exceeds 150 ppm. reduce crude protein content, taproot 16 leafhoppers, spraying is justified
Response to phosphorus is unlikely carbohydrate reserves and plant since leafhopper count exceeded plant
when soil test for P exceeds 15 ppm. Manure application can damage to offset the P2O5 usage. Be careful of regrowth. Harvesting can help reduce height in inches. If the field was planted
Sulfur deficiency is becoming more stands both from physical crown over-application of phosphate (P2O5) egg, nymph and adult populations, and to a leafhopper-resistant variety, a
common with reduced environmental damage and by inhibiting nodule when manure is a high proportion of harvesting severely damaged alfalfa leafhopper count three times the plant
sulfur emissions. Sulfur levels should bacterial activity. If manure must be the fertilization program. Soil fertility stands may be the only method to height is the threshold to consider
be closely monitored in high yield applied, choose the oldest stands or research has shown a tremendous initiate regrowth of stems. spraying; or in this example at least 24
situations, particularly in low organic those with the most grass. Manure effect on alfalfa yield and persistence, leafhoppers per ten sweeps.
If scouting and spraying is not
matter soils. Alfalfa may also respond to analysis can vary greatly, but in general however, there does not appear to be
controlling leafhoppers, then planting a Completing the list of most important
annual applications of boron, especially it takes ten tons of liquid dairy manure much of an effect of fertility on alfalfa
leafhopper-resistant variety is a logical pest resistance ratings are aphid and
in lighter-textured soils to replace the K2O removal of one ton nutritional quality.
choice. The threshold for spraying a nematode resistance. These are not
of alfalfa dry matter, but only three tons
leafhopper-resistant alfalfa variety is considered major problems in the
about three times that of non-leafhopper Midwest, or the Eastern U.S. and
WEED CONTROL IN ESTABLISHED STANDS
A dense canopy of alfalfa and a are several options for controlling an older stand. Using a glyphosate FUNGICIDES
frequent cutting schedule will tend to weeds in established stands, including resistant alfalfa variety along with
keep most weeds in check. However, herbicides which can be applied in- glyphosate herbicide often provides the The approval of several fungicides for requires about 0.1 to 0.2 tons per across larger acreages. Fungicides
some weeds begin growth when alfalfa season or during the dormant period. most flexibility for timing of applications use on alfalfa has spurred interest in acre of added yield to justify the price appear to offer most benefit in wet
is dormant, including winter annual Some herbicide options have long and is frequently the most economical this management tool to help reduce of fungicide and application when the growing seasons and a heavy crop
broadleaves like chickweed, henbit, residuals. Carefully consider weed system for maximizing yield, quality, stem and leaf diseases, allowing for crop is selling for upwards of $200 to when it is common to see leaves at
mustard species, and cheatgrass in species and rotational restrictions and stand life. higher harvestable yields. The response $250 per ton. the bottom of the plant yellowing and
the plains and western states. There when making a herbicide selection for to fungicides in university and industry falling off. Application in the fall may
The required yield improvement
trials has been very inconsistent across improve plant health to help stands
necessary to justify fungicide use is
locations and cuttings. Despite the lack weather the winter. Fungicides should
also less if growers are adding it to
DISEASE AND INSECT CONSIDERATIONS of consistent and statistically significant
results from small-plot research, farmer
tank mixes of insecticide that they are
already applying to control leafhoppers.
also be more beneficial in stands which
are harvested at later stages of maturity
testimonials seem to suggest many and thus more susceptible to greater
Alfalfa growers should place anthracnose; wilting diseases, understand the soil type and drainage Positive grower observations may also
producers are observing a positive leaf drop. Producer testimonials and
considerable emphasis on selecting (Bacterial wilt, Fusarium wilt and in fields where alfalfa is planted. be the result of greater variability in their
response to fungicide application. Even company literature suggest early
alfalfa varieties with disease resistance Verticillium wilt); and root rot diseases production- sized fields compared to
Alfalfa weevil larvae, potato leafhopper, though grower ability to measure small application to 6-8 inch tall alfalfa to
relative to where the crop will be grown. Phytophthora and Aphanomyces smaller, replicated research plot studies
aphids and other pests can limit yield, differences in yield may be challenging, prevent fungal growth rather than
The major diseases for which seed (Race 1 and Race 2). Root rot diseases in terms of canopy humidity levels,
quality and regrowth of alfalfa stands. it appears that many growers are thinking later maturity applications will
companies provide resistance ratings can be important selection criteria in fungal loads, trash content and less
The potato leafhopper (PLH) is the convinced of the economic advantage eliminate disease problems after they
include stem and crown diseases, heavier soils; therefore it is important to than optimum soil environments (low
of fungicide treatment given it only have become established.
pH, low fertility, poorly drained soils)
YIELD AND NUTRITIONAL IMPACT
OF GROWING ENVIRONMENT
Alfalfa genetics play a relatively small role Solar radiation (light) is the only Temperature accelerates plant
in nutritional quality differences. Rather, environmental factor promoting both development. Warm weather accelerates
it is growing environment and harvest yield and quality because light promotes NDF development and lignification
maturity that are the biggest drivers. It carbohydrate production. Shortening (every 1oC increase in temperature
is well documented that environmental photoperiod in the fall has a negative will generally decrease digestibility of
factors have a smaller effect on quality effect on digestibility but is somewhat forages 0.3-0.7 percentage units). High
than on yield. Most factors that limit offset by cooler temperatures. Cloudy heat units experienced by the crop
plant development (e.g. drought, cold weather reduces photosynthesis causing following first cutting is why second
weather) tend to reduce yields but low sugar and mobilization of nutrients cutting in North America tends to be
promote higher quality through altering resulting in higher proteins; both of which lower in NDFD than first or subsequent
leaf: stem ratio. A higher leaf: stem ratio limit pH decline if the crop is harvested cuttings. This is also the reason why
is nutritionally advantageous (if they are as silage. There are also more 5-carbon forages produced in more northern
retained through harvest) because alfalfa pentose sugars in fall harvested alfalfa latitudes or higher elevations (cooler
leaves contributing over 90% of the plant further contributing to the fermentation nights) tend to be of higher quality. In
protein as well as exhibit high NDFD challenge of producing 3-carbon lactic the spring, light and temperature are
compared to the stem. acids. Drought conditions reduce yield, positively correlated until June 21, after
but the resulting stunted, yet leafy which light decreases and temperature
Growing conditions which can negatively
plants are generally higher in protein and increases, reducing alfalfa quality. Fall
impact yield include low temperatures
digestibility due to the higher leaf: stem growing conditions are characterized by
without snow cover, winter freezing
ratio. The digestibility advantages would declining temperatures and decreasing
and thawing, ice sheeting, low soil
be greater if not offset by increased day length and light which are favorable
moisture levels, and spring desiccation
lignification due to high temperatures that for producing higher quality alfalfa.
of developing shoots and stems. The
typically accompany drought conditions.
biggest environmental factors influencing
alfalfa yields are temperature, water
deficiency, solar radiation, and soil fertility NDF DIGESTIBILITY (30-HOUR) BY CUTTING
a distant fourth. Growing conditions that
Grasses Mixed Legumes
promote the highest alfalfa quality are long 55
day lengths, cool nights and moderately 54
dry weather. Warm, wet weather tends to 53
produce the poorest quality alfalfa. Cool, 52
wet growing conditions produce high
51
quality alfalfa due to low NDF and low
50
lignification. However, getting the crop
% NDF
49
harvested in these conditions can be a
48
challenge with harvest delays resulting
47
in advancing plant maturity. Cool, wet
HAR VEST
conditions also increase the potential for 46
higher respiration or leaching losses and 45

1 2 3 4
fermentation/spoilage problems from Cutting
increased exposure to soil-borne fungi Source: 30-hour NDFD data from legumes (13261 samples), mixed grass/legumes (10158 samples),
and bacteria. and grasses (2407 samples) analyzed by NIR at Cumberland Valley Analytical Services
GENERAL CORN SILAGE
RECOMMENDATIONS Silage growers should note the date
when corn plants silk (R1) and count
ahead about seven weeks to begin
PROGRESSION OF MILK LINE
DURING R5 (DENT) STAGE AVERAGE
PER SUBSTAGE
checking fields for kernel maturity.
MATURITY AND MOISTURE
KERNEL DRY MATTER
The old thumb rule that corn will % KERNEL ACCUMULATION (% OF
reach silage maturity in 35-45 days R STAGE MOISTURE TOTAL DRY WEIGHT) GDU DAYS
Recommendations vary with different moisture for healthy corn silage plants (900 GDUs) after silking was based
5.0 60% 45% 75 3
silage crops and storage structures is 3/4 milk line (>62% moisture), around silage being harvested at 70%
(e.g. drier in vertical stave/sealed silos alfalfa silage at mid-late bud (55-65% moisture (30% dry matter). Modern
5.25 52% 65% 120 6
for prevent excess effluent). Proper moisture) (reduced lignin varieties can hybrids have improved late-season (1/4 milk line)
maturity assures adequate fermentable be harvest more mature), grass silage plant health so to avoid effluent and
sugars for silage bacteria and when stems start elongating (55-65% also significantly increase starch 5.5 40% 90% 175 10
(1/2 milk line)
maximum nutritional value for livestock. moisture), cereal or sorghum silages at deposition, it is now recommended to
Maturity and/or wilting times also have boot to soft-dough (55-65% moisture), delay harvest of healthy plants until the 5.75 37% 97% 205 14
(3/4 milk line)
a tremendous impact on moisture to high-moisture shelled corn (26-30% kernels are closer to ¾ milk line. Most
help exclude oxygen and thus reduce moisture), and snaplage/earlage (right of the difference between hybrids of 6.0 35% 100% 360 360
porosity of the silage. For “dairy quality” at kernel blacklayer when kernels are different relative maturities is between (Physiological Maturity)
forage, the “ideal” harvest maturity/ about 34-36% moisture). emergence and silking, not from silking
TOTAL (AVERAGE) 575 33
to the 62-68% whole-plant moisture
(38-32%DM) that is considered ideal © Iowa State University Extension
LENGTH OF CUT for corn silage.
It is difficult to offer generalized chop

length recommendations because
In general, shorter chop tends to
improve compaction in the storage
HOW TO DETERMINE MILK LINE
proper length depends on several structure and also increases surface 1. Break several representative dent
factors including: 1) the need for area of fiber (or kernels) to improve Butt end ears in half.
physically effective fiber (peNDF) levels rate of digestion by rumen bacteria of the ear
in the ration, 2) particle size of the or intestinal enzymes. Longer chop 2. Visually look at milk line of the
other dietary ingredients, 3) the type increases the peNDF of the feed; kernel in your hand holding
of storage structure, and 4) silage however, excessive length can the ear tip.
starch
compaction capabilities and unloading contribute to sorting by cattle in the 3. Sometimes visually
methods (e.g. silo unloaders, bunker feed bunk. It is best to work with the Germ side determination can be misleading
facers). Other factors affecting chop harvesting crew and nutritionist to so a more reliable method is
length include the need to chop decide on the proper compromise; to “bite” an individual kernel germ
finer to damage corn kernels if on- recognizing that particle length in the Starch side from the tip of the kernel until
Tip end
chopper processing is not available final ration is what is most important. of the ear you reach the hard starch area.
or if chopping longer to compensate Start at the feed bunk and work This will give a very accurate
for particle reduction from bagging or backwards as to the amount of each determination of how far down
feed mixing. feedstuff in the ration and how much the milk line has reached.
peNDF each one of those feeds need
to contribute to the entire diet.
Modern corn genetics with vastly contributing to reducing the moisture in premature black layer). (DM) content of the stover, not on DM fully green and growing but the kernel down from 30% dry matter to 38%
improved late-season plant health, the whole-plant and the also increasing Most people assume the kernel “air” content of the full plant (including the has reached the black layer stage as dry matter (70% to 62% moisture).
coupled with technologies such as the tonnage and energy density of the dries from the pericarp, but prior to ear) because it should vary primarily sometimes happens in geographies The combination of healthier plants in
foliar fungicides, allow for a plant that silage. black layer the general consensus is that due to health of the stover portion of producing very tall, healthy plants. the fall, the need for starch to increase
retains fiber digestibility much later into The continued health of the overall there is very little moisture movement the plant. Overall, this supports the idea that yield and digestibility and the ability to
the growing season. Late-season plant plant allows for continuation of across the pericarp. After black layer • Secondly, grain, being the driest kernel milk line should drive the time to achieve higher compaction densities in
health is also advantageous in growing photosynthesis and the deposition of (the two-way valve now closed), kernel portion of the plant, is still being start harvesting silage, not plant DM. bunkers/piles has allowed growers to
seasons lagging in heat units. Fiber sugar through the vascular system of dry down is through the pericarp deposited when plants are healthy. And secondly, high chop decisions to harvest corn silage at ¾ milk line rather
digestibility will be maintained longer the plant. In essence it is the “laying and dependent upon environmental The ear always is drier than the potentially improve NDFD should be than 1/3 to 1/2 milk line which was
into the fall even as harvest is delayed down of starch” in healthy plant that weather and genetics. Within hybrids stover, so an increase in the ear to based on stover DM and the amount of common in the past. Producers who
to allow the plant to deposit additional reduces the water content of the there appears to be varying genetic stover ratio increases not only the dead tissue (perhaps of the lowest foot lack the ability to process (roll) kernels
starch. Harvesting corn silage at the kernel. Thus, healthy plants are quicker difference in levels of porosity affecting total plant dry weight but also the of the plant in particular) and not on DM on the chopper may have to harvest at
ideal stage requires coordination at lowering their kernel moisture that their ability to dry down quicker than percentage of DM in the total plant. content of the entire plant. earlier kernel maturities and/or shorten
between the days required to plant, those that are impaired, drought, comparable maturity hybrids. This could indicate that waiting until the chop length to ensure adequate
the days required to harvest and the Research studies clearly show that kernel processing at the cutter head.
disease, etc.. The transformation of During corn maturation, the dry matter the plant is over 30% DM might not fiber digestibility declines only minimally
maturity of the hybrids planted. sugar to starch is dependent on the prevent seepage if the plant still is
of the entire plant, being composed in healthy corn plants as they dry
It is common for the corn plant to dry pathway remaining not only open but of stover and grain, increases for two
down in the fall about 0.5-1.0 points of steadily fed, in effect, a two way valve, reasons:
moisture per day, depending on drying at the kernel attachment to the cob. HIGHER HARVEST DRY MATTER INCREASES STARCH CONTENT
• First, the stover is drying as leaves
conditions. It is also common for corn It is clear what can happen when the
dry and stalks brown. Given that
WITH MINIMAL EFFECT ON REDUCING FIBER DIGESTIBILITY
silage to deposit 0.5-1.0 points of inputs lag (aborted kernels near the
starch per day until the kernel reaches tip) or where supply (and extremity, NDF digestibility decreases as plant IN HYBRIDS WITH EXCELLENT LATE-SEASON PLANT HEALTH
physiological maturity at black layer. farthest away from the source), slow tissue dies, NDFD also should be 100
Starch deposition is what is significantly the process (which can even induce dependent primarily on dry matter 96.1 95.2 94.1
Starch Digestibility (Processed)
80
Value, % of DM or of Nutrient
60
NDF Digestibility declines only minimally

47.2 45.3 44.3
40 41.2 39.3 38.4
NDF Content
30.9 33.4
27.5
Starch increases by as much a 1% point per day
20
18.0 16.7 15.3
Rather than target Sugar + Organic acid Content Target the harvest DM in this
harvest DM in this area to capture more starch
shaded area with little impact on NDFD
0
30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Silage Dry Matter, % Source: Dr. Fred Owens.
DuPont Pioneer Senior Research Scientist
respond differently to high chopping to a laboratory and analyzed for NDF growers with more corn than needed
ESTIMATING
CORN GRAIN YIELDS
HIGH CHOPPING depending upon growing conditions.
One approach to determining the
digestibility to see if high chopping was
worth the yield loss.
for silage (at normal chop heights) but
no economical way to harvest the crop
Harvesting corn silage at higher chop risk damaging equipment by hitting potential impact is to hand-harvest for grain. Raising chop height will also
This procedure is based on High-chop corn can be a practical
heights is used by some producers to stones. There is less potential gain in 5-10 representative plants at normal allow the crop to fit into limited storage
information used in developing management tool to boost corn
increase starch content and improve quality by raising chop height if normal chop height and at high chop height space and provide the nutritionist with
the “Corn Yield Calculator” slide silage NDFD, especially when hay or
neutral detergent fiber digestibility chop height is already high (greater at about one to two weeks prior to higher quality corn silage.
rule published by the University of haylage already in storage is low in
(NDFD). Research shows that than 8-10 inches). harvest. The samples can then be sent
Illinois: fiber digestibility. It can also be used by
increasing chop height by about 12 It typically does not make economic
inches can increase starch content sense to reduce silage yields by high
1. Count number of ears in by 2-3% units and increase NDFD by chopping brown mid-rib (BMR) hybrids
KERNEL PROCESSING
1/1000 acre. 2-4% units, depending on the specific because BMR stalks are already very
ROW WIDTH LENGTH EQUAL TO hybrid and growing season. The impact high in fiber digestibility. However,
(inches) 1/1000 A on yield depends to some extent on given that growing environment during Kernel processing of corn silage has equally important to have an easily- kernel processing. If left unattended,
the yield potential of the hybrid, but the vegetative growth stage also has an long been popular in Europe and started implemented field method to make the result will be a loss in energy as
15” 34’ 10”
in general, expect yield (35% DM impact on the NDFD of BMR genetics, to gain acceptance in North America processing adjustments as the crop unprocessed kernels escape ruminal
20” 26’ 1” basis) of the stover to drop by about in the late-90’s with the introduction of is being harvested. Pioneer has and intestinal digestion. Validation
there could be instances where wet
28” 18’ 8” 300 pounds per acre for every inch of growing conditions could justify high choppers that came from the factory developed a simple field test using of degree of kernel damage can be
higher chop height. chopping BMR, especially for very high with the kernel processor (on-board a 32-ounce cup. Producers are further accomplished by collecting
30” 17’ 5”
In some areas, such as California, production herds. roller mill) as standard equipment. The encouraged to sample several loads fecal samples from 10-12 cows and
36” 14’ 6” it is a common practice to chop as combination of higher dietary corn each hour by filling the cup level with submitting to a lab for fecal starch
Not all hybrids will behave the same
low as 2-3 inches; whereas in other silage inclusion rates coupled with silage; spreading the sample out and analysis. The goal is to have less
40” 13’ 1” when high-chopped as there appears to
regions like the Northeast, chopper higher dry matter silages to capture quickly picking out every whole and than 3-5% starch in feces. Levels
be a significant hybrid-by-environment
2. Select 3 representative ears operators harvest higher so as not to more starch has focused the need to half kernel. If that number exceeds 2-3 higher than that could indicate poor
interaction. This implies that hybrids will
and count the number of rows assure aggressive kernel damage. kernels, it is important to discuss with processing of corn silage (or other
of kernels and the number of There has been much debate about the chopper operator how to improve starch sources) resulting in inefficient
kernels per row for each. Do what level of kernel processing is use of dietary starch in addition
not count tip kernels that are acceptable. This was complicated by to possibly predisposing cows to
less than half size. the lack of a lab method to quantify the maladies such as hemorrhagic jejunum
extent of kernel damage and lack of (or bowel) syndrome (HJS or HBS).
3. Estimate the yield for EACH of accepted processing standards. This There are several factors that chopper
the 3 ears as follows: (Number changed with the commercialization of operators can check to improve
of ears in 1/1,000 A) x (number a standard laboratory assay (Ro-Tap processing: length of chop (longer
of kernel rows) x (number of Kernel Processing Score) developed typically more difficult to damage
kernels per row) x 0.01116 by Pioneer in conjunction with the kernels), roller mill wear (life of 400-
= bushels per acre at 15.5%
U.S. Dairy Forage Research Center 1000 hours depending upon mill),
moisture
and Dairyland Laboratories (Arcadia, roller mill gap (1-3mm depending
Wisconsin). Pioneer openly shared upon chop length and kernel maturity),
4. Average the yield estimates the kernel processing protocol with aggressiveness of the rolls, and
from the 3 ears. Repeat commercial laboratories around the perhaps the most important, roller mill
steps 1-4 at several sites and
world and is now offered by many as a differential (typically 20-40%). There
average the results to estimate
grain yield for the entire field. routine analysis. have also been recent innovations in
While it is helpful to have a post- roller mill design and differential speed
Pioneer Corn Silage
harvest, standardized laboratory Processing Monitoring Cup including Shredlage® (Claas) and
measurement of kernel damage, it is KernelStar Technology (John Deere).
harvest timing significantly. If conditions from barren plants with no ears or Michigan State University indicate that
DROUGHT-STRESSED CORN remain hot and dry, silage harvest may starch to varying levels of starch (grain) severely stressed corn (short plants with
occur earlier than normal. Harvest depending upon stress at pollination essentially no ears) still had a feeding
On average, corn utilizes 24-27 there will be one ton of 70% moisture Green, barren stalks will typically be assessment will be required on a field- and subsequent kernel abortion. It value of approximately 70% of normal
inches of water per acre during the yield per foot of plant height. much wetter than they appear in the by-field basis. For example, spider mite is important to realize that starch corn silage due to the highly digestible
growing season. Timing and duration An advantage of growing corn for field containing upwards of 75 to 90% infestation, whose activity is greater deposition is the primary driver of fiber and sugar content. Due to the
of drought stress will determine yield silage is less water is required to raise moisture because there is no grain under hot and dry conditions, may lowering the moisture in the chopped potential variability, it is important to
loss. Silk emergence is the most silage than to grow a grain crop. Corn to dry down the moisture contained warrant earlier harvest. If the corn has plant. The stover Is often much analyze droughty corn silage for dry
critical time to avoid drought stress silage is harvested before black layer in the stalks. It is recommended any grain, the kernel milkline can be wetter than expected in droughted matter, NDF (neutral detergent fiber),
with early vegetative growth being the or physiological maturity is reached, to sample plants and conduct dry a general indicator to determine the corn because ear development is NDF digestibility, sugar, starch and
least critical period for drought stress. thereby reducing the amount of water matter tests at a laboratory, with a proper time to chop, but given the lacking. In these situations, energy nitrates (see FEED section). Consider
Repeated moisture stress during the needed to fully mature the crop. microwave or Koster® Moisture Tester. variability in droughty corn, whole-plant will be partitioned more into sugar segregating storage based on fields that
silk to tassel stage can result in grain Depending on soil type and available The tendency is to harvest drought- sampling is still the best approach. and fiber in the stalk and leaves rather may have relatively higher feed value.
yield losses as high as 50 percent. water, harvesting irrigated corn for stressed corn too early and too wet than to grain. Studies conducted by
Drought can result in the crop ranging
Corn silage yields may be 50 to 90% of silage can reduce the number of causing excess effluent (run-off) and
normal due both to shorter plant height irrigations needed by one to two the loss of nutritious sugars. Hybrid
and loss of kernel development. If little maturity, drought tolerance, and late-
FROSTED CORN
compared to corn harvested for grain.
or no grain is present, a general rule is season plant health may influence
Corn plants that have been frosted prior condensation although stalks will retain possible (but inconvenient) to add dry
to harvest can experience premature considerable moisture. Fungi growth materials (e.g. dry corn, beet pulp etc.)
EXAMPLE OF HOW LACK OF EAR DEVELOPMENT leaf or whole-plant death. The plant often attributed to conditions set up by to the silage to increase the dry matter.
AFFECTS WHOLE PLANT MOISTURE CONTENT may remobilize stored carbohydrates a frost, were many times already active For example, one bushel of dry corn
from the leaves or stalk tissue (leading in the field prior to the frost event. per ton of immature silage will increase
to standability issues) to the developing Corn that has experienced a killing frost the silage dry matter by 1.5% units.
ears, but yield and nutritional potential at 1/3 to ½ milk line maturity will typically Immature corn that has experienced a
will still be lost mostly from the cessation be below 72% moisture and can be killing frost will have high sugar content
of starch deposition. Approximate harvested soon after the event. Corn in the stalk from sugars that will not be
yield losses due to premature death that is pre-dough stage will be too wet translocated to the kernel. This helps
75% moisture of leaves (but not stalks) range from (>75% moisture) to harvest and may to improve the crops nutritive value to
In irrigated plot 36, 31, and 7% when the leaf death require several days in the field to dry offset reduced starch levels. However,
occurs at R4 (dough), R5 (early dent), to acceptable harvest moistures (to these excess sugars will also provide
and half-milkline (R5.5) stages of kernel prevent excess effluent). If the frost nutrients for spoilage organisms to
development. event did not freeze kernels and only grow during feed out. These high sugar
67% moisture 71% moisture Loss of nutrient value from leaf loss damaged the top of the plant leaving corn plants will also have a natural
or undesirable microbial/fungal leaves around the ear still healthy, the population of fermenting bacteria
growth can be minimized if the crop is plant will continue to mature and lay (epiphytes) that will be greatly reduced
harvested as soon as possible after the down starch in the kernel. by the frost event. For these reasons,
Whole plant samples from Colorado on frost. Post-frosted corn is predisposed a combination L. buchneri inoculant is
8/14/12 demonstrating high Leaves of immature frosted plants
to spoilage organisms with the onset make the crop appear very dry but highly recommended. A “combination”
moisture content even in severely
of warm days and cool nights, coupled most of the moisture is in the stalk product means that the inoculant
drought-stressed plants due to
lack of ear (starch) development
with high humidity from rainy/drizzly further compounded by lack of starch contains both homofermentative
conditions. Fortunately, husks tend which also serves to dry down the strains to quickly reduce pH along
to open up and dry down rapidly plant. If harvest must proceed, it is with a L. buchneri strain to inhibit yeast
following a frost which mitigates the ear growth at feed out.
Research at the W.H. Miner Institute ADVANTAGES or snaplage harvest recommendations the kernel (based on ears in modern
investigated the impact of frost and OF HIGH-MOISTURE because most growers own a kernel genetics being about 10% cob).
subsequent mold/fungal growth on CORN INCLUDE: moisture tester and the final product
NDF digestibility. They used corn that Targeting kernel moisture levels of 28%
may have varying amounts of cob or or greater generally results in a product
experienced a hard frost which killed 1. Earlier harvest that fits well husks which impact moisture levels.
much of the top third of the plant. The that seems to work best in terms of both
between corn silage and dry The cob carries in more moisture than
crop remained in the field for another storage fermentation and ruminal starch
grain. the kernel with the traditional thumb-rule
week until it dried down enough digestibility. Nutritionists will need to be
2. Increased yields of 9-12% per that the final mix of earlage or snaplage cognizant that ruminal starch digestibility
to harvest and during that time, will be about 3-4% units wetter than
experienced significant mold/fungal acre if also harvesting the cob.
growth on the damaged portion. Frost 3. Potential cost savings compared
and resulting fungal deterioration of to harvesting dry corn and
KERNEL, COB AND HIGH-MOISTURE EAR CORN
corn leaves resulted in a 6% unit drop processing at the storage (HMEC) MOISTURE CHART
in NDF digestibility (30-hour) and 5% structure.
KERNEL MOISTURE COB MOISTURE HMEC MOISTURE
unit increase in uNDFom30 compared
to the lower, healthy green leaves. The 4. Higher ruminal starch availability 26 48 28.4
frost and subsequent mold/fungal compared to dry corn.
growth not only reduced the energetic 28 48 30.4
5. Additional source of digestible
value of the crop but also decreased fiber if cobs and husk are 30 50 32.4
intake potential by the increased uNDF. harvested in a timely manner. 32 53 34.5
The researchers concluded that NDFD
and uNDF is influenced by more than 34 55 36.5
just hybrid selection or crop maturity at
harvest, but also by any anti-nutritional DISADVANTAGES 36 57 38.5
factors such as of the quality of growing OF HIGH-MOISTURE 38 59 40.5
Frosted Corn
season, presence of weeds and pest CORN ARE: 40 60 42.4
or fungal damage.
1. Fermentation and feedout losses. Source: University of Minnesota calculated assuming 12% cob.
2. Potential for the corn crop to get
HIGH-MOISTURE CORN
overly-dry reducing digestibility HIGH-MOISTURE SHELLED CORN
and palatability.
(HMSC) VOLUME AND WEIGHT
3. Higher inventory carrying cost.
HMSC MOISTURE % BUSHELS PER TON WET LBS PER BUSHEL
The term “high-moisture corn” (HMC) corn picker or combine with some of moisture, snaplage can have extremely 4. More inconsistent than dry grain
can technically be applied to any the cob retained (high-moisture ear high feeding value if processed and because of changing starch 22 32.8 61.0
corn harvested above traditional corn or earlage) or as snaplage (ear stored correctly. digestibility over time in storage. 24 31.9 62.6
combining moistures and then allowed and husk harvested with a forage To capture the most starch per acre, If the corn crop gets too dry
to ferment in the storage structure. It chopper retrofitted with a snapper high-moisture corn harvest should not (e.g. kernel moistures <25%), 26 31.1 64.3
can range from as low as 22-24% corn head). There has been increased begin until the kernels have reached problems start to mount in terms 28 30.3 66.1
kernel moisture recommended in interest in snaplage due to the cost black layer and are physiologically of reduced cob digestibility
sealed, upright storage structures to savings compared to harvesting with a in earlage and snaplage, 30 29.4 68.0
mature. For most hybrids, kernels will
as high as 30-36% kernel moisture for combine and having to process kernels be between 34-36% moisture at black fermentation issues and potential 32 28.6 70.0
bunker stored snaplage. High-moisture (e.g. tub-grind) at the storage structure. layer. It is preferred to reference kernel instability in the feed bunk.
corn can be harvested with a combine Recent studies have also confirmed 34 27.7 72.2
moisture when making earlage (HMEC)
(high-moisture shelled corn), with a that if harvested at the proper kernel 36 26.9 74.4
in HMC (>28% kernel moisture) will
increase over time in fermented storage
due to solubilization of the zein proteins
surrounding the kernel starch granules.
a product with higher kernel moisture.
This also occurs in corn silage but that
plateaus after about 6 months because
kernels in corn silage are less mature
degraded in wetter HMC and this will
increase by about 2% units per month,
stabilizing after about 12 months of
storage. HMC ensiled at <24% moisture
ALFALFA
This is especially important to consider than kernels in HMC. Typically about will typically not increase in starch
if transitioning cows from drier HMC to 70% of the starch will be ruminally digestibility due to the ensiling process.
RFV VERSUS RFQ
Relative feed value (RFV) was higher in alfalfa grown in environments on day intervals between cuttings (e.g.
VALUE OF COB AND HUSK developed over 30 years ago as a
marketing tool to help standardize
with cooler temperatures (especially at
night). First-cutting usually exhibits the
26-30 days depending upon desired
quality).
Earlage and snaplage energy values yet another reason for targeting earlage stalk perpendicular to the shear bar. quality in the buying and selling of hay. highest NDFD compared to second Research at the University of Wisconsin
can vary from one operation to another or snaplage harvest at kernel moistures It is based on voluntary animal intake cuttings grown under higher heat units shows that PEAQ can also be used to
There are several ways the forage of forage digestible dry matter with a (See GROW section).
due to differences in the amount of cob exceeding 28 percent (or ideally very chopper can be modified to reduce the estimate RFQ of first-cutting alfalfa and
and husks contained in the feed. Wetter, soon after kernels reach black layer). value of 100 being equal to the feeding These two systems track quite that RFQ tends to be as high (or higher)
husk particle size: value of full-bloom alfalfa hay.
greener hybrids usually do not harvest Snaplage is not a particularly attractive closely for first-cutting alfalfa but tend than RFV estimates. However, harvest
1) set the chopping length as short
quite as cleanly and tend to have higher product when viewed the first time due Relative forage quality (RFQ) was to diverge for later harvests. Many leaf losses and heat damage during
as possible to slow the feed rolls
husk content which can dilute the feed to the presence of “stringy” husks. It developed to factor in the differences producers measure RFV on first- storage will have a greater impact on
down,
and lower the energy content. is definitely more difficult to get husks in fiber digestibility. Calculating RFQ cutting using a PEAQ Stick (Predictive RFQ than RFV.
2) use different drum bottoms with requires a laboratory analysis for NDF Equations for Alfalfa Quality) and then
Pioneer conducted a snaplage in snaplage chopped as fine in corn a key stock welded every two
field study to evaluate the yield and silage primarily because only ears digestibility (NDFD). NDFD tends to be schedule subsequent harvests based
inches perpendicular to the knives
nutritional content of four hybrids are feeding into the chopper. There is (depending on the manufacturer) to
harvested at four different maturities. space between the ears and they are help cut the feed going through the
It demonstrated that cob digestibility not held tightly against a crop mat or chopper, or
declined by nearly 20% from over the the shear bar. There is also no way to
3) add a re-cutter screen behind the
four week harvest window. Husk and control which direction the ears enter
knife drum before it enters the
shank also declined somewhat with the cutter head. Obtaining desired
processor, however, this will slow
increasing ear maturity, but remained chop length is easier with silage due
down the crop flow.
relatively high across all harvest to the thicker crop mat and nearly all
periods. Maintaining cob digestibility is of the ears enter the feed rolls with the
KERNEL DAMAGE
Nutritionists have learned to pay close excessive large particles. It is equally particle size value.
attention to the particle size of kernels in important that grain particle size be To maximize kernel shearing/damage
corn silage or in dry, ground corn (corn monitored in earlage/snaplage. Pioneer with snaplage, it is advised to set
meal). The same attention needs to be has developed an earlage or snaplage the chop length as short as possible
paid to particle size of high moisture kernel screening method available upon and that the chopper processor have
corn. Typical kernel particle size goals request at several commercial labs relatively fine-tooth rolls (e.g. 5-7 teeth
with HMC are 800-1200 microns, with which evaluates just the kernel particle per inch) with a 1-2mm gap setting and
a small standard deviation desirable size and eliminates the confounding a 30-40% differential (typically greater
to prevent either excessive fines or effect of cob/husks on the final grain differential than for corn silage).
4th cuttings. Factors such as drought varieties. Alfalfa varieties with reduced- harvest of each cutting by 7-10 days
Relative Feed Value (RFV) ACRONYM KEY: and potato leafhopper will dramatically lignin technology have the same lignin and eliminate one cutting during the
RFV = %DDM x %DMI DDM = Digestibility Dry Matter reduce yield but increase forage quality and NDFD as conventional alfalfa season. Summer cutting intervals could
due to a higher leaf-to-stem ratio. varieties harvested 7-10 days earlier. be 35 days instead of the typical 28-
1.29 DMI = Dry Matter Intake
The introduction of transgenic reduced- Alfalfa with reduced-lignin offers several day schedule. By harvesting later and
%DDM = 88.9 - (0.779 x %ADF) ADF = Acid Detergent Fiber (% of DM) eliminating a cutting, alfalfa plants may
lignin alfalfa varieties will dramatically new management opportunities for
%DMI = 120/%NDF CP = Crude Protein (% of DM) change the traditional view of harvest growers. One option is to continue have better winter survival and stand
management and many of the harvest harvesting on a typical bud stage longevity. Finally, reduced-lignin alfalfa
FA = Fatty Acids (% of DM) = Ether Extract
Relative Forage Quality (RFQ) maturity decision aids (PEAQ Stick, schedule with a resulting increase in can serve as a risk reduction tool for
NDF = Neutral Detergent Fiber (% of DM) GDU targets) will have to be modified alfalfa RFQ compared to conventional weather or equipment related delays
RFQ = DMI, (% of BW) *TDN, (% of DM) by maintaining higher forage quality for
NDFCP = Neutral Detergent Fiber Crude Protein when dealing with reduced-lignin varieties. A second option is to delay
1.23 a longer time.
NDFn = Nitrogen Free NDF = NDF - NDFCP,
For alfalfa, clover, and legume/grass mixtures or Estimated as NDF * 0.93
HARVEST MATURITY OF MIXED STANDS

DMI = 120/NDF + (NDFD - 45) * 0.374 /1350 * 100 NDFD = 48 hour in vitro NDF Digestibility (% of NDF)
TDN = (NFC*0.98) + (CP * 0.93) (FA * 0.97 * 2.25) NFC = Non-Fibrous Carbohydrate (% of DM)
+ (NDFn * (NDFD/100) - 7 = 100 - (NDFn + CP + EE + ash) In mixed stands of grass and alfalfa, for lactating dairy cattle to target 50% alfalfa height at harvest depending
target harvest of grasses in the boot NDF in grasses and 40% NDF in alfalfa. upon the percentage of grass in the
stage and alfalfa in the early-mid bud The accompanying charts help target stand.
stage. Cornell University recommends the optimal NDF level and conventional
HARVEST MATURITY
OPTIMUM STAND NDF ALFALFA HEIGHT AT
Plant maturity at harvest is the biggest solar radiation and 75 to 85ºF degree decreases about five RFV points per
driver of alfalfa yield and nutritional weather. Data from the Midwest shows day, second-cutting decreases two to
IN ALFALFA-GRASS MIXTURES OPTIMUM MIXED STAND NDF
quality. Unfortunately, they are inversely that three harvests taken at 10% bloom three points per day and third and fourth 52 35
related. If the plant is allowed to mature will yield about 15 to 20% more than cuttings decline one to two points per
to the flower stage, yield is increased, four harvests taken at the bud stage. day. It appears late-fall growth changes 50
but quality in terms of leaf-to-stem University of Wisconsin research shows little in forage quality during mid-to-late 30
ratio (influencing protein levels) and that fiber content and digestibility September and early October. RFQ 48
digestion of the plant NDF is reduced. will change about the same as RFV
NDF Of Stand Mixture
Alfalfa Height, Inches

of first-cutting changes at a faster
The recent commercialization of rate than later cuttings. First-cutting on first-cutting and then decline about 46 25
transgenic reduced lignin alfalfa will 4-5 points per day on 2nd, 3rd and
help reduce the negative relationship 44
between yield and RFQ. DAILY ALFALFA FORAGE CHANGE IN YIELD 20
Field studies show that average daily AND QUALITY DURING THE GROWING SEASON 42
increase in alfalfa yield across all but NOTE: Goals for standing NOTE: Goals for standing
late-fall cuttings averages about 100 YIELD (lb/day) RFV per day RFQ per day 40 forage, assuming 10-15% forage, assuming 10-15%
CUTTING decline in forage quality 15 decline in forage quality
lbs per acre. However, yield change D A I LY C H A N G E due to harvest, silage due to harvest, silage
per day around harvest time varies 38 storage and feedout. storage and feedout.
1 100 -5 -5
considerably ranging from 0 to 200 lbs
2 100 -2 to -3 -5 10
per acre per day. Yields are less in cool, 36
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
cloudy weather, and in the presence of 3 100 -2 -4
% Grass % Grass
insects, disease or drought. Yield is 4 100 -1 -4 Source: K. McRoberts and D. Cherney, Cornell University Source: K. McRoberts and D. Cherney, Cornell University
greater with adequate moisture, high Source: Dan Undersander, University of Wisconsin.
METHODS TO MONITOR HARVEST MATURITY GDU METHOD
Choice of maturity at harvest depends of the harvest maturity decision aids Harvest schedules need to account The GDU (growing degree unit) method 41 GDU is calculated as [Maximum in general 700 GDU is equivalent to
on the class of animal to which the crop (PEAQ Stick, GDU targets) will have to for a 20-point loss in RFV/RFQ from has been employed primarily with first- Daily Temperature + Minimum Daily bud stage (or about 38%NDF) and
will be fed, the need for quantity versus be modified when evaluating reduced- harvest through field wilting and cutting and begins with identifying Temperature)/2] - 41ºF). GDUs 880 approximates first flower. GDU is a
quality and agronomic considerations lignin varieties. fermentation. If 180 RFQ is desired, when plants break dormancy. While are not counted until the high preferable harvest predictor compared
for the alfalfa stand such as the need It is important to set harvest goals and harvest needs to occur when plants corn uses a base temperature of 50ºF, daily temperature hits 41ºF for five to using calendar dates. Research
to replenish carbohydrate root reserves hope for cooperative weather. Dairy are close to 200 RFV/RFQ. alfalfa uses a base of 41ºF because consecutive days. Growers should reported by W.H. Miner Institute
or earlier harvest in response to producers generally prefer alfalfa for The moisture level to wilt the plant that is the temperature at which alfalfa develop their own GDU targets for showed the date at which alfalfa in the
leafhopper infestation. As previously lactating cattle in the range of 160-180 is primarily a storage structure and begins to grow. Accumulated base their unique environments, however, Northeast has reached 700 GDU was
noted, the introduction of transgenic RFV/RFQ. Alfalfa stands can generally fermentation issue discussed in the as early as May 4th (2012) and as late
reduced-lignin alfalfa varieties will be harvested more mature to capture STORE section of this manual. as June 5th (2014).
dramatically change the traditional more yield for other classes of animals. Field research has shown that NDF
view of harvest management and many levels in the crop can increase as much
as 0.04 points for each accumulated
EXAMPLE OF RFV VS. RFQ IN ALFALFA GDU. It is typical to accumulate 10-
40 GDU/day which translates to 0.4 to
SAMPLE ADF (% DM) NDF (% DM) NDFD (% NDF) RFV RFQ
1.6 points of NDF per day. If it takes
six days to harvest, the crop can
1 34 43 48 135 148 increase by 2.4-9.6 points of NDF.
The Pioneer website (www.pioneer.
com) has a feature allowing growers
2 34 43 58 135 174 to track local GDU that can be used
to predict corn growth stages, or for
staging alfalfa harvest.
Same laboratory High value = higher fiber Same Clearly superior
SCISSOR
fiber levels digestibility RFV RFQ
Leaves have less NDF, higher NDFD than stems thus harvest losses have greater impact on RFQ than on RFV.
CUTTING
EXPECTED FORAGE QUALITY VALUES AS ALFALFA ADVANCES IN MATURITY
METHOD
Several state extension services have
CRUDE ACID DETERGENT NEUTRAL DIGESTIBLE RELATIVE
STAGE OF PROTEIN FIBER DETERGENT FIBER DRY MATTER FEED VALUE partnered with local forage laboratories
MATURITY to evaluate the fiber levels (and also
% O F D RY M AT T E R
NDFD) of immature plants to help stage
Vegetative >22 <25 <34 >69 >188 harvest. Alfalfa sampling begins at
about 14 inches of height. To facilitate
Bud 20-22 25-31 34-41 67 166
rapid turnaround of data, laboratories
Early Bloom 18-19 32-36 42-46 62 131 often employ NIRS (Near Infrared
Late Bloom 16-17 37-40 47-50 60 115 Spectroscopy) using calibrations
developed specifically for immature
Seed Pod <16 >41 >50 <58 <108 alfalfa.
Source: N.P. Martin and J.G. Linn. University of Minnesota.
PEAQ EXTENDING HARVEST WITH DIFFERENT VARIETIES
The predictive equation for alfalfa RFQ at later plant maturities. It is possible to widen the harvest The figure below shows how planting varieties by entering the desired harvest
quality (PEAQ) is a field tool designed The PEAQ stick evaluation begins by window by variety selection to facilitate varieties selected for high quality can window at a slightly later time.
primarily to help determine the first sampling four to five, 2-square-foot harvesting of extensive silage acres. be used to complement high yielding
harvest date by monitoring plant height sections representative of the entire
and maturity. Plant height is an excellent
indicator of staging harvest because
alfalfa field while avoiding lodged or USING VARIETY MANAGEMENT TO “WIDEN THE HARVEST WINDOW”
leaning areas. Determine the growth
RFV and RFQ decrease as the plant stage (vegetative, bud or flower) of 220
height increases. Research from North the most mature stem (may not be All varieties tend to decline in quality at about the same rate
210 High (e.g. slope of the green and red lines)
Dakota State University shows that the the tallest stem). Find the single tallest Qua
lity V
RFV of alfalfa, when growing from 20 to stem and hold the stem up next to the 200 arie
ty
40 inches in height, decreased 71 units stick, noting the estimated plant RFV High What differs is when varieties enter
190 Yiel the box (optimal RFQ at harvest)
during the late vegetative stage, 61 and NDF value closest to the tip of the
d ing
Vari
ety
units during late bud stage and 53 units
RFQ
stem (not the tip of the tallest leaf). This 180
during the late flower stage. The PEAQ method does not work well for weedy
stick approach was developed using 170
or grassy stands, or for very short
traditional alfalfa varieties so will not (<16”) or very tall (>40”) stands. PEAQ 160
apply to stands of transgenic reduced is the only staging method that works Begin Cutting Begin Cutting
lignin alfalfa which will have higher RFV/ 150 HY variety HQ variety
relatively well across all cuttings. day 28 day 32
140
4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36
Days Since Last Cutting
Opens the harvest window by 4 days. Exact number

of days will vary by variety and growing conditions.
CUTTING HEIGHT
Lowering the cutter bar obviously ratio resulting in about 5 points lower if the stand includes brome-grass,
results in higher yields of alfalfa, with RFV per inch of shorter cut. Lower orchardgrass or timothy. Alfalfa doesn’t
the biggest effect from 1st cutting which cutting also tends to increase the ash re-grow from the cut stems but rather
typically accounts for 40-60% of total content from disc mowers vacuuming from crown buds so cutting height has
yearly yields. Most of the yield gain is soil (ash) into the crop. This causes little impact on plant nutrient availability.
from increased growth from stems lower digestibility and the potential However, grasses do not have tap
originating from the crown rather than for increased soil-borne bacteria and roots, and they regrow from the cut
from axillary buds on the lower portions clostridial spores that can also have a stems. Nutrients for the following
of the stems. Research shows that negative impact on fermentation. cuttings are stored in the bottom few
alfalfa can be cut as short as 1.5 inches For most producers, cutting pure- inches of grasses, so cut height can
and that each inch above this will result alfalfa stands at 2.5-3.0 inches seems impact both regrowth and stand life.
in 0.5 tons per acre reduction in annual to be a good compromise. To prevent Many agronomists now recommend a
yields. However, lower cutting reduces shortened stand life in mixed stands, 4-inch stubble height for cool-season
forage quality by lowering leaf: stem this should be increased to 3-4 inches forage grasses.
WHEEL TRAFFIC DAMAGE LATE-FALL HARVEST IN NORTHERN CLIMATES
The old adage is that “alfalfa doesn’t infiltration and alfalfa root development. 1) plant traffic-tolerant varieties, Harvesting late-fall alfalfa after a killing enough root reserves to successfully Inoculating late fall harvested alfalfa
die, growers kill it.” This is caused by University of Wisconsin research 2) don’t use tractors any larger than frost is a viable approach to increasing survive the winter. The other option silage with alfalfa-specific strains
aggressive harvest intervals not allowing shows that the largest effect of wheel necessary, forage inventory without affecting to improve winter survival is to harvest of bacteria is highly recommended
the plant to adequately replenish root traffic is breaking re-growing alfalfa 3) limit trips across the field, winter survival or the following spring when there is little chance of significant because most of the fermenting
reserves and by punishing the stand stems which reduce yield at the next 4) use wide swath to allow hay/ yields. The University of Wisconsin regrowth before a killing frost (~200 bacteria (epiphytes) found naturally on
physically with harvest or post-harvest cutting. They recommend these haylage to dry faster and has traditionally suggested a “no-cut GDU). Stands that are aggressively the crop will not survive the killing frost.
equipment traffic. It is well known management practices to reduce yield window” from September 1st until a cut during the year, or stressed stands Fall-grown alfalfa also contains more
5) apply manure or fertilizer (or remove
that wheel traffic soil compaction can loss to wheel traffic: killing frost (below 24ºF or <26ºF for 6-8 are likely to benefit the most from more pentose (5-carbon) sugars compared
dropped bales) immediately after
reduce soil air permeability, water hours). This allows the plant adequate conservative fall harvest scenarios. to hexose (6-carbon) sugars produced
harvest.
time to deposit carbohydrate root Alfalfa crowns of winterhardy varieties during spring and summer growth.
reserves to survive the winter and meet can withstand soil temperatures of Pentose sugars are fermented to
growth demands the following spring. 1-lactic acid (3 carbons) and 1-acetic
HARVEST TIMING
15ºF but lower temperatures can cause
Midwestern research suggests that winter damage. With fall harvest, acid (2 carbons). The production of
when the length of the regrowth period it might be prudent to leave some acetic acid rather than another lactic
The time of day to harvest alfalfa (am vs. decreased or disappeared by the rather than expose the crop to delayed following harvest is more than 45 to stubble (6”) or even a few strips to acid typically results in a higher terminal
pm) is an interesting topic and research time the forage reached 40% DM. drying and increased weather risk. 50 days, another harvest can be taken catch snow for improved insulation to pH in fall-harvested alfalfa silage.
results fall on both sides of the debate. The alfalfa mowed in the morning was There also appears to be adequate without much agronomic risk. Research help winter survival. Other strategies to Feed quality should be relatively
The basic idea is that cutting later in the ready for silage harvest in about nine sugars to support fermentation from Quebec, Canada suggests that help manage the late fall cuttings is to high In late fall cuttings because the
day allows the crop to deposit more hours, while the alfalfa mowed in the when alfalfa is harvested at typical the weather after the final harvest is harvest only established, non-stressed growth has occurred during a period
sugars to improve palatability and aid in late afternoon was not harvestable North American moistures/maturities more important than the calendar date. stands, not new seedings, keep of declining solar radiation and cooler
silage fermentation. Much of the positive until after noon the following day. Many compared to higher moisture European Their studies concluded that alfalfa fertility high with annual fertilization nights, although the effective fiber
research has been conducted on alfalfa researchers in the Midwest and East forages. Hay palatability is also less needs 500 GDU (base 41) between and consider a late-summer or fall value of this crop will likely be very low.
hay harvested in Western states. Coast believe it makes more sense to of a concern in total mixed rations last cutting and a killing frost to build application of potassium fertilizer.
Although am vs. pm forages differ in harvest early in the day to maximize when cows are not given a choice of
initial composition, it is not clear that the hours of drying from solar radiation feedstuffs.
these differences persist after drying
and/or fermentation. Despite the plants
being cut, they are still alive and cellular
respiration will reduce sugar levels at
night and in the section of the window
not receiving sunlight. Research in
Wisconsin showed 11 of 14 alfalfa
samples had higher sugars with pm-
cut alfalfa; yet only one of the 14 had
higher sugar levels in the stored forage.
A Miner Institute study showed no
statistical difference in plant sugars,
starch, NDF, or in vitro digestibility
between am and pm harvesting.
While afternoon harvested alfalfa
was numerically higher in sugar and
starches, the small differences either
BIOLOGY OF ALFALFA WILTING/DRYING
The primary factors that speed alfalfa alfalfa wilting and drying. Research from
wilting and drying are swath exposure Cornell University Extension indicated
to sunlight, swath temperature, air that wide-swathing conditioning was
temperature, crop moisture and wind of limited benefit because it interfered
velocity. Factors which slow drying are with moisture loss from leaf stomata.
relative humidity, swath density and soil Wisconsin researchers cite research
moisture. showing conditioning with wide
In an attempt to reduce weather- swathing produces the shortest time
related harvest risk, many growers are to acceptable harvest moistures and
successfully mowing alfalfa (sometimes that unconditioned windrows needed
with conditioners removed to not to be nearly twice as wide as the
damage stomata) into wide swaths conditioned windrows to produce
for faster drying, followed by merging a drying advantage. Some of this
and chopping within a 24-hour period. debate about conditioning centers
Not only does this reduce weather around recommended silage harvest
risk (e.g. rain damage leaching sugars moistures. Producers today are
and extending respiration losses), targeting much dryer alfalfa silage than
but preserves quality by retaining the 65-70% moisture that was once the wide-swathing, conditioning is still
more sugars and decreases the risk norm. It appears that if producers are recommended, especially for those
of contamination by undesirable wide-swathing, conditioning is not as wanting to ensile alfalfa in the moisture
organisms such as soil-borne clostridia. important to get down to 65+ percent range of 55-60% to reduce clostridia
moisture. However, if equipment (butyric acid) fermentations.
The figure below details the phases of
limitations prevent adequately
USING VARIETY MANAGEMENT TO “WIDEN THE HARVEST WINDOW”

Axial moisture movement through stem to leaves and out through stomata
80% INITIAL PHASE account for most of the moisture loss to get to higher-end ensiling
moistures (70%). Conditioning the crop can inhibit this initial phase.
MOISTURE
The effectiveness of the first two stages is significantly influenced by windrow density and width.
This slower intermediate drying stage involves radial moisture

INTERMEDIATE PHASE movement from the center of the stem to the outer edge. This is
where conditioning plays a critical role in helping dry the crop.
The final drying stage is influenced

FINAL PHASE by osmotic and cell forces influenced
STOR E
primarily by environmental drying
conditions and soil moistures.
20%
TIME Source: Adapted from Kilcer, 2006
legume forage. While wide-swathing moisture ranges. In general, wetter diets to be sure that rumen bacteria
FERMENTATION PROCESS aids in rapid wilting of legume/grass silages undergo a more extensive have adequate nitrogen that used to
forages, the greater exposure to solar fermentation; have a slightly lower pH, be provided from the higher soluble
Silage fermentation can be simplified acid-tolerance and can’t reduce pH spp.) are capable of producing radiation can have a negative effect more ammonia-N and typically exhibit protein found in wetter legume/grass
into three phases. Silages experience below about 5.0. It should be noted that recognizable toxins including on LAB counts. Finally, the process of higher acetic acid levels (primarily from silages. The benefit of inoculation
aerobic (with oxygen) conditions during research on several fungicide products aflatoxin, vomitoxin (DON), fumonisin, harvesting tends to quickly raise LAB higher yeast and heterofermentative is overwhelming epiphytes with
harvest and filling, followed relatively are in agreement that fungicides do zearalenone and T-2. Estimates are counts presumably because of the bacterial growth). Drier silages undergo highly competitive LAB strains which
quickly by anaerobic (without oxygen) not appear to negatively impact LAB that 70 to 90 percent of all mycotoxins availability of nutrient-rich plant juices. less extensive fermentation, have a dominate and direct the fermentation
conditions which initiate lactic acid populations or viability. are already on the plant prior to harvest, slightly higher pH, less ammonia-N process to a more consistent endpoint,
Moisture of the crop at harvest also
bacterial (LAB) growth and pH decline, Without going into the hundreds and no silage additive or inoculant is and typically lower acetic and butyric despite differences in harvest moisture.
dictates which epiphytes dominate,
and finally, back to aerobic conditions of epiphytic populations, the ones capable of degrading these preformed acid. Silage management is critical
exemplified by clostridia preferring Dry matter loss (shrink) begins with
during feedout. most problematic to forage and high- toxins. However, producers can exert with drier silage to minimize porosity
a high-moisture environment. You continued plant cell respiration and
The natural microbial (epiphytic) moisture grain are yeast, molds and management influence over storage and exposing stored silage to oxygen
can easily observe the influence of growth of aerobic microflora which
populations that exist on the fresh crop soil contaminants introduced during fungi like Penicillium (toxin-producer), infusion given the lack of water to fill in
harvest moisture on which silage utilize carbohydrate sources (primarily
at harvest exert a tremendous influence harvest such as gram-positive, spore- and non-toxin producers such as the air spaces.
microbes dominate by looking at their sugar) producing water, heat and
on the stability and feeding value of the forming bacilli and clostridia. Crops Mucor and Monila mold species. These
metabolism end-products (volatile fatty The lower ammonia-N (soluble protein) carbon dioxide (C02). It is the carbon
resulting ensiled feed. Factors such as such as corn silage and high-moisture molds do not typically infect the crop
acids and ammonia-N) across different in drier silages should be factored into in C02 that is lost to the atmosphere
temperature, humidity, solar radiation, corn, especially if stressed by drought prior to harvest, but their soil-borne
plant maturity, moisture, length of or early frost, can have very high yeast spores can contaminate the fresh
wilting time and soil contamination counts. The proliferation of yeast in forage during harvest. Ensuring proper
during harvest all influence the type silage re-exposed to oxygen at feedout harvest moisture, silage compaction
and feed-out methods can help reduce
SOURCES OF LOST CO2 CONTRIBUTING SILAGE
and quantity (colony forming units can have a negative effect on dry
or cfu/gram of forage) of epiphytes matter loss, heating and palatability. In aerobic conditions conducive to the TO DRY MATTER (SHRINK) LOSS
populating the crop. the presence of oxygen, certain yeast growth of these storage molds.
• Continued plant respiration SUBSTRATE END-PRODUCTS
The ultimate goal of ensiling is to species have the ability to metabolize Clostridia are well-known for their
lactic acid, causing an elevation in ability to degrade proteins and • CO2 losses from: Homofermentative pathways
stabilize the crop via the action of LABs.
silage pH which reduces the inhibitory produce butyric acid. Reducing soil 1. Aerobic organisms active until oxygen is depleted
This reduces pH through the efficient C9H12O6 2 C 3H 6O 3
conversion of sugars to lactic acid. effect on other heat-generating contamination levels (ash) in legumes (glu,fru) (lactic acid)
spoilage organisms such as mold, and grasses in addition to ensiling at
CO2
As livestock operations transitioned
to larger bunkers and drive-over piles, bacilli and acetobacter species. Yeast higher dry matters such as 40-50%, Heat C5H10O5 C 3H 6O 3 + C 2H 4O 2
it created a greater need to reduce and acetobacter can also produce reduces the chances of clostridia (xyl,arabin) (lactic acid) (acetic acid)
aromatic compounds such as esters, problems. Clostridia take a month or
Water
aerobic deterioration on the face of the
silage during feedout. aldehydes and ethyl acetate (smells like two to grow and establish populations,
2. Heterofermentative anerobic
fingernail polish) which can significantly so if forced to ensile wet silages, it is Heterofermentative Pathways
Total epiphyte counts can vary from near bacteria found naturally
reduce feed palatability. best to feed them immediately before on crops
zero to several million cfu/gram of fresh they initiate their destructive process. C6H12O6 C3H6O3 + C2H6OH
crop. The microflora on fresh plants University research has shown that (glu,fru) (lactic acid) (ethanol)
+ CO2
the impact of yeast can be minimized Producers are trending towards higher
are primarily gram-negative, aerobic dry matter legume/grass silages from
by proper harvest moisture, silage 3. Aerobic organisms that again become metabolically
(oxygen-loving) species. The preferred having learned this lesson the hard active when exposed to air at feedout 3 C6H12O6 C3H6O3 + C 2H 40 2
gram-positive, facultative anaerobic compaction/ feedout methods and
way. (glu,fru) (lactic acid) (acetic acid)
LAB that drives the fermentation the use of silage inoculants containing
viable strains of Lactobacillus buchneri. Researchers at the U.S. Dairy Forage
CO2 + 2 C6H14O6
process is very much in the minority. + CO2
Furthermore, not all of the small Mold spores are virtually everywhere Research Center showed that epiphyte Heat (mannitol)
population of LAB is desirable because and easily survive over winter in soil counts were elevated with warmer
and plant residues. Common field fungi temperatures, longer wilting times and
Water
many are leuconostic species which
are inefficient at converting sugars, lack (primarily Aspergillus and Fusarium if rainfall occurred during wilting of
which is the cause of shrink (DM) LAB were active because they do areas: top and side exposure with PHASES OF SILAGE FERMENTATION AND STORAGE
loss in silage. Wilting time and speed not produce any C02 (see graphic). upwards of 20% of silage contained in
of harvest impact the extent of these However, less than 0.5% of epiphytic the top three feet in most bunkers and AEROBIC PHASES ANAEROBIC PHASES AEROBIC PHASES
aerobic field losses. These processes organisms naturally found on fresh crops drive-over piles, and face exposure Cell respiration and Populations of Transition phase Primary Increases in Secondary aerobic
will continue until the oxygen in the are LAB and only a small proportion of during feedout. The combination of aerobic organisms enterobacter and with shift to more homofermentative protein solubility decomposition
silage mass is depleted. Plant moisture these are homofermentative. To put these two sources of shrink loss can consume WSC with heterofermentative homofermentative LAB phase. and starch upon re-exposure
and compaction play a role in reducing the loss from heterofermentative LAB vary significantly due to management production of CO2 bacteria yielding LABs. Efficiency depends digestibility to oxygen. Highly
the length of this aerobic phase in the in perspective, there is a 24% loss of level with estimates of greater than heat and water. lactic acid, acetic on epiphytes occur during influenced by
storage structure by reducing silage dry matter from the heterofermentative 20% loss in net energy (in pure starch acid and ethanol. levels, WSC, this phase. feedout rates and
porosity. fermentation of glucose because of the equivalents) reported in the literature moisture and face management.
C02 production lost to the atmosphere. from aerobically unstable silages. The compaction.
The subsequent anaerobic phase
establishes an environment These anaerobic fermentation losses increased use of bunkers and piles
suitable for domination by can be reduced by 25% or more with with large exposed faces (as opposed
facultative homofermentative and the use of homofermentative strains to smaller face exposure in tower silos
found in reputable silage inoculants. or bags) results in significantly more 69˚ F 90˚ F 80˚ F >100˚ F (if unstable)
heterofermentative lactic acid bacteria Temperature change: (Post ensiling temperature generally is 15˚ higher than ambient)
(LAB). There would be no shrink loss The re-exposure of silage to aerobic shrink in the aerobic, feedout phase
in this phase if only homofermentative conditions can be divided into two than in the initial aerobic phase.
6.0-6.5
pH Change ~5.0 ~4.0 >6.0 (if unstable)
THE ENSILING PROCESS Continues until all

O2 is consumed.
Acetate-tolerant
bugs drop pH
Homofermentative
LABs initiate more
Longest phase
lasting until run out
Stability impacted
by O2 penetration
Yeast, mold and
aerobic bacteria
High carbohydrate to ~5.0. Low pH rapid and efficient of WSC or residual WSC, activity causing
When fermentation When nutrient When aerobic spoilage and protein reduces microbial drop in pH. terminal pH acid profile, 50% of total DM
losses occur changes occur losses occur enzymatic activity. activity. Lasts inhibits growth. microbial and fungi losses.
(sugars are lost and fiber is (terminal pH achieved, proteins (about 50% of total DM loss 24-72 hours. populations.
concentrated. About 50% DM loss are degraded, starch digestion increases, occurs in phase 6 in bunkers/piles
occurs in Phases 1-5) fiber digestion does not change) with large faces) Time to terminal pH
is crop dependent
WSC* WSC* (or Lactic Acid) WSC* (or Lactic Acid) related to amount
of sugar and crop
buffering capacity.
Can range from
Aerobic Anaerobic Aerobic as short as a few
Conditions Conditions Conditions days with corn
12-24 hrs 2-3 days
silage to as long as
Aerobic CO2 + H20 Anaerobic Silage Acids Aerobic CO2 + H20 2 months with dry
Bacteria + Heat Bacteria (mainly lactic) Bacteria + Heat (<24% moisture)
drop pH high moisture
shelled corn. Time
can be reduced by
Phase 1 Phase 2-5 Phase 6 half with a reputable
(hours) (few days, less time with inoculants) (during entire feed-out period)
inoculant.
*WSC = water soluble carbohydrates (sugars)
LAB - lactic acid bacteria
WSC - water soluble carbohydrate
The fermentation of high-moisture fermentation process. Inoculation why inoculant manufacturers would
corn (and snaplage) is somewhat with products specifically designed use a LAB known to be less efficient A SMALL SHRINK LOSS (2.1 - 5.25%) CAN ACTUALLY BE
unique because of the relatively low for high-moisture corn can be very than homofermentative strains. They A LARGE DRY MATTER LOSS (15%) WHEN MOISTURE
moisture and sugar content (e.g. helpful, especially those containing are used because the metabolites FROM SUGAR OXIDATION ACCOUNTED FOR CORRECTLY
the kernel is primarily starch, not Lactobacillus buchneri for maintaining of their growth inhibit yeast growth
sugar). The moisture level of the stability and palatability in a crop during feedout, and it is yeast which • 65% moisture forage = 65 lbs. H2O and 35 lbs. DM
grain helps determine the length of notorious for high yeast counts at initiates the cascade of events leading • Assume 15% DM loss
the fermentation process and relative harvest. to aerobic losses. In addition, most • Assume (incorrectly) that there is no moisture loss or gain
changes in starch digestibility over products containing L. buchneri also EXAMPLE:
Several technologies can be employed
time in storage. When harvested contain homofermentative LAB strains 100 lb. Shrink Loss (%) =
to reduce top and face spoilage including
at recommended kernel moistures specialized packing equipment, (commonly called combination or as fed [(35 lbs. DM*0.15)/100 lbs. as fed]* 100 = 5.25%
exceeding 28%, terminal pH can be oxygen-barrier film, silage facers “combi” products) to facilitate both sample
achieved in about two to three weeks. a rapid, “front-end” pH decline and Final Silage Moisture (%) =
and bacterial inoculants containing
If the kernels get too mature/dry (e.g. Lactobacillus buchneri strains. The fact stability during feedout. (65 lbs. H2O/(100-5.25 lbs. as fed))* 100 = 68.6%
<25% moisture), it can take as long that L. buchneri is a heterofermentative
as two months to fully complete the LAB may lead to questions as to • 65% moisture forage = 65 lbs. H2O and 35 lbs. DM
• Assume 15% DM loss
• Correctly accounting for the fact that 60% of DM loss is retained as moisture
SHRINK VERSUS DRY MATTER LOSS EXAMPLE: gain during sugar oxidation
Producers and nutritionists tend to 100 lb. TRUE Shrink Loss (%) =
use the terms shrink and DM loss
WHAT HAPPENS WHEN SUGAR IS OXIDIZED as fed
[(35 lbs. DM*0.15*0.4)/100 lbs. as fed]* 100 = 2.1%
interchangeably, however, from a sample
calculation perspective, they are very TRUE Final Silage Moisture (%) =
different. Shrink loss is based on an “as
fed” basis, (= lost weight, as fed basis/
CO2 is lost to the atmosphere (65 lbs. H2O + (0.6*5.25 original shrink)100-2.1 lbs. as fed)* 100 = 69.6%
original weight, as fed basis) while DM “Source: Dr. Brian Holmes. Biological Systems Engineering Dept. Univ. of Wisconsin – Madison.
loss is based on a “dry matter” basis Wisconsin Custom Operators Conference 1/25/11
(= lost weight, DM basis/original C6 H12 O6 + 6 O2 6 C O2 + 6 H2O + Energy

weight, DM basis). Measuring on-farm
shrink loss can be deceiving as a small
shrink loss can still result in a large dry Molar Mass: 180 + 192 264 + 108 TRUE COST OF SILAGE DRY MATTER LOSS
matter loss. The difference is caused Dry matter loss in silage results in the shrink by 20% (from 15% to 12.5%), on truck weights into the bunker
by the fact that during the oxidation loss of the most valuable nutrients. it would equate to a value of $1.26 per compared against TMR weights out
of silage sugars, 60% of the original (108/180) * 100 = 60% of original DM weight When silages ferment, sugars and as fed ton ($7.56 - $6.30) if that energy of the bunker. There is just too much
dry matter weight remains as water remains as water starch are what the aerobic organisms had to be replaced with $4.00/bushel room for measurement errors, and it
and water has no real nutritional value and LAB utilize, and fiber levels are corn (see chart). does not account for the biological fact
to livestock. This also helps explains molar mass is defined as the mass of a given substance (chemical element or chemical compound) actually increased (concentrated). To that silage comes out of the storage
divided by its amount of substance. Silage producers are keenly aware of
why silage exits the storage structure molar mass of oxygen ≈ 32 g⋅mol−1 understand the true cost of dry matter the losses from top or side spoilage. structure higher in moisture than when
with more moisture than when initially molar mass of glucose ≈ 180 g⋅mol−1 loss, they must be replaced with a However, they may need additional it was ensiled due to aerobic microbial
ensiled. molar mass of water is approximately: M(H2O) ≈ 18 g⋅mol−1 nutritionally equivalent energy source, convincing as to the loss in feed value activity generating moisture.
such as corn grain. For example, even in what may appear to be “normal” However, there are several approaches
Source: Dr. Brian Holmes. Biological Systems Engineering Dept. Univ. of Wisconsin – Madison.
Wisconsin Custom Operators Conference 1/25/11 in a relatively well-managed bunker, if silage. What does not work very well that can be used to quantify the
management changes could reduce for quantifying DM loss is relying nutritional cost of DM loss. One is
COST OF DRY MATTER SHRINK PER TON
WHEN REPLACED WITH CORN GRAIN AS AN EQUIVALENT ENERGY SOURCE ROLE OF YEAST IN DRY MATTER LOSS
Yeasts can exert a profound impact in Fresh-crop yeasts are usually non- bacteria) explaining why overly dry,
PERCENT silage at the time of feeding by initiating fermenters and include Cryptococcus, poorly compacted and slow feedout
SHRINK 10.0% 12.5% 15.0% 17.5% 20.0% 22.5% 25.0% 27.5% 30.0%
the decline in aerobic stability (increased Rhadotorala, Sporabolomyces, and silages with high air porosity often
heating) and subsequent feeding value. sometimes Torulopsis organisms. Heat, display such high yeast (and aerobic
$3.00 $3.78 $4.73 $5.67 $6.62 $7.56 $8.51 $9.45 $10.40 $11.34
Yeasts are naturally occurring epiphytes carbon dioxide and acetic acid are the bacillus) counts. Besides acetic acid
found on corn silage, cereal silage main products produced by yeasts and limited amounts of ethanol, aerobic
$3.50 $4.41 $5.51 $6.62 $7.72 $8.82 $9.93 $11.03 $12.13 $13.24 and high-moisture grains at the time during aerobic conditions. Heating can conditions cause yeast to produce a
of harvest. Yeasts can also be found affect palatability and carbon dioxide large number of aromatic compounds
$4.00 $5.04 $6.30 $7.56 $8.82 $10.08 $11.34 $12.61 $13.87 $15.13 in grass or legume silages, particularly contributes to dry matter loss. depending upon the specific yeast
when harvested at lower moisture. This Residual sugars can be utilized during strain and environmental conditions. As
$4.50 $5.67 $7.09 $8.52 $9.93 $11.34 $12.76 $14.18 $15.60 $17.02 may explain why producers ensiling storage by anaerobic, low-pH resistant, the temperature rises, more aromatic
grass/legume silages at lower moistures storage-type, fermenter yeasts like compounds are produced.
$5.00 $6.30 $7.88 $9.45 $11.03 $12.61 $14.18 $15.76 $17.33 $18.91 in an attempt to avoid butyric acid Sacchromyces and sometimes In silages, feedout yeasts are also
(clostridia) problems can sometimes
Corn Cost ($/bu)
Torulopsis. Yeasts do not reproduce capable of producing esters (fruity

experience aerobic stability problems. during anaerobic conditions. Although smell), ethyl acetate (fingernail polish
$5.50 $6.93 $8.67 $10.40 $12.13 $13.87 $15.60 $17.33 $19.07 $20.80
Yeast populations and the metabolites yeasts are not reproducing, they smell), fusel alcohols (from amino acid
$6.00 $7.56 $9.45 $11.34 $13.24 $15.13 $17.02 $18.91 $20.80 $22.69 they generate shift dramatically in remain metabolically active producing degradation causing a harsh, solvent-
aerobic versus anaerobic environments. heat, carbon dioxide, ethanol and also type smell), aldehydes (diacetyl – butter
Yeasts can be categorized as fresh- by-products including acetic acid, smell or acetylaldehyde – green apple
$6.25 $7.88 $9.85 $11.82 $13.79 $15.76 $17.73 $19.70 $21.66 $23.63
crop, storage or feedout strains and aldehydes and esters. For every alcohol smell) and other compounds with
are further classified as fermenters that is produced, a C02 is generated solvent-like odors. Substrate levels
$6.50 $8.19 $10.24 $12.29 $14.34 $16.39 $18.43 $20.48 $22.53 $24.58 or non-fermenters. They can also be which further contributes to dry matter also influence the level of by-products
subdivided by their ability to utilize loss. Ethanol production in silage is not produced by anaerobic, storage-type
$7.00 $8.82 $11.03 $13.24 $15.44 $17.65 $19.85 $22.06 $24.26 $26.47 different substrates such as soluble entirely bad. Ethanol can help solubilize sugar-utilizers. As the level of sugars
sugar or lactic acid. The sugar-utilizers zein protein in corn kernels allowing for
$7.50 $9.45 $11.82 $14.18 $16.54 $18.91 $21.27 $23.63 $26.00 $28.36 dominate during the aerobic phase at increased starch digestibility over time
the beginning of the ensiling process in storage.
$8.00 $10.08 $12.61 $15.13 $17.65 $20.17 $22.69 $25.21 $27.73 $30.25 and during the anaerobic conditions The fermenter yeasts which are
of storage. The acid-utilizers comprise active during feedout include lactic
the majority population in the presence acid-utilizing Candida and Hansula
the use of ash, pH and temperature equation developed at Kansas State Silages normally heat 10-15ºF above of oxygen at feedout. At harvest, over species. Yeast will reproduce during
measurements of silage on the bunker University, it estimated a 5.6% higher whatever the ambient temperature is at 90% of yeasts are sugar-utilizers, but aerobic conditions (but not as fast as
face compared to a deeper probed organic dry matter loss in the surface ensiling. The moisture in larger bunkers the ensiling process provides selection
(e.g. 20 inches) sample. In a 2003 silage. Totally replacing the lost organic or piles retains this unavoidable pressure ensuring over 90% lactate-
utilizers are dominating at feedout. Inoculated with Pioneer® brand 11CFT
Idaho field study of 12 non-inoculated matter with corn starch would require (physiological) heat, which is slowly delivering a consistent and cool silage face
bunkers and piles conducted by more than a bushel of corn for every dissipated throughout the storage High counts of lactate-consuming
Pioneer researchers, the average ash, ton of silage fed. period. If silage is removed from the yeasts cause aerobic stability concerns
pH and temperature were 0.27% storage structure and continues to because their metabolism of lactic
Another approach used by Pioneer to acid elevates silage pH creating an
units, 0.3% units and 12.9ºF higher help producers visualize the heating heat, this is problematic heating caused
for the face compared to the deep by aerobic organism growth leading to environment conducive to spoilage
caused by aerobic microbial activity is bacteria and mold growth.
probe sample. When the ash data was the use of thermal sensitive cameras. a loss in nutrient value and palatability.
entered into an organic matter recovery
and temperature increase, more The increased availability of yeast conjugated linoleic acid.
aromatic esters and fusel alcohols can counts and identification has caused Short-term management of yeast- FORAGE ADDITIVES
be produced. High level of sugars can some nutritionists to question if there challenged silages involves approaches
also shift the production of alcohol to is a relationship between high yeast Market research indicates that the goal of less than 4.5 for legumes are tested individually.
to increase daily removal rates to deprive
other metabolites. The production of silages and chronically low butterfat bacterial inoculants account for 65- and high-moisture grains and less than Inoculant technology advanced in 2000
them of time to grow in oxygenated
these aromatic compounds in silages herds. While yeasts certainly contribute 70% of all forage additives followed 4.0 for corn, cereal or grass silages. when Pioneer commercialized the first
environments. Proper removal
not only increases dry matter loss but to the cascading events leading to by acid preservatives at 20% which However, the problem with terminal pH North American inoculant containing L.
techniques to preserve a densely
can also significantly contribute to unstable silage, it is unlikely that low are used primarily on hay and high- is most silages eventually reach terminal buchneri. This was quickly followed in
packed and clean horizontal silo face
palatability problems. butterfat test can be attributed to yeast moisture grains. pH, but the issue is how long (and how 2003 with the release of the first “combi”
will also help minimize yeast aerobic
or their metabolites, per se, unless the Silage producers and nutritionists many sugars) it took to reach a stable, product (11C33) containing crop-
From a diagnostic perspective, activity. Long-term crop planning to
unpalatable silage is causing sorting are constantly looking for ways to terminal pH. There are tools today to specific homofermentative LAB strains
aerobically challenged silages usually minimize aerobic activity from yeast
and reducing effective fiber intake. A improve forage yield and nutritional better evaluate the effect of inoculation: in combination with L. buchneri to
have yeast populations that exceed in silages include properly sizing
more likely culprit of fat test depression quality. When reviewing technological VFA profiles, thermal camera imaging deliver rapid pH decline and significantly
100,000 colony forming units per storage structures to allow aggressive
is underestimating the fiber or starch advances that have directly impacted and lab methods such a Fermentrics™ improved bunklife. Strains of L. buchneri
gram (cfu/gm) of ensiled feed. The feedout rates, rapid harvesting at
digestibility of forages contributing forages, the inoculant industry may be which allow for measuring digestion prefer low pH for optimal growth and
identification of Hansula and Candida proper maturity and moisture levels,
to reduced rumen pH promoting the among the most innovative. There have kinetics. historically required 1-2 months of
organisms usually is associated with the use of silage additives containing
high pH from the consumption of lactic synthesis of ruminal bio-hydrogenation Lactobacillus buchneri and proper been improvements in forage genetics Pioneer has been basic in the ensiling time to utilize preformed lactic
acid, while the presence of Torulopsis intermediates such as trans-10, cis-12 compaction and sealing. and equipment manufacturers have identification and commercialization of acid (thus lowering lactic acid levels)
usually does not have elevated pH since delivered significant gains with items bacterial strains since 1978. Pioneer and producing metabolites (acetic
the organism primarily utilizes soluble like mergers or bunker facers. The silage microbiologists have developed acid and 1,2 propanediol) which inhibit
sugars. Volatile fatty acid profiles will scientific advances in microbiology have a wide portfolio of crop-specific yeast growth. Feeding treated silages
typically show a reduction in lactic acid allowed the inoculant industry to deliver inoculants. Crop-specific products were before 1-2 months of ensiling with
and an increase in acetic acid levels. significant technologies over the past a natural evolution driven by research older L. buchneri strains will present no
In contrast, samples taken deeper in few decades which help: proving not all bacteria functions the concern, however, the bunklife may be
the mass of well-compacted silage will 1) reduce silage pH and conserve same way on every crop. If silage was less than expected. In 2016, Pioneer
typically show a more desirable pH and sugars, thought of as bacterial growth media, introduced “Rapid React” products
lactic acid level because yeast growth 2) reduce heating on increasingly large consider how much difference there is containing a L. buchneri strain which
is limited by lack of oxygen penetration. silage faces, between crops. Corn silage possesses confers excellent bunklife after only 7
3) reduce dry matter loss (shrink) high sugar with a low buffering capacity days of fermentation.
Higher levels of acetate should not
whose energy value must be while alfalfa contains relatively low sugar Improving fiber digestibility has long
always be considered deleterious or
replaced with expensive grain levels with a high buffering capacity and been the ultimate goal for Pioneer
evidence of high yeast contamination.
sources, is exposed to soil contaminants as it microbiologists. Research clearly
Elevated acetic acid levels caused
is wilted on the ground. High-moisture shows that adding certain enzymes to
by yeasts, gram-negative acetic acid 4) improve consistency and palatability
corn is the most difficult crop to ferment the TMR can improve fiber digestibility.
producers (e.g. enterobacter sp.) or of ensiled feeds and more recently,
due to relatively low available water, very The problem is that growing enzyme-
heterofermentative lactic-acid bacteria and
low sugar content and generally high producing bacteria in commercial
(e.g. leuconostoc sp.) may contribute to 5) the introduction of inoculants yeast counts. fermentation tanks, purifying and
poor bunklife or intake issues. However, from Pioneer which contain a
silages treated with bacterial additives Lactobacillus buchneri strain Inoculant product development is further stabilizing the enzymes and selling
containing strains of Lactobacillus capable of producing fiber complicated by the fact that Pioneer through distribution channels makes
buchneri also exhibit lower lactic: acetic degrading esterase enzymes microbiologists have to individually their use economically unviable for the
ratios yet have been shown to reduce while it grows in the silage test different strain combinations in silage market. Products that contain
yeast counts and improve bunklife (11CFT, 11AFT and 11GFT). both laboratory and animal trials. This traditional fermentation bacterial strains
without exerting any negative impact on is because bacterial strains can act along with enzymes have never been
Terminal pH was historically the best differently when combined with various shown to improve digestibility beyond
dry matter intake.
assessment of inoculant efficiency with other strains as compared to when they those containing bacteria alone. This is
PIONEER® BRAND FORAGE ADDITIVES: produced lactic and acetic acids have the day they were harvested; much
CROP-SPECIFIC OPTIONS USING PATENTED, PROPRIETARY BACTERIAL STRAINS on that silage intake or ruminal acidosis.
Lactic acid is produced by both
like kernel processing improves corn
silage nutritional value. Cutting-edge
VFA PROFILES
Inoculants Nutrivail™ Feed Technologies silage bacterial species (Lactobacillus inoculant products should probably be Practical interpretation of silage
1174 1189 11H50 11C33 11B91 11G22 11CFT 11AFT 11GFT and Enterococcus) and by rumen viewed as more of a management tool volatile fatty acid (VFA) profiles can
be challenging, especially if additives
organisms (Selenomonas ruminantium, to help improve nutritive value rather
Corn Alfalfa/ Corn Grass/ containing L. buchneri were used
Multi-Crop HMC Alfalfa Silage HMC Grass/Cereals Silage Alfalfa Cereals Streptococcus bovis and Lactobacillus than as an insurance policy to reduce
species). While lactic acid is a ten- potential losses. As the inoculant and not recorded by the laboratory.
Contains Contains Contains
fast-acting* fast-acting* fast-acting* Contains Contains Contains fold stronger acid than other silage industry evolves, it will be important Furthermore, many of the datasets from
L. buchneri † L. buchneri † L. buchneri † L. buchneri † L. buchneri † L. buchneri †
(or rumen) volatile fatty acids, the total for nutritionists to fully understand the commercial laboratories are biased from
Improves fermentation and the submission of problem samples. In
reduces dry matter loss
X X X X X X X X X acid (notably lactic) contribution from mode of action of products because
reasonably well-fermented silage is only ration formulation may need to be general, a higher moisture crop equals
Improves nutrient conservation X X X X X X X X X
a small fraction relative to the total acid altered to fully capture the value longer fermentation and higher total
Significantly reduces
heating on bunker/pile face
X X X X X X load produced by rumen organisms. delivered by these products. acid load. It is not unusual for low
dry matter grass silages to have total
Helps reduce heating in entire TMR X X X X X X Depressed intake has long been
acid levels in excess of 10%. Typical
Improves fiber digestibility X X X associated with silages high in ammonia,
*New Rapid React™ aerobic stability† technology amides, and amine compounds INOCULANT North American silages treated with a
homofermentative inoculant will have a
(such as histamine) which are end-
APPLICATION
†
Improved aerobic stability and reduced heating is relative to untreated silage. Actual results may vary. The effect of any silage inoculant is dependent upon management at
lactic-to-acetic acid ratio much greater
harvest, storage and feedout. Factors such as moisture, maturity, chop length and compaction will determine inoculant efficacy. products of silage protein degradation
IMPORTANT: Information and ratings are based on relative comparisons with other Pioneer® brand forage additives within each specific crop, not competitive products. than 2:1. As discussed earlier, the lactic-
that occurs during fermentation. If
Information and ratings are assigned by DuPont Pioneer Forage Additive Research, based on average performance across area of use under normal conditions, over a wide For inoculation to be effective in to-acetic acid levels can approach 1:1 in
range of both environment and management conditions, and may not predict future results. Product responses are variable and subject to any number of environmental fermentation is extended, these protein
and management conditions. Please use this information as only part of your product positioning decision. Refer to www.pioneer.com/products or contact a Pioneer sales reducing shrink, improving bunklife products containing L. buchneri which
degradation products typically increase
professional for the latest and most complete listing of traits and scores for each Pioneer brand product and for product placement and management suggestions specific to and enhancing nutrient digestibility, it is metabolize lactic acid to produce acetic
your operation and local conditions. in concentration similar to acid
essential that the bacteria be uniformly acid and 1,2 propanediol.
Fermentation — Rate and extent of pH decline and the composition of fermentation acids occurring in silage. Nutrient conservation — Retaining more sugar/starch and reducing concentrations. Ammonia nitrogen
protein degradation by rapidly reducing silage pH. Fiber digestibility — The digestibility of neutral detergent fiber (NDF) by the ruminant animal expressed as a percentage of the total distributed in the silage mass. Lactic The one VFA which should be absent
NDF. Bunklife — Relative heat development compared to ambient temperature. Bunklife considers both how quickly silage begins to heat and the amount of heat generated while (expressed as % of total nitrogen) of
acid bacteria do not have flagella and from quality silages is butyric acid
remaining above ambient temperature.” less than 5% typically indicates high
do not migrate very far within the silage produced by clostridia. Silages high in
quality silage.
due to the high cost of purified enzymes opportunity to reduce ration costs by It should be noted that corn silage mass. While granular application is moisture and contaminated with soil
prohibiting adequate inclusion rates. removing grain and protein due to the treated with 11CFT will not act the Research from Europe and the U.S. still available, the most common and (high ash) tend to have more problems
enhanced nutritive value of the forage. same as feeding BMR corn silage. shows that high levels of acetate (e.g. preferred method to facilitate distribution
Another technological breakthrough in with butyric acid. Butyric acid reduces
11CFT-treated silage is an efficiency lactic: acetic acid ratios of near 1:1) on the crop is liquid application applied
improving fiber digestibility occurred Dozens of field studies have shown that palatability, feed intake and has the
tool allowing for removal of some have no negative impact on feed intake to the silage in the accelerator (blower)
in 2007 with the introduction of a the carbohydrate pools (B1, B2 and B3) potential to predispose ruminants to
protein and energy from the diet if the high acetic level was the result of of the forage harvester. Furthermore,
Pioneer Fiber Technology (Nutrivail) as defined in the Cornell Model, have ketosis. Recommendations are to limit
because of faster digestion of the fiber. silage treated with strains of L. buchneri. granular products are less effective in
“combi” inoculant (11CFT) containing an increased rate of digestion in silages daily intake of butyric acid to 50 grams
BMR corn silage tends to increase dry However, acetic acid produced by yeast, dry silages. Pioneer has done extensive
homofermentative LAB and a unique inoculated with the esterase-producing gram-negative acetic acid producers
matter intake due presumably to the application research and has made
strain of L. buchneri capable of bacterial strain in 11CFT. Changing such as enterobacter species or
fragility of cell walls containing less commercially available several patented
producing ferulate and acetyl esterase these digestion rates in ration-balancing heterofermentative lactic-acid bacteria
lignin. Some producers feed BMR AppliPro® inoculant application systems.
enzymes while growing in the silage software (like the CNCPS model) shows like leuconostoc species may contribute
silage to transition and high-string Not only do these applicators ensure
mass. This enzyme helps uncouple that the inoculated silage produces to poor bunklife or feed intake issues.
cows to stimulate higher intakes and excellent distribution, they also allow
lignin from polysaccharides in the cell more metabolizable energy (ME) and
feed conventional corn silage treated As inoculants become more for inoculants to be removed from the
wall increasing the rate of fiber digestion metabolizable protein (MP) predicted
with 11CFT to the lower production sophisticated in their ability to applicator and stored for up to five days
and generating more metabolizable milk while also yielding more microbial
cows to capture dietary cost savings. manipulate fermentation and (or frozen for 12 months) without loss of Clostridial
energy and microbial protein yield protein production (from rumen bacteria layer
digestibility, it may be possible to make viability should weather or equipment
from the silage. This allows for higher being able to more easily access the Nutritionists and producers have
forages higher in nutritional value than failure delay harvest.
dietary forage inclusion rates and the digestible portion of the cell wall). questioned the impact that silage-
TYPICAL L. buchneri INOCULATED
CORN SILAGE VFA PROFILE
TYPICAL HOMOFERMENTATIVE
INOCULATED CORN SILAGE VFA PROFILE
COMPACTION AND SEALING
FERMENTATION PROFILE FERMENTATION PROFILE Packing bunkers and piles is one of ensiling process. Most of the silages piles with unstable faces. One of the
the most critical elements in ensuring that heat (>15º F above ambient advantages of thermal imaging is the
pH 3.8 pH 3.6
quality silage. Poorly packed, low dry temperature at harvest) are the result ability to safely view the entire face with
Lactic Acid, % DM 3.1% Lactic Acid, % DM 4.6% matter silages will have extended of poor compaction. Density is what the heat signature indicative of areas
Acetic Acid, % DM 1.8% Acetic Acid, % DM 0.8% plant cell respiration resulting in an is easily measured at the bunker, but with excessive porosity.
Propionic Acid, % DM 0.4% Propionic Acid, % DM 0.1% increased loss of digestible nutrients. it is really porosity (air movement) Research from Wisconsin addressed
Entrapped air can allow the growth of that management approaches are the relationship between silage bulk
Ammonia Nitrogen, % Total Nitrogen 4.6% Ammonia Nitrogen, % Total Nitrogen 4.6%
aerobic microorganisms (yeasts and trying to reduce. Measuring density density and the porosity of silages. The
molds) which are detrimental to the can be dangerous in large bunkers or
or less for early lactation cows with
BUTYRIC ACID SILAGE FEEDING THRESHOLDS levels exceeding 150 grams posing a
high risk for ketosis. Ketosis risk is high
lbs DM intake to stay below butyric acid threshold
% Butyric Acid Source: Dr. Gary Oetzel, Univ. of WI. at any stage of lactation when daily
in silage intake levels exceed 250 grams (see
(DM basis) mg/lb 50g/cow/day 150g/cow/day 250g/cow/day table).
0.25 1.1 44.1 132.2 220.3
0.50 2.3 22.0 66.1 110.1
0.75 3.4 14.7 44.1 73.4 PROTEIN
1.00 4.5 11.0 33.0 55.1 DEGRADATION
1.25 5.7 8.8 26.4 44.1
1.50 6.8 7.3 22.0 36.7 Ammonia-nitrogen (NH3-N) as a
percent of total nitrogen can be an
1.75 7.9 6.3 18.9 31.5
indicator of the length of fermentation
2.00 9.1 5.5 16.5 27.5 and/or clostridial fermentation. In
2.25 10.2 4.9 14.7 24.5 general, a faster fermentation results
2.50 11.4 4.4 13.2 22.0 in less proteolysis. NH3-N levels (as a
2.75 12.5 4.0 12.0 20.0 % of total N) should be less than 5%
3.00 13.6 3.7 11.0 18.4
in corn/cereals and less than 10% in
grass/legume silages.
3.25 14.8 3.4 10.2 16.9
3.50 15.9 3.1 9.4 15.7 Heat damaged (bound or unavailable
protein) in silages is monitored with acid
3.75 17.0 2.9 8.8 14.7
detergent insoluble nitrogen (ADIN)
4.00 18.2 2.8 8.3 13.8 as a percent of total nitrogen. Levels
4.50 20.4 2.4 7.3 12.2 exceeding 12% indicate excessive
5.00 22.7 2.2 6.6 11.0 heating (>130º F) in forage silages
5.50 25.0 2.0 6.0 10.0 and may require adjustment to the
crude protein level in the ration. Pepsin
6.00 27.2 1.8 5.5 9.2
insoluble nitrogen (as a percent of
6.50 29.5 1.7 5.1 8.5 total nitrogen) levels greater than
7.00 31.8 1.6 4.7 7.9 20% indicate excessive heating with
8.00 36.3 1.4 4.1 6.9 high-moisture earlage, snaplage or
9.00 40.9 1.2 3.7 6.1 shelled corn.
goal is to help producers target harvest layers. However, given the capacity
moistures which will produce porosity to fill bunkers today, if the entire
values less than 40% ultimately bunker can be filled in a relatively
reducing oxygen penetration into the short time (1-2 days) it may facilitate
exposed face. easier and more uniform packing to
Two of the factors most correlated fill the bunker in layers rather than as
with high density (to help reduce a progressive wedge.
porosity) is time spent packing Pack density should exceed 15 lbs dry
per ton and depth of the individual matter per cubic foot for forages and
layers being compacted. The goal over 30 lbs of dry matter per cubic foot
is to pack in thin layers of less than for high-moisture grains to provide
six inches. When building piles, it the anaerobic environment that will
is also important to keep a slope of help improve both fermentation and
approximately 30 degrees to ensure feedout stability.
that the “tails” of the pile are not too A good rule of thumb for the required
long and shallow. It has always been pack tractor capacity is to multiply the
recommended to build bunkers using
a progressive wedge approach, rather
tons of silage being delivered to the
bunker per hour by 800. For example,
800 lb RULE (total pack tractor weight required based
on how much coming to the bunker/hour)
than spreading silage out flat in thin if corn silage is being delivered to the n 800 lbs worth of pack tractor is required per ton as fed delivered to the
bunker at 200 tons per hour, a total bunker per hour. Example:
TO MINIMIZE SILAGE POROSITY, RECOMMENDED of 160,000 tons worth of pack tractor
• If the chopper can deliver 100 tons as
DRY MATTER DENSITIES VARY WITH FORAGE DM capacity is needed (or about four
fed deliver to pile/hour * 800 = 80,000 MAY REQUIRE:
large pack tractors, not counting the
worth of pack tractors needed (not • adding tractor weights
DM density values within the white cells Shaded cells in the table are recommended push tractors).
do not meet recommended silage bulk density on-farm silage DM density to meet counting push tractors) per chopper. • increasing tire pressure
and porosity goals porosity goals based on forage DM
In general, silages cannot be over- • using larger vehicles
Bulk Density (lb as fed/ft3, kg as fed/m3) • Generally requires a minimum of 2
30, 480 35, 560 40, 640 45, 721 50, 801 55, 881 packed; except for the very top layer. • more pack tractors
(Goal >44, 704) heavy pack tractors and one push
It is best to level off the top and cover
tractor per large self-propelled chopper
Forage DM Top number in table is Porosity - Goal is <40 with oxygen-barrier film and plastic as
Bottom numbers in table is recommended DM density expressed in blue as lb DM/ft3 and in black as kg DM/m3
quickly as possible. Spending hours on
25%
55.9
7.5, 120
48.6
8.8, 141
41.3
10.0, 160
33.9
11.3, 181
26.6
12.5, 200
19.2
13.8, 221
the top of a bunker does very little to
compact the entire mass and causes
2.5 RULE (tons you can bring to the bunker per hour based
on your total pack tractor capacity)
56.7 49.5 42.3 35.1 27.9 20.7
30% DM problems by rupturing plant cell walls, n 80,000 lbs total pack tractor capacity = 40 tons * 2.5 = 100 tons of as fed
9.0, 144 10.5, 168 12.0, 192 13.5, 216 15.0, 240 16.5, 264
Density exposing water and nutrients to aerobic silage can be delivered to bunker per hour given the pack tractor capacity
As 57.5 50.5 43.4 36.3 29.2 22.2
Forage 35% (blue Values) spoilage organisms. The darkish layer
10.5, 168 12.3, 197 14.0, 224 15.8, 253 17.5, 280 19.3, 309 Must Go
DM that looks similar to “fill lines” at about
Goes Up 58.3 51.4 44.5 37.5 30.6 23.6 Up To
40% 12.0, 192 14.0, 224 16.0, 256 18.0, 288 20.0, 320 22.0, 352 Reduce 12 inches below the top of an otherwise
59.1 52.3 45.5 38.7 31.9 25.1
Porosity very well managed bunker is often the
45% 13.5, 216 15.8, 253 18.0, 288 20.3, 325 22.5, 360 24.8, 397 result of spending hours over-packing
59.9 53.3 46.6 39.9 33.3 26.6
the top layer. A migration of water and
50% 15.0, 240 17.5, 280 20.0, 320 22.5, 360 25.0, 400 27.5, 440 nutrients into the silage mass about
12 inches from the top allows spoilage
As bulk density (as fed) increases, porosity decreases. For a given bulk density, increasing dry matter content (decreasing moisture content) increases porosity. In the recommended
range of dry matter content (30-40%) for good fermentation, the range of porosity does not change very much. However ensiling forage at higher DM does increase porosity appreciably. organisms to thrive in this area.
A porosity of 0.40 or lower appears to be a reasonable goal. To achieve this value, a 44 lbs/cu ft of bulk density is needed within the acceptable dry matter range of 30-40%. Under
these conditions, the dry matter density is in the range of 13.3-17.6 lbs DM/ft3. Note how tractors drive over sides of a well designed pile (1:3 slope)
Source: Holmes, B. 2009. Density and porosity in bunker and pile silos. Available on UW Extension – Forage Resources
Website: http://fyi.uwex.edu/forage/files/2014/01/Porosity-FOF.pdf
MAKING A “BAG OUT OF A BUNKER” MANAGING DRIVE-OVER PILES BALEAGE
Drive-over piles are becoming width is determined by the proper side For many smaller producers, baleage
increasingly popular for several slope. The maximum recommended offers more flexibility than harvesting
reasons: side slope is 1:3 or 1 foot of rise for dry hay. Baleage is best harvested
OB film
6-mil plastic
1) faster to fill and feed out, each 3 horizontal feet. So if the pile is between about 35-70% moisture to
2) better understanding of the proper 10 feet tall at the top, a 1:3 side-slope ensure adequate fermentation. Baleage
shape/slope and results in 30 feet of silage on each side, stored at 20-30% moisture is generally
or a 60 foot wide pile. A 30% maximum less successful due to moisture limiting
1 2 3 4 3) less spoilage on the tails due to the
technologies of oxygen-barrier film slope is critical because if the slope is
any steeper it is dangerous for pack
an acceptable fermentation.
and L. buchneri inoculants. University of Wisconsin researchers
Put drainage tile on top of Secure plastic with some Place oxygen-barrier film Rain/melted snow runs tractor drivers, and the silage doesn’t recommend using a cutter on the front
A good drive-over pile starts with
bunker walls so plastic feed and drape it over on the top under the plastic down between wall get adequately packed on the sides. of the baler to cut the hay into 4-inch
will not rip when pulled the wall. Lay down 4-6” for added protection. Pull and plastic and exits via a solid base of gravel, compacted
Silage pile ends should have the same lengths for greater packing density,
over the side walls. drainage tile behind plastic. plastic over walls and cover drainage tile providing lime, asphalt or concrete. Once
slope as the sides so the entire pile can easier use in a TMR mixer, and less
Don’t worry if it rips a little silage, lapping the sheets. enhanced preservation for a manageable pile height is set
be driven over from any direction. feed lost when fed in a feeder. They
when packing; it will still silage against the wall. (determined by the maximum height the
serve its purpose. bucket or tele-handler can reach), the suggest wrapping baleage within
24-hours of harvest with a minimum
of at 6mil, preferably 8mil, of plastic
Sealing the silage mass is an important of a bunker.” Be sure the plastic is silage. If the bunker is sloped correctly, wrap. This can be accomplished by
next step. This should be done as overlapped between sheets so moisture it is advisable to have 12-24 inches of wrapping 6 times with 1ml plastic or 4
soon as possible by covering with will drain off on top to the plastic and the plastic hang over the face to shed times with1.5 mil plastic. Research with
oxygen-barrier film and 6-8mm white not into the silage. Plastic should be water off the exposed face during rain 4mils of plastic showed that oxygen
plastic (to reflect sunlight and reduce weighted down with pea gravel bags or events. leaked through the plastic resulting in
condensation below the plastic). tries to keep the plastic tightly secured. Pack tractors with a blade rather than a microbial growth and spoilage. Total
Consider putting plastic down the This is especially important on the front bucket (like on pay loaders) do a much plastic thickness, not the number
walls of bunkers to create “a bag out edge to prevent air billowing into the better job of “feathering” out the silage of wraps appears to be the most
into the recommended 6-inch layers. HOW NOT TO MAKE A DRIVE-OVER PILE important factor to resist oxygen from
Front-wheel and front wheel-assist reaching the feed.
drive tractors (with dual wheels on both • Slope too steep Wrapping is a preferred storage method
rear and front) provide extra traction, but long-term storage might be aided
• Did not drive pack tractor over all
stability and allow for easier packing by the use of an inoculant or acid, if
sides
than with pay loaders. A 3-point lift adequate distribution of the products
(hitch) is advantageous to add weight • Tires holding plastic slip off or don’t
can be achieved at the baler. Silage
to the back along with filling the inside really weight down the plastic
bales should be stored on a smooth,
dual tires with fluid and adding extra • Air being billowed into the silage dry surface where ripping of plastic and
lights for night time packing. Having mass along sides where tires slid off rodent damage can be minimized.
three hydraulic remotes to run the
blade, a foot throttle, a left-hand
reverser for clutch less shifting, plenty
Fill Line from extended of rear-view mirrors (properly adjusted)
exposure to oxygen during and a “buddy seat” to train other
delays in filling. drivers, rounds out the wish list for the
ideal pack and push tractor.
FEEDOUT MANAGEMENT
Proper silage feed-out management aerobic bacteria and yeast organisms containing L. buchneri strains have
is essential to maintain consistent and increases twofold for every 10ºF been a tremendous benefit by inhibiting
high quality ensiled forages and high- increase in temperature. Consequently, the growth of yeast. A second criteria
moisture grains. Research shows that it becomes challenging to stay ahead for stable silage is the maintenance
poor face management can easily of aerobic instability during the spring of an anaerobic, or “oxygen free”
double shrink losses. Besides the and summer. It is also common to environment for as much of the silage
financial loss associated with shrink, have bunklife problems with harvested as possible.
feed quality and consistency can forages that have been rained on before Silages should be removed from
vary dramatically and may contribute chopping and ensiling. Rain can leach bunker and pile faces by mechanically
to livestock production and health crop sugars and splash soil-borne shaving the silage face from top
problems. As mentioned earlier, bacteria and fungi (mold) onto the crop, to bottom or peeling the silage
porosity is the enemy so proper effectively “seeding” the silage with horizontally with a front-end loader
moisture (to fill in the air spaces), spoilage organisms awaiting the chance bucket. This is preferred to lifting the
particle size, compaction (density) and to grow if provided the opportunity. bucket from the bottom to the top.
sealing methods are also the key to Crops stressed by drought, insect or Lifting creates fracture lines in the
maintaining anaerobic conditions. It is hail damage will generally possess silage mass allowing oxygen to enter
also advisable to remove and dispose elevated fungal counts dictating that which promotes aerobic activity. Even
of visibly moldy feed from the sides or proper management be followed when when removing the desirable 6-12
top of the storage structure and not to ensiling these stressed crops. inches daily from the silo face, oxygen
allow loose, aerated silage to pile up The first criterion for stable silage can still penetrate several feet into
for extended periods of time before is achieving a low terminal pH the stored mass. This facilitates heat-
feeding. producing a hostile environment to generating aerobic activity which may
Proper feedout practices are especially inhibit the propagation of spoilage not fully dissipate from the face. Use
important during warm periods of the microorganisms such as aerobic of inoculants containing L. buchneri
year because the biological activity of bacteria, yeast and molds. Inoculants allow for reduced feedout rates while
Protected by oxygen-barrier film/plastic
Protected by Pioneer® brand inoculants

containing L. buchneri strains
124 Feed
FEED
Store Harvest Grow Plant Plant Grow Harvest Store Feed 125
maintaining aerobic stability. Research managed bunker which was being
shows that the stability of the entire mechanically faced. This bunker SILAGE SILO GAS
TMR can be maintained, as well as
acid-based TMR products, when at
was split down the middle as it was
excessively wide and feed-out rate STORAGE SAFETY Caution should be exercised when weather and fertility imbalances.
least 14 lbs forage dry matter was was a concern. However, the thermal REMINDERS working around silages within three
weeks of harvest due to the potential
Nitrates accumulate in the lower portion
of the plant when the crop yield is less
treated with Pioneer’s buchneri silage image clearly shows by the reddish-
inoculant and included in the TMR. white colors that oxygen is penetrating • A second individual should always for lethal nitrous oxide silo gases with than the supplied nitrogen fertility level.
Silage facers are becoming increasingly the exposed side resulting in aerobic be present at the bunker when the aroma of bleach. When tower Nitrates are responsible for lethal silo
popular. They “blend” feed across the activity and nutrient loss. When sampling feed, removing top- silos were the norm, it was a common gas when they combine with organic
entire face and cleanly remove silage bunkers are inoculated with reputable spoilage or testing bunker densities. practice to run the blower for at least 15 silage acids to form nitrous oxide. The
without disrupting compaction, which products containing L. buchneri, it is • Obtain representative forage minutes before entering a recently filled nitrous oxide decomposes to water and
is often the result with improper use of recommended to feed across the entire samples at the mixer wagon and not silo. Silo gas is heavier than air and can a mixture of nitrogen oxides including
front-end loader. face, even if only removing 2-3 inches at the silage face. exist around bunker, pile or bagged nitrogen oxide (colorless), nitrogen
per day, rather than splitting the bunker • When standing on the top of a silages, especially near the ground dioxide (reddish-brown color) and
The accompanying pictures show
and prolonging oxygen exposure on bunker, stay at least 15 feet behind where there is minimal air movement. nitrogen tetraoxide (yellowish color).
normal and thermal imaging of a well-
the exposed side. the face and do not approach if the Silo gas is common in all silages but These forms of nitrogen are volatilized
integrity of the face is questionable. more so in forage crops such as corn as a brownish gas in the atmosphere.
and sorghum that accumulate nitrates This gas is heavier than air and very
• Be extremely careful removing top-
FEEDOUT SAFETY from exposure to stress situations lethal to humans and livestock.
spoilage. Consider implementing a
fall-prevention harness cabled to a including drought, hail, frost, cloudy
Reported incidences of silage bunker/pile faces, measuring density, post secured a distance from the
avalanches are increasing at an removing spoiled feed or simply face.
alarming rate. These cause machinery operating buckets or facers. Several • Do not stand in front-end loader NITRATE LEVELS IN FORAGES FOR CATTLE
damage (front-end loader windows) companies forbid employees to or skid-steer buckets to procure NITRATE NITRATE
and worker injury or death. It is approach silage bunkers or pile faces samples from higher heights. ION % NITROGEN PPM RECOMMENDATIONS
imperative to think about safety due to the liability concern. • Be cautious of avalanches in silages,
while taking forage samples from 0.0-0.44 <1000 Safe to feed under all conditions
especially when observe a layer of
dry silage between two moist layers. Safe to feed to non-pregnant animals. Limit
• Be careful walking around bunkers 0.44-0.66 1000-1500 use for pregnant animals to 50% of total
and piles that have visible silage ration on a DM basis.
leachate and slippery wet conditions.
Safe to feed if limited to 50% of the total
0.66-0.88 1500-2000
DM ration.
Feeds should be limited to 35-40% of

the total DM in the ration. Feeds over
0.88-1.54 2000-3500
2000 PPM nitrate nitrogen should not be
fed to pregnant animals.
Feeds should be limited to 25% of total DM in

1.54-1.76 3500-4000
the ration. Do not feed to pregnant animals.
Feeds containing these levels are potentially

Over 1.76 >4000
toxic. DO NOT FEED.
Be careful of pack tractors if near Unsafe removal of top spoilage due Adapted from: Cornell University. To convert % nitrate ion (NO3 ) to ppm Nitrate-Nitrogen divide %N03 by 4.4
Dangerous way to sample silage due to potential for silage avalanche the storage structure during filling to potential for silage avalanche to obtain %N03-N and multiply %NO3-N x 10,000 to obtain ppm NO3-N.
before these maturity stages, two prior to analysis, the test result can indication of the presence of cyanide.
NITRATES weeks should be allowed before be misleading. In order to prevent This procedure is relatively new in terms
grazing or ensiling. High nitrogen and volatilization, call the laboratory for of availability to producers. In this test
Similar to silo gas, the potential a general recommendation, feeding normal. Problems also can be reduced low phosphorus soil fertility increases specific instructions on how to properly “cyantesmo paper” is utilized to detect
for high nitrate levels occurs when programs should be modified if the by diluting the stressed silage with the risk of both high nitrates and submit samples. the presence of hydrocyanic acids and
crops such as corn, sorghum, and only source of post-fermented feed other feeds and avoiding the use of prussic acid. The ensiling process will cyanides in freshly cut plant material. In
The second test procedure is a
some grasses are exposed to stress contains more than 1,000 PPM of non-protein nitrogen sources, such as not decrease the prussic acid level in the presence of cyanide, the pale green
qualitative test. It will not give PPM
situations including drought, hail, frost, nitrate-nitrogen. It is best to feed urea or ammonia. sorghum silage, however, field curing paper turns blue.
levels for a sample, but rather an
cloudy weather and fertility imbalance. stressed crops as silage rather It is a common recommendation to or drying releases 50-70 percent of the
Immature corn that undergoes these than fresh, green-chop because leave a higher stubble (e.g. 12”) when prussic acid.
stressors accumulate toxic nitrate fermentation typically reduces plant chopping drought-stressed corn to PPM HCN (DRY MATTER BASIS) INTERPRETATION
Two types of test procedures are
concentrations in the lower portion nitrate levels by approximately 40-50 reduce the nitrate accumulation that 0-250 Very low – safe to graze.
available for determining prussic acid
of the stover when crop yield is less percent. When feeding ruminants non- occurs in the lower portions of the (cyanide levels) in plants. One is a 250-500 Low – safe to graze.
than the supplied nitrogen fertility level fermented, droughty corn stalks as a stalk. However, most growers are quantitative test and involves sending
and due to reduced plant biochemical major source of their diet (e.g. wintering in need of forage inventory during 500-750 Medium – doubtful to graze.
material to the Oklahoma Animal
functions impeding nitrogen from being beef cows), producers need to closely drought conditions. Therefore, it is Disease Diagnostic Laboratory. For 750-1000 High – dangerous to graze.
converted to crude protein in the kernel. monitor nitrate levels. acceptable to chop at normal heights this test, care must be taken to avoid
If it rains, three days should be allowed Drought or stressed silages that have (4-6”) to increase forage inventories >1000 Very high – very dangerous to graze.
volatilization (loss of the cyanide gas)
before resuming harvest as plants not been inoculated should ferment given that the fermentation process as the plant sample dries. If prussic Over 1.76 >4000
that recover from stress will eventually a full three weeks before feeding. If a will degrade 40-50% of the nitrates acid has been lost from a sample
convert nitrates to a non-toxic form. sorghum or corn crop is inoculated and if the silage in question will not Source: Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service Bulletin PSS-2904
Nitrates are not only responsible for with a reputable product, nitrate levels be the sole forage. For example,
lethal silo gas but when fed to animals, should be reduced by 40-50% in a nitrate-N levels of up to 2000 ppm are
they induce symptomatic labored
breathing due to interfering with the
matter of a few days. Ruminants can
be fed higher nitrate feeds if the rumen
acceptable if the post-fermented feed
if limited to 50% of the entire diet. This
FIELD MOLDS
blood’s ability to carry oxygen. bacteria are given time to adapt by means that the pre-fermented crop Mold spores are virtually everywhere in corn plant health and may provide However, the presence of visible ear
If the crop has been stressed or shows gradually increasing the volume of could have levels upward of 3500- the field and easily survive over winter conditions that make ear molds and molds does not correlate well with
a marked reduction in grain content, a high-nitrate feed in the ration and if 4000 ppm nitrate-nitrogen. in soil and plant residues. The most their corresponding mycotoxins more mycotoxin contamination. It should be
forage nitrate analysis is advised. As cattle are fed more frequently than common method of fungal entry in likely to develop. Estimates are that 70- noted that no silage acid or inoculant
corn is through the roots during the 90% of all mycotoxins are already on product is capable of degrading these
seedling stage, down silk channels the plant prior to harvest and ensiling. preformed, field-produced toxins.
PRUSSIC ACID during pollination and via plant

wounds from environmental or insect
injury. Common field-fungi (primarily
Under certain conditions, sorghum two hydrolysis products with the final If new shoots develop after a light frost,
Aspergillus and Fusarium spp.) are
PRACTICAL APPROACHES TO
and sudangrass is capable of releasing one being HCN. grazing should not occur until after a
capable of producing recognizable MINIMIZING FIELD PRODUCED TOXINS ARE:
hydrocyanic acid (HCN or prussic Prussic acid accumulates in sorghum killing frost.
toxins including aflatoxin, vomitoxin 1. Reduce fungal populations and access sites by planting hybrids
acid), which makes them potentially and sudangrass and increases rapidly Minimum plant growth for safe grazing, (DON), fumonisin, zearalonone and with insect, stalk rot and ear mold resistance.
dangerous for grazing. In the plant, following stress. Poisoning occurs green-chopping or silage making is 18 T-2. Mycotoxins that may be harmful to
HCN is attached to a larger molecule, when animals graze young sorghum inches for sudangrass and 30 inches 2. Harvest in a timely manner with particular attention to proper
livestock are not produced by the fungi
a cyanogenic glucoside called dhurrin. plants, or drought-stunted or stressed for sorghum-sudangrass. Forage moisture levels.
that cause smuts or common foliar and
Dhurrin itself is harmless, as it is simply plants. Sorghum plants are poisonous sorghums should be headed out. If 3. Isolate silages from crops exposed to severe drought or hail damage.
rust diseases, however, ear molds can
a compound consisting of a sugar and after a frost that kills the tops but not frosted at these stages, producers result in potential mycotoxin problems. 4. Consider traditional tillage methods to reduce fungal spore loads in
a non-sugar molecule. However, a the crown, or when new growth is should wait three days before grazing Predisposing fungal diseases and crop residue.
two-step enzymatic process results in brought on by rain following a drought. or ensiling. If the plants are frosted other plant stressors can jeopardize
because no laboratory, to date, has health problems. The first obstacle from a mycotoxigenic species, then
developed an economical screen to is obtaining a representative sample toxins become a plausible causative
detect this toxin. The only practical from the contaminated portion of the agent, whether or not random feed
approach to preventing growth crop. One approach is to compare sampling detected the actual presence
of storage fungi is implementing the analysis of spoiled/moldy samples of a toxin.
silage management practices that to normal-looking silage. The best Once toxins are detected, or highly
create and maintain anaerobic silage approach for estimating actual toxin suspected from fungi identification,
environments. intake, from questionable forage or nutritionists must decide on a practical
grain, is to sample the feed after being approach to remediation. Unfortunately,
blended in a TMR mixer. This provides a the options are few other than
more homogeneous sample compared segregating spoiled feed or stimulating
Fusarium Penicillium Gibberella Fusarium Fusarium Aspergillus Gibberella to traditional methods of sub-sampling
graminearum Spp. Ear Rot (moniliforme) verticillioides Spp. Stalk Rot the immune system by increasing ration
Spp. stalk rot (F. moniliforme)
composited, random samples taken energy, protein, vitamins (A, E, B) and
(also called Gibberella ear rot from across the face of the storage minerals (Se, Zn, Cu, Mn). The most
zeae or Gibb) structure. effective remedy may be the tried and
As an industry, livestock agriculture true adage of “dilution is the solution.”
MOLD GROWTH REQUIREMENTS Mucor may be severely underestimating the This is much easier to accomplish
ASPERGILLUS FUSARIUM MONILAFORME FUSARIUM GRAMINEARUM contribution of toxins to production on farms that have multiple storage
problems. This is because mycotoxins options for isolating problem silages,
Temperature Optimum > 33˚C (90˚F) Optimum 27-29˚C (80-85˚F) Optimum 20˚C (68˚F) can often exist in conjugated rather than ensiling all the forage in one
Moisture Grain-fill drought stress Early drought, then humidity Wet during flowering
forms (primarily with sugars) which or two large bunkers.
escape laboratory detection. These The concept of dilution has several
Insects as vectors Important Very important Less important undetected toxins can then exert their implications regarding mycotoxicosis.
toxic and immunosuppressive effects It has been proposed that there
when disassociated in the digestive are no more feed toxins today than
STORAGE MOLDS Penicillium
tract. ELISA (enzyme-linked immune
stimulant assay) tests are designed as
in the past. Animals today may be
consuming significantly more dry
rapid and inexpensive toxin screens for
The field fungi described previously do high-moisture grains primarily include COMMON MOLDS grain, but they are prone to many false
matter coupled with our increased
not typically grow in the anaerobic, low Fusarium, Mucor and Penicillium with a
pH environment found in well-managed much smaller incidence of Aspergillus
FOUND IN U.S. SILAGES Nutritionists usually begin to suspect positives when used on forage samples.
detection capabilities. Dilution also
becomes an important consideration
silages. However, it is possible for and Monila. AND HM GRAINS mycotoxin issues after linking ELISA tests are acceptable on forages as producers feed more and more
these fungi to produce additional observations of spoiled silage, if the lab is using a “clean up” method of a single feedstuff which may be
Storage fungi like Penicillium, Mucor Mucor (white/gray fluffy) 45%
digestive upsets and erratic intake on the sample yielding a clean extract
toxins in aerobically-challenged and Monila do not typically invade susceptible to toxin issues.
storage conditions caused by low Penicillium (green/blue) 45% with opportunistic diseases associated for producing accurate and precise
the crop prior to harvest but their soil- with compromised immune systems. ELISA mycotoxin determination. It is It has been shown that binding agents
harvest moisture, poor compaction or borne spores are on the forage crop Aspergillus (yellow/green) 7% It is important not to totally rule out a generally considered best to utilize a are capable of reducing toxin levels
improper feedout techniques. Crops when they are being ensiled. Mucor toxin issue, even in normal-appearing laboratory providing chromatography in feed. However, while many of
heavily laden with Candida and Hansula and Monila are typically white-to- Monilia (white/yellow) 3%
silage, because toxins can be present approaches such as HPLC (high these products have GRAS (generally
yeast species are of particular concern grayish in color and do not produce Source: Pioneer Technical Service Sample Summary
in silages lacking visible spoilage or pressure liquid chromatography), recognized as safe) status, the FDA
because these lactate consumers can any known mycotoxins. Their primary fungal growth. Conversely, moldy GC (gas chromatography) or TLC does not allow addition of these
elevate silage pH. If excess oxygen concern is reducing silage nutritional citrinin, ochratoxin, mycophenolic acid
silage may be completely free of (thin layer chromatography). Some products to the ration specifically for
penetrates high pH silages, conditions quality, bunklife and palatability. and roquefortine C.) are of greatest
detectable toxin loads. It is often nutritionists contract with a mycology the purpose of mycotoxin reduction.
are conducive for additional growth of concern in ensiled forages because of
Most experts agree that Penicillium difficult to confirm mycotoxins as the laboratory to have silage fungi isolated Obviously, more public funding of
the field fungi in the storage structure. their resistance to low pH. Nutritionists
(typically green-bluish in color) and their culprit responsible for production and and identified. If the isolated fungi are research in this area is warranted along
Mold species isolated from silage and may lack awareness of PR toxin
toxins (primarily PR, but also patulin, with appropriate regulatory standards.
FDA CENTER FOR VETERINARY MEDICINE FEEDING RECOMMENDATIONS
FOR MYCOTOXIN-CONTAINING FEEDS IN TOTAL RATION
Parts Per Million (ppm)
MOVING SILAGE
1 milligram/kilogram (mg/kg) = 1 ppm
RECOMMENDED MAXIMUM The ability to move silage from one
MYCOTOXIN CONCENTRATION IN TOTAL RATION TYPE OF LIVESTOCK
1 milligram/liter (mg/l) = 1 ppm
structure to another (e.g. from bags
1 microgram/gram (µg/g) = 1 ppm to emptied tower silos to facilitate
20 ppb Dairy Cattle and Calves
0.0001% = 1 ppm feeding systems) is a relatively
Aflatoxin 100 ppb Breeding Cattle, Breeding Swine and Mature Poultry
common question among producers.
1 ppm ANALOGIES
300 ppb Finishing Cattle and Swine Unfortunately, very little research has
5 ppm Ruminating Beef, Feedlot Cattle and Chickens 1 inch in 16 miles ever been published on the subject.
1 minute in two years It is difficult to give broad-based
0.5 ppm Swine: Feeder pigs and prepubertal gilts recommendations because the
1 second in 11.5 days
Vomitoxin (DON) 1 ppm Swine: Finishing pigs, breeding herd and boars success or failure of moving silage
1 car in bumper-to-bumper traffic from Cleveland to San Francisco
is dependent on the condition of the
1 ppm Veal Calves 8.34 pounds/million gallons silage in the original storage structure.
2 ppm All other animals Factors influencing the success of
1 ppm = 1,000 ppb =1,000,000 ppt
0.3 ppm Breeding Swine, Young Swine moving silage are fermentative acid
profile, contamination level with
0.5 ppm Young Males (Intact) Parts Per Billion (ppb) spoilage bacteria/fungi, residual sugar
0.5 ppm Feeder Swine 1 microgram/kilogram (µg/kg) = 1 ppb levels, and buffering capacity, and
2.0 ppm Older Boars and Finishing Pigs
whether or not an inoculant was used
1 microgram/liter (µg/l) = 1 ppb
at initial ensiling. Field experience
No acceptable levels Layer Chickens 1 nanogram/gram (ng/g) = 1 ppb suggests that well-ensiled, stored
Zearalenone 10 ppm Broiler Chickens 1 ppb ANALOGIES silage can be successfully moved if the
following conditions are met:
No FDA guidelines,
Lactating Dairy Cows 1 silver dollar in a roll stretching from Detroit to Salt Lake City • Inoculate the silage at harvest with
<12ppm suggested by Iowa State University.
1 sheet of toilet paper stretching from New York to London a combination inoculant product
5 ppm Beef Feeder Cattle
1 second in nearly 32 years containing L. buchneri strains.
0.5 ppm Cattle (dairy and beef); Virgin Heifers 1 pound/120 million gallons of water • Move the silage as quickly as
No information Bulls possible into the new storage
0.001 ppm = 1 ppb =1,000 ppt structure.
0.1 ppm Young Swine (both sexes), replacement swine (no data)
• Move in the coldest time of the year
0.3 ppm Adult Breeding and Older Feeder Swine Parts Per Trillion (ppt) to minimize the potential of fueling
0.5 ppm Dairy Cows and Feeder Cattle bacterial/fungal growth.
T-2 Toxin 1 nanogram/kilogram (ng/kg) = 1 ppt
• Manage the move to prevent as
0.5 ppm Layer Hens 1 nanogram/liter (ng/l) = 1 ppt much oxygen penetration into the
0.75 ppm Broilers 1 picogram/gram (pg/g) = 1 ppt silage mass as possible.
No acceptable limit Ducks, Turkeys and Geese 1 ppt ANALOGIES If the silage was initially inoculated at
5 ppm Horses ensiling, it is generally not recommend
1 square inch in 250 square miles to inoculate again at the move. If the
Fumonisin 10 ppm Swine 1 second in nearly 32,000 years fermentation is directed as desired, the
50 ppm Cattle 1 ounce in 7.5 billion gallons of water fermentative acid profiles should allow
Source: Adapted from: http://www.llojibwe.org/drm/environmental/content/concentrations.pdf
for movement of silage with relatively
Source: Mycotoxins in Feeds: CVM’s Perspective http://www.fda.gov/AnimalVeterinary/Products/AnimalFoodFeeds/Contaminants/ucm050974.htm
few problems.
GOALS FOR STABLE SILAGE MINIMAL
MICROBIAL/
SAMPLING SILAGES
It is critical that feedstuffs be sampled approach is to sample the feedstuff
FUNGAL correctly. Assuming a “normal” from the discharge chute after it has
LOW pH PROPER SPECTRUM OF ACTIVITY AT fermentation, it is recommended been mixed in a TMR mixer. Do not
The pH for relatively high sugar- FERMENTATION ACIDS FEEDOUT

to sample forages at harvest. Pre-
fermentation sampling allows the
sample “problem” silage as removed
from a TMR mixer or an upright silo
containing crops such as corn silage, nutritionist to have the analysis “in unloader chute so as not to mask the
cereals and grass silages should be 3.8- Historically, the goal for silage was can also be the result of uncontrolled
a 2:1 ratio of lactic acid (LA) to growth of yeast or leuconostic species. In general, aerobes (such as Bacillus hand” so rations can be balanced “trouble spots” with normal silage. It
4.2. The pH for crops with relatively less species), molds (such as Mucor, for that particular forage immediately helps to have comparative samples
fermentable sugar and high buffering acetic acid (AA). Inoculation with The problem often encountered with
homofermentative lactic acid bacteria high lactic acid silages is they are more Monilia, Aspergillus and Penicillium as the silage is removed from the from both good and poor silage to
capacities such as legume silages species) and yeast counts should all storage structure. help troubleshoot the relative extent of
should be 4.0-4.5. The pH for high- will increase the LA: AA ratio to closer prone to heating and aerobic stability
to 3-4:1. It is important to note if a issues given that lactic acid is not be less than 100,000 colony forming Statistics indicate that 10-12 samples the problem.
moisture corn which contains minimal units/gram of silage (as fed). While
sugars should be 4.0-4.5. The pH will L. buchneri product was used on inhibitory to yeast growth. This is due need to be taken in order to be 95% When making a field call with suspected
silage before attempting to interpret to high residual sugar levels coupled total counts are helpful, detailed confident of correctly characterizing silage problems, it is best to come
be lower for wetter silages. Terminal pH identification of individual species and
is not indicative of how much sugar it silage fermentation reports. Inoculant with the lack of volatile fatty acids a feedstuff. When obtaining samples prepared with equipment for evaluating
products containing L. buchneri (acetic) which inhibit growth of yeast actual mycotoxin loads are much more from the face of a bunker or pile, it the situation and sampling the silage.
took to arrive at pH. The more efficient instructive as to the source, prevention
the pH decline, the more water soluble strains can result in a LA: AA ratio and spoilage organisms. Elevated is best to select 10-12 locations and A moisture tester such as a Koster®
closer to 1:1 due to the L. buchneri level of butyric acid is an indication of and necessary remediation. mix the silage together in one pile. Tester, an electronic moisture tester
carbohydrates will be conserved
in the silage mass. Water soluble metabolizing lactic acid and producing clostridial fermentation. Butyric acid Then use the quartering procedure to or a 600-700 watt microwave and
MINIMAL
carbohydrates are essentially 100% more acetic acid which is inhibitory to silages typically have higher pH and obtain a reasonably sized sub-sample battery-operated scale are essential
digestible and contribute significantly to yeast growth and subsequent silage are unpalatable. for submission to the laboratory. to evaluate silage moisture. Some
the overall energy value of the silage. heating. Higher levels of acetic acid PROTEIN Another, more convenient and safer nutritionists prefer the slower Koster
DEGRADATION
QUARTERING PROCEDURES
TEMPERATURE A faster fermentation typically results in
Allows reduction of the sample size while maintaining a representative sample
reduced plant and microbial proteolysis.
Silage temperature should be no Measuring ammonia nitrogen as a Thoroughly mix material to be sampled (e.g. by rolling back and forth on a
greater than 15-20ºF above ambient percent of total nitrogen is a good piece of plastic), then pour into a uniformly shaped pile on a clean surface.
temperature at the time of ensiling. indicator of the extent of proteolysis.
Large storage structures retain heat 1. Divide sample into four equal parts (quarters), using a drywall joint knife,
Values should be less than 5% in corn/
longer than smaller storage structures. trowel or any straight-edged tool.
cereals and less than 10% in grass/
Water is an excellent heat-sink so legume silages. Pepsin insoluble 2. Discard two opposite quarters and save the other two.
wetter silages retain heat longer than nitrogen as a percent of total nitrogen of 3. Combine the two saved quarters into a pile and
drier silages. Temperatures should be over 20% indicates excessive heating then quarter again.
monitored by inserting a thermometer in high-moisture ear or shelled corn. 4. Be sure to collect fine material at the bottom SAVE
at least two to three feet into the silage Heat damage (unavailable protein from of the saved sample.
mass due to heat dissipating from the the Maillard Reaction) is measured by SAVE
5. Discard two opposite quarters and
surface. If silage is faced and heating acid detergent nitrogen as a percent of repeat step 3.
continues to increase it is an indicator total nitrogen. Levels exceeding 12%
of excessive aerobic fermentation due 6. Continue to do this until you have a pile that
are indicative of excessive heating is the amount you want to submit for laboratory analysis
to poor compaction, improper face which may require adjustment to the
management, slow feedout or failure to crude protein level of the feedstuff.
Source: Dave Taysom, Dairyland Labs, Inc.
inoculate with L. buchneri.
Tester because it allows time to query to measure silage temperatures is also to be sent to a laboratory for volatile SILAGE DRY MATTER ADJUSTMENTS DONE CORRECTLY
the producer about management helpful when assessing bunklife or heat fatty acid or microbial identification
DESIRED LBS OF SILAGE PRODUCER VARIES THE LBS OF AS-FED SILAGE ADDED
practices. It is also useful to have litmus damage problems. Remember to bring analysis. If sending to a laboratory for SILAGE DM % DM IN EACH TMR BATCH TO EACH TMR BATCH DEPENDING UPON SILAGE DM
paper or a pocket pH meter to probe plastic bags and a permanent marker microbiological profiling, do not freeze
silage to determine if the pH is uniform to identify and store 1-2 lb samples. the sample. Freezing can disrupt the 30% 1000 3333
or if pockets of clostridial growth are the An insulated cooler with reusable cells of spoilage organisms leading to 35% 1000 2857
reason for elevated pH. A thermometer ice packs is required if samples are erroneous laboratory results. 40% 1000 2500
45% 1000 2222
SILAGE MOISTURE DETERMINATION Source: Randy Shaver, University of Wisconsin Dairy Nutrition Extension Specialist.
Not only does nutrient content of forages concentrate ratio of the final diet. does not translate to 2% of the yield.
vary with field and cutting, so does If the actual yield was 34 tons/acre at DM ADJUSTMENTS NOT DONE CORRECTLY SIGNIFICANTLY ALTERS
Technology is rapidly evolving THE DIETARY FORAGE:CONCENTRATE (F:C) RATIO
harvest moisture. Silages should be in the area of on-farm moisture 30% dry matter (70% moisture), then
monitored at least weekly for moisture testing. Options range today from the actual dry matter yield would be AMOUNT OF AS FED SILAGE ADDED TO EACH ACTUAL LBS OF SILAGE DM ADDED
content and ration adjustments made rapid, handheld NIRS (Near Infrared 10.2 tons/acre. If a poor sample or SILAGE DM% TMR BATCH WITHOUT CONSIDERATION OF CHANGING DM TO THE TMR BATCH (F:C RATIO)
when moisture changes by more than Spectroscopy) testers with photodiode poor moisture measuring technique 750
30% 2500 (43:57 F:C)
2-3% points. Snow, rain soaking feed array or narrow band filters, industrial gives a value of 28% dry matter (72%
on the bunker face and differing harvest NIRS like the John Deere HarvestLab™ moisture), the incorrect value would be 875
35% 2500 (46:54 F:C)
moistures from diverse fields can all that can be taken off the chopper 9.5 tons of dry matter. In this example,
lead to variation in moisture content our 2-percentage unit error in dry 40% 2500 1000 lbs DM
and used in the farm shop, forced air (Assumed DM) desired in the TMR batch (50:50 F:C)
of the feed. This is especially critical approaches like the Koster Moisture matter determination represents a
when weighing silage into TMR mixers 7.3% error in yield. 1125
Tester or food dehydrators and the 45% 2500 (53:47 F:C)
where ingredients are added by weight microwave approach. Determining the number of samples
and more or less water in the feed can that need to be collected requires
Source: Randy Shaver, University of Wisconsin Dairy Nutrition Extension Specialist.
alter the nutrient profile and forage: Research from the late-90s at the
University of Wisconsin, before finding the balance between what
The way to use the chart is to establish
the introduction of handheld NIRS is practical and what is statistically IMPACT OF MOISTURE DETERMINATION the acceptable measurable difference
approaches, showed that the residual valid. It is not practical to collect and ERRORS ON ASSESSING SILAGE YIELDS
analyze enough samples to determine on the Y-axis (vertical) and then go
moisture found in samples when across the chart until you intercept
using the microwave or Koster drying with certainty that moisture content is 2-UNIT 4-UNIT 6-UNIT
within +/- 1% unit. The accompanying ACTUAL ERROR ERROR ERROR the curve. Dropping down to the value
methods was about 2% units higher on the X-axis (horizontal) indicates
that laboratory oven methods when generic chart estimates the number
DM 30% 28% 26% 24% the approximate number of samples
conducted in a lab setting and 3-6% of samples that should be taken
to be 95% confident that a given that should be taken. For example,
when conducted by various operators Wet (as fed) Yield (T/a) 34 34 34 34 if you want to be 95% confident in a
on-farm. Their conclusion was that the difference exists for any particular
nutritional trait (e.g. moisture, NDF 2% unit moisture difference (e.g. 70%
microwave method was more variable + / - 1% unit) to base silage grower
etc.). Some assumptions were made DM Yield 10.2 9.5 8.8 8.2
than the Koster drying method was, compensations, then you would need
while the laboratory oven method was in developing this curve concerning
the representative nature of the sample Adjusted Yield 11 samples. If you want this level of
least variable 34 31.7 29.5 27.2 confidence in a truck load, then you
and the coefficient of variation (CV) of (T/a @ 70% moisture)
Small errors in determining silage the analytical method. Poor sampling in need to sample the truck 11 times.
harvest moisture can have significant the field or poor analytical practices in If you want to be 95% confident in a
impact on determining actual dry matter the lab will increase the CV and thereby (reasonably uniform) field (same hybrid,
yields for paying custom growers. A 2% the number of samples required. uniform soil types etc.) in which the
unit mistake in moisture determination
MINIMUM AVERAGE DIFFERENCE (d) IN TRAITS WHICH CAN BE
DETECTED WITH A GIVEN NUMBER OF LOCATIONS OR SAMPLES (n) MICROWAVE OVEN AND
3.4 GRAM SCALE MOISTURE
3.2 DETERMINATION METHOD
3.0 Silage, haylage, or hay moisture content can be evaluated in a microwave oven.
Minimum average difference (d)
2.8 This technique is fast, easy to perform, and relatively accurate in determining
the moisture content of any forage. The major drawback with this system is an
2.6 electrical power source is required, which is not always convenient for testing
forages. In addition to a microwave oven, a small gram scale, paper plate for
2.4
each sample and glass of water are needed.
2.2 1. Place the paper plate on the scale and note how many grams it
2.0 weighs. A good suggestion is to write this weight on the edge of
the plate. Re-weight the plate each time it is used.
1.8
2. Weigh 50 to 100 grams of chopped forage onto the plate on the
1.6 scale. Cored samples do not need further chopping.
1.4 3. Spread the sample evenly over the plate and place it in the
microwave with a half-filled glass of water in the back corner. Silage
1.2 samples, estimated to be in the 50 to 75 percent moisture range,
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 can be heated initially for four minutes. Hay samples with less than
Number of locations (or samples) (n) 30 percent moisture should only be heated for three minutes.
Source: D.A. Sapienza, Ph.D.
4. Weigh and record the weight, then stir the forage on the plate and
place it back in the oven for one additional minute.
chopper capacity is delivering 22 be agreed to by the grower and buyer a. This composite sample will be 5. Repeat procedure #4 again, but only run the microwave oven
truckloads per hour to the silage pit, (including the lab or method chosen mixed and sub-sampled into 2 for 30 seconds this time. Continue drying and weighing until the
then you would collect 1 sample from to determine moisture and other zip-lock bags and labeled with weight becomes constant. Be careful not to heat the forage to the
every other truck and be somewhat parameters such as starch). the time and field. point of charring. If this occurs, shorten the drying intervals.
confident that the sample taken from A practical approach from a relatively b. One sample will be kept in the 6. To calculate the moisture percentage, subtract the last dry weight
each truck is truly representative of the large field might be the following: refrigerator until the end of the from the original weight and divide this number by the wet weight.
entire truckload. If you want to be 95% day when it will be presented to
1. Every other truck from a particular Now multiply by 100. This is the moisture content of the sample.
confident in each truck during each hour the lab for moisture testing.
of silage delivery, then you would need field will be sampled at the silage
c. The other sample will be frozen Example: Original wet weight was 90 grams. Dry weight is 60 grams.
11 samples from each of the 22 trucks pit using an agreed upon sampling
and held until the lab results are 90 - 60 = 30 30/90 X 100 = 33.33%
for a total of 242 samples; which would protocol.
returned for its paired sample.
be unmanageable and expensive to 2. That sample will be delivered to the Easy Method: If exactly 100 grams of forage was weighed onto
4. Upon receipt of the moisture
test. The issue then becomes: 1) what scale operator. the plate, the final dry weight (minus the paper plate weight)
results from the lab, moistures
is the population (“within an individual 3. At the conclusion of harvesting subtracted from 100 is moisture content. Alternatively, the final
for that field will be averaged
truck” or “within the number of trucks the field, the scale operator will dry weight is the dry matter percentage.
and applied to all loads weights
per hour” or “within a field”), 2) what empty the sample bags from trucks
delivered from that field. Example: Original wet weight=100 grams. Final dry weight=55 grams.
is the acceptable level of confidence delivering from the same field into a
required for that trait and 3) what can 5-gallon bucked. 100 - 55 = 45% moisture content or 55% DM
chemistry is cost savings. It is possible bonded with carbon, nitrogen or reference samples being analyzed by differences, the more difficult it is
ANALYTICAL ERRORS to analyze more samples, more often,
for the same but compared to more
oxygen cause molecular “excitement”
responsible for absorption of specific
wet chemistry. When a particular wet
chemistry method does not exist (e.g.
for NIR (or wet chemistry) to detect
those differences. Typically 80-100
Forage analysis is important for on laboratory reports. These factors expensive wet chemistry. This helps amounts of radiation of specific prediction of ethanol yield from corn), samples are required for developing
balancing diets and for gaining insight are bias, precision and accuracy. producers manage feedstuff nutrient wavelengths. This allows labs to relate laboratories may develop an entirely an initial calibration with up to
into the impact of management Bias is defined as a systematic error variation through more frequent analysis. specific chemical bond vibrations new wet chemistry method upon which hundreds of samples in a “mature”
practices on forage quality. Sampling introduced into sampling or testing. It is a common recommendation to only (spectra) to the concentration of to base the NIR calibration. calibration.
error at the farm can certainly affect how Precision references the ability of use wet chemistry analyses, especially specific feed components (e.g. starch) Recently there has been a multitude of 2. Standard error of calibration (SEC) -
representative the sample is compared a measurement to be consistently following a typical growing season. determined by traditional wet chemistry hand-held NIR instruments hitting the defines how well the NIR calibration
to what is being fed. Similarly, there reproduced while accuracy is whether However, that is not necessary with methods. NIRS is possible because market. Portable instrument will never predicts the wet chemistry values
are factors which affect analytical the reported value is correct. laboratories that use diverse samples to molecules react the same way each time replace the need for the accuracy of a that are used to build the calibration.
variation in the values being reported frequently update their NIR calibrations. they are exposed to the same radiation. laboratory but there are many occasions Low SEC values are desired. For
If the lab is a reputable lab willing to Sample preparation and presentation where a handheld instrument is useful, example, if the wet chemistry value
share calibration statistics, NIRS is the to the NIR instrument varies widely. particularly at harvesting for quick is 30 and the SEC is 3, this means
ANALYTICAL VARIATION best way to stretch analytical dollars. Though dried, finely ground samples
are often employed, whole grains or
decision or when a lab is far away. approximately 66% of the NIR
NIRS had been discussed in the The current technology of portable values should fall within the range of
Low Precision, High Bias, Good Precision, High Bias, fresh, unground can also be scanned.
Poor Accuracy Poor Accuracy literature since 1939 but it was not until instruments is such that users should 30 +/- 3 (e.g. 27 to 33).
1968 that Karl Norris and co-workers Instruments are increasingly coming to expect increased errors with undried,
the market that are rugged enough to 3. Regression coefficient (R2 or RSQ)
at the Instrumentation Research Lab unground silage or TMR samples of - the “best fit” line when NIR values
USDA-Beltsville proved that absorption work in mobile applications such as on- about 50 % compared to laboratory
board silage choppers. are plotted against the wet chemistry
of specific wavelengths could be NIR (dried, ground) results. For example values. High R2 values are desired.
True True
Value Value correlated with chemical analysis of NIRS is a rapid, secondary method in corn silage, laboratory NIR errors are An R2 of 1.0 means 100% of the
other grains and forages. based on the mathematical relationship less than 2% units for dry matter and sample variation is being explained
Early in 1978, John Shenk and his (regression) with the accepted wet 3% units for NDF. Users should also by the calibration.
research team developed a portable chemistry method. Consequently, investigate the type and spectral range
instrument for use in a mobile van to a NIRS value can never be more of hand-held instruments because many
Low Precision, No Bias, Good Precision, No Bias,
deliver nutrient analysis of forages accurate than the traditional method. are only capable of predicting dry matter
Good Accuracy Good Accuracy
(with enough reps) directly on-farm and at hay auctions. Sophisticated software packages are and not all the constituents typically
This evolved into the university extension used to perform the mathematical required for forage evaluation or pricing.
mobile NIRS vans in Pennsylvania, calculations necessary to associate As routine users of NIR values,
Minnesota, Wisconsin and Illinois. In the NIR-produced spectra of specific producers and nutritionists should
True True 1978, the USDA NIR Forage Network reference samples with the actual wet feel comfortable asking laboratories
Value Value
was founded to develop and test chemistry of those samples. These or equipment manufacturers about
computer software to advance the mathematical relationships are termed their NIR statistics. This will help instill
science of NIRS grain and forage “prediction models” or “calibrations.” confidence in these values similar to the
Source: Dave Taysom, Dairyland Labs testing. By 1983, several commercial The robustness of a NIRS calibration way statistics (e.g. P-values) determine
companies had begun marketing NIR is primarily determined by the number the confidence in research trial results.
instruments and software packages to of samples, how well they represent Listed below are three NIR statistics
commercial laboratories for forage and the diversity of the feedstuff and the that reputable NIR laboratories should
NIRS VERSUS WET CHEMISTRY feed analysis. typical variation observed for the trait
being measured. For example, if the
be able to provide:
NIRS is based on the interaction of the 1. Number of samples in the calibration
Wet chemistry refers to the more approach valued for repeatability and physical matter of feeds with light in goal is to develop a calibration for crude set (N) - influenced by the typical
laborious, bench top chemistry rapid turnaround of data. the near infrared spectral region (700- protein in corn grain, samples of corn variation in the trait of interest.
conducted in the laboratory. Near Infrared 2500nm). Vibrations of the hydrogen from diverse genetic and environmental The narrower the range in sample
A major advantage to NIR over wet
Spectroscopy (NIRS) is another analytical backgrounds must be included in the
ADF isolates primarily cellulose and
PROXIMATE ANALYSIS lignin, but not hemicellulose. This DIGESTION TRIALS
made ADF unsuitable as a measure
Proximate analysis is a chemical scheme for describing • Carbohydrates (CHO) of total structural fiber. When the NDF Digestion trials are used to determine how much of a nutrient or feedstuff is
feedstuffs that was developed in Germany over 100 years • Crude Fiber analysis procedure was first published digested and available to the animal for maintenance, growth and production.
ago. It relies on destructive laboratory methods to determine: • Nitrogen Free Extracts in 1967, ADF began a slow, steady Digestion trials consist of:
• Dry matter (DM) • Mostly sugars and starch but may contain some decline in the U.S., although it remains
commonly used in many areas of the • Proximate analysis of the feedstuff
• Ash (minerals) fiber • Feeding an animal a given amount of feed
world. While NDF has largely replaced
• Crude Protein (CP) • Determined by difference (100-all other analytes), crude fiber among scientists, crude • Collecting feces (sometimes urine, too)
• Kjeldahl process measures nitrogen (N) content not by direct analysis fiber continues usage because NDF is • Proximate analysis of the feces
• N x 6.25 = % CP Proximate analysis was a starting point for determining the not a government-approved method • The difference is the “apparent” digestibility of the feed. For an individual
• Ether Extract (fat) nutritive value of feeds but failed to provide information on for legal trade in many countries. nutrient, the difference equals the digestion coefficient for that nutrient.
feedstuff digestibility, nutrient adequacy, palatability or toxicity. In the 1980s, David Mertens (Ph.D. Given all the nutritional acronyms, it is understandable that confusion abounds
student of Peter Van Soest) started regarding certain terms. For example, the confusion surrounding apparent and
efforts to standardize NDF analysis true digestibility defined mathematically as:
DETERGENT SYSTEM among laboratories in the U.S. Mertens
realized the only way to reduce error
Apparent Digestibility = 100*[(intake)–(feces)]/ (intake)
Forage laboratories continue to detergent system replaced crude fiber Over a number of years, Van Soest among laboratories was to prescribe • with feces = (undigested + any endogenous loss)
use many of the proximate analysis (CF) and N-free extract with: convinced the scientific community to a single NDF method. Martens’ efforts True Digestibility = 100*[(intake)–(undigested)]/ (intake)
methods. However, the relatively poor replace the proximate analysis system resulted in recommendations that all
• neutral detergent solubles (NDS) True digestibility is typically greater than apparent digestibility. Apparent
state of laboratory feed analysis in the with the Detergent System making it feeds be amylase treated (to remove
• neutral detergent fiber (NDF) starch), sodium sulphite be used (to digestibility does not discount the endogenous production of protein and fat from
1960s triggered the research program possible to explain nutritional responses
• acid detergent fiber (ADF) remove plant and microbial protein) either sloughed cells or rumen microbes that appear in the feces or in residues
of Peter Van Soest to develop the in terms of feed digestibility and intake.
• lignin and that NDF be reported on an ash- from in vitro (laboratory) trials. True digestibility equals apparent digestibility when
Detergent System of feed analysis. The As with the crude fiber procedure,
free basis (e.g. “om”). The resultant there is no endogenous loss as with NDF digestibility because the animal is not
value would be designated aNDFom. producing any NDF.
The only methodological variation In vivo (in live animal) digestibility measurements are generally understood to be
PLANT CELL STRUCTURE Cell contents FIVE TYPES OF considered was that feeds with apparent digestibilities. In vitro dry matter disappearance (IVDMD) is measured
Organic acids FORAGE TISSUES greater than 100 grams of fat/kg be dry matter disappearance during test tube or in situ incubations and calculated
Sugars
Starch 1. Vascular bundles containing pre-extracted with a suitable solvent. as: IVDMD = 100 – undigested dry matter %. IVTDMD (in vitro true dry matter
Fructans phloem/xylem. Acceptance of the NDF method by the disappearance) is calculated as 100 – [(NDF/100) x (100-NDF digestibility)].
Oil 2. Parenchyma bundle sheaths AOAC was a protracted process, but IVTMD is an estimate of the amount of material that was truly digested based on
Middle Lamella surrounding vascular bundles. was finally approved in June, 2002. Van Soest’s suggestion that 98% of cell contents are truly digested, so virtually
β-glucans 3. Sclerenchyma patches connecting all the undigested material must be unfermented NDF. Alternatively, it can be
Pectic substances (ferments vascular bundles to epidermis. calculated as IVTDMD = cell solubles + digested NDF.
like starch but won’t produce
lactic acid, 6-15% in alfalfa,
4. Mesophyll cells between the The in vitro dry matter digestibility (IVDMD) or apparent digestibility analysis in a
>20% beet and citrus pulp) vascular bundles and epidermal commercial laboratory consists of the classic two-stage Tilley & Terry procedure.
Cell Wall layer. The first stage is 48-hour incubation in rumen fluid and buffer followed by a
Hemicellulose 5. On the surface a single layer of second 48-hour digestion in pepsin and HCl. The in vitro true digestibility (IVTD)
Neutral epidermal cells covered by a
Cellulose consists of the same 48-hour incubation in rumen fluid, however, the second
Acid Detergent Fiber Detergent protective cuticle. stage substitutes an NDF extraction for the pepsin and HCl. The NDF extraction
Lignin
Fiber more completely removes bacterial residues and other pepsin insoluble material
Source: Mary Beth Hall, University of Florida
yielding a residue free of microbial contamination.
Confusion also surrounds the matter that is digested nutrient. The
ENERGY
A modification of the summative of the University of Wisconsin per acre and milk per ton values to
difference between nutrient digestibility common format for representing this approach was used in the development MILK2006 approach to assigning milk alfalfa and corn silage.
(or digestion coefficient) and digestible
nutrient. Nutrient digestibility is
is a lowercase prefix “d” (e.g. dNDF,
as a % of DM). Nutrient digestibility SYSTEMS
expressed as a percentage of the
nutrient with a capital “D” suffix (e.g.
and digestible nutrient are not
interchangeable terms, even though
Total digestible nutrients (TDN) are a NET ENERGY SYSTEM
measure of feedstuff energy from the
NDFD, as a % of NDF). Digestible the concepts are related. Gross Energy Digestible Energy Metabolize Energy Net Energy
organic compounds in feed expressed
nutrient is the proportion of dry as % or pounds. TDN uses nutrient
NEG: net energy gain
values from laboratory proximate
analysis multiplied by standard NEM: net energy maintenance
Fecal Losses Urine & Gas
How a Lab Calculates digestion coefficients from digestion
and is calculated as follows:
Losses
Heat Losses NEL: net energy lactation
uNDF, dNDF and NDFD: %TDN = % digestible crude protein
Assuming the lab starts with 20 grams of corn silage dry matter that was
DIGESTION RATES
+ % digestible crude fiber
42% NDF, you have 8.4g of starting NDF (20*42%). If after 24 hours of
+ % digestible nitrogen free extract
rumen fluid incubation there are 5.7 grams of residue containing 71% NDF,
you have 4g of final NDF (5.7*71%). If after 240 hours of incubation there are + (% digestible ether extract x 2.25) Effective nutrient degradability as
3 grams of residue containing 90% NDF, you have 2.7g of final NDF (3*90%). The primary limitation of the TDN defined by the Orskov equation is
system is chemical analysis of feed Kd/ (Kd + Kp) where Kd is the rate
uNDF (24 hour, % of DM) = 4/20 = 20% of digestion (e.g. 2-7%/hour for fiber)
and manure does not relate well to
uNDF (240 hour, % of DM) = 2.7/20 = 13% animal metabolism. TDN ignores and Kp is the rate of feed passage
important losses such as urine, gas from the rumen (e.g. 5%/hour for high
dNDF (24 hour, % of DM) = NDFD*%NDF = 52*42 = 21 producing dairy cow). Effective nutrient
and especially heat.
NDFD (24 hour, % of NDF) = (NDF – uNDF24hr)/NDF supply can then be calculated as dry
These limitations led to the development matter intake * (Kd / (Kd + Kp)).
= (42 – 20)/42 = 52% of the Net Energy System where the
units of energy are expressed in terms Laboratories can provide estimates
Typical “Non-BMR” of Kd values for NDF with published
Corn Silage Corn Silage Lab Values of Megacalories (1,000 kilocalories
or the amount of heat to raise the equations from Cornell University. It
temperature of one gram water from utilizes a single time point NDFD value
Protein, Fat, Sugar Other nutrients = 23%
14.5ºC to 15.5ºC). (e.g. 24, 30 or 48-hour), NDF, lignin and
and Minerals
an assumed digestion lag value (e.g.
A summative energy equation approach six hours).
has been used by most commercial
Starch Starch = 35% labs to calculate the Net Energy of More recently, a gas production
Lactation (NEL) since it was published system named Fermentrics™ became
in the Seventh Revised Edition (2001) commercially available allowing for the
Digestible NDF of the NRC Nutrient Requirements of direct measurement of digestion rates
(digestion rates (Kd) controlled Dairy Cattle. The summative approach for both fast (primarily starch) and slow
by growing environment) Total NDF% = 42% (primarily fiber) pool nutrients. Curve
utilizes values for crude protein, fat,
non-fiber carbohydrate (NFC) and NDF, peeling techniques and published
Undigestible NDF equations that are used to estimate the
along with corresponding digestibility
coefficients for these nutrients. carbohydrate pool Kd values (e.g. CHO
B1, B2 and B3) allow for measured rates
to be used for feedstuffs rather than
relying on book values.
FORAGE FEEDING GUIDELINES due to the fermentation process. The
NDFD at harvest is what the nutritionists
will have to work with the entire feeding
that producers delay alfalfa silage harvest
and deal with lowered digestibility than
suffer with feeding rained-on, poorly
also conditioned nutritionists to target
ideal moisture levels at around 60%
to reduce protein degradation and the
period. Most nutritionists would prefer fermented silages. Field experience has potential for clostridial alfalfa silages.
Feed intake by ruminants is primarily of “off feed” followed by “gorging.”
influenced by High-producing animals need to be ALFALFA
1) forage fiber concentrations
(NDF, uNDF),
precisely fed each and every day FEEDING HIGH-MOISTURE CORN FEEDING GUIDELINES
2) forage digestion characteristics
because of their very narrow dietary
range that results from the conflict GUIDELINES To capture the most starch per HMEC or snaplage that seems to As with corn silage, nutritionists will
such as fragility, filling-effect and between high nutrient demand and
Alfalfa is arguably one of the most acre, high-moisture (HMC) harvest work best in most rations. While lower need to be cognizant of the fact that
digestibility (NDFD), and the need to maintain minimum fiber
variable feeds on the farm. This is due should not begin until the kernels moisture HMC (24-26%) tends to be ruminal starch digestibility in snaplage
3) diet fermentability (particularly requirements. It makes economic have reached blacklayer and are more stable over time in fermented will increase over time (about 2% units
to field-by-field variations in the age of
starch). sense to have producers and physiologically mature; which means storage, the rumen fermentability and per month). This is especially important
stand (grass content), harvest maturity
It has been proposed that problems nutritionists focus on implementing kernel moistures of 34-36% for energy derived from drier HMC is less if transitioning from feeding drier high-
and moisture, fiber digestibility affected
such as milk fat depression in dairy technologies and protocols to better most hybrids. It is best to discuss than when kernels are ensiled at higher moisture corn. High-moisture corn is
by the growing environment and
cattle may be related to variation manage the nutritional variation that kernel moisture when making harvest moistures. a bit different from corn silage in this
issues surrounding fermentation and
in forage quality, dry matter and exists in forage inventories. The next recommendations for HMC, high- respect. Both animal trials and protein
palatability. In a Pioneer snaplage field study
palatability. These affect daily NDF sections will provide generalized moisture ear corn (HMEC) or snaplage solubility analysis show that high-
feeding considerations for alfalfa, high- Producers can improve the consistency designed to evaluate the yield and
intake, rumination and the number of because most growers own a kernel nutritional content of four hybrids moisture corn appears to continually
moisture corn and corn silage. and quality of alfalfa silage by focusing moisture tester and the final product drift upwards in starch digestibility for
cattle experiencing spiraling episodes harvested at four different maturities, it
on harvest maturity. The use of the can have varying amount of ear or about 12 months. Corn silage tends to
PEAQ stick (predictive equations for was demonstrated that cob digestibility
husks which impacts moisture levels. declines by nearly 20% across the plateau after six months in fermented
alfalfa quality) for assessing alfalfa storage. The difference between
maturity and NDF levels has been With HMEC or snaplage, the cob four-week harvest period. Husk and
contributes more moisture than the shank also declined somewhat with corn silage and high-moisture corn is
around for decades, and is a tool more likely due to more immature kernels
growers should be using to monitor kernel with the traditional thumb rule increasing ear maturity, but remained
that the final mix will be 3-4 percentage relatively high across all harvest at time of corn silage harvest and the
plant maturity. more extensive fermentation (lower
units wetter than the kernel (based on periods. Maintaining cob digestibility
Alfalfa is fed to ruminants to provide ear being about 10% cob). is yet another reason for targeting pH) experienced in corn silage. For
energy, protein and fiber. Alfalfa silage snaplage harvest at kernel moistures those herds feeding very high levels
with a high RFQ (above 180) will have Those with experience feeding of corn silage (>20 lbs DM/cow/day),
snaplage agree that it is best to “err exceeding 28%.
relatively low levels of ADF, NDF and it may make sense to target highly
effective fiber (peNDF). It will also have on the wet side” when harvesting. Nutritionists have learned to pay close fermentable HMC or snaplage in the
high levels of crude protein, much of When the crop gets too dry (e.g. attention to the particle size of grain first 6-7 months of feeding and slowly
which is in the readily soluble form. kernel moistures <25%), problems in dry ground corn or high-moisture transition to a less fermentable starch
However, with the trend towards start to mount in terms of digestibility, shelled corn. Typically goals are 800- source (dry corn or lower moisture
higher DM silage to reduce clostridial palatability, inadequate kernel damage 1000 microns with a small standard HMC). This approach may compliment
fermentation, the soluble/degradable and instability in the feed bunk. deviation to prevent excessive fines or the starch in corn silage which will
protein levels in alfalfa silages are Targeting kernel moisture levels of 28% large particles. It is equally important simultaneously increase in digestibility
significantly lower than when 30% DM or greater generally results in HMC, that attention is paid to the grain over time in storage.
alfalfa silage was the norm. Careful particle size in HMEC or snaplage.
attention to NDFD and ash content will
also help ensure a digestible crop with
less fermentation issues. Unlike starch,
the fiber in ensiled forages does not
increase in ruminal digestibility over time
SITE OF STARCH DIGESTION AS INFLUENCED BY CORN SILAGE FEEDING GUIDELINES
CORN GRAIN PROCESSING METHOD (ROLLED, FERMENTED, FLAKED)
With safety in mind, a good starting Many nutritionists like to “bury their necessarily indicate aerobic instability
Large Intestine
When discussing starch digestion, it is important Starch Digestion Small intestine
point to assess corn silage is by nose” in silage to assess the smell. This problems. This is often just ambient
to clarify if the site is rumen, small intestines or by Cows vs Steers Ruminal digestion physically observing the storage is not recommended for three reasons: harvest temperature and normal
total tract. 100
2.6
structure. Assessing face management 1) it is not a healthy practice to be fermentation heat that is retained
2.9
5.0 5.6 is a general indicator of detail to forage inhaling mold spores often found by water acting as a heat sink in the
5.5 12.0
In some feeding situations, it may be beneficial to management. Look for signs of top in silage, silage mass. What is a better indicator
11.0 14.7 and side spoilage and if extensive, of microbial-induced heating is if the
bypass ruminal digestion and increase intestinal 80 19.0 2) if there is an undesirable
digestion especially if microbial protein production investigate how spoiled feed is being fermentation profile, this can be silage continues to heat up after it has
Digestion, % of dietary starch

is high and acidosis is a concern. 17.7 36.6 handled. It is helpful to know if corn easily detected at a distance (and been faced and lying in a pile or in the
silage is being fed from more than confirmed with VFA analysis), and feed bunk.
60 23.0
Total tract digestion is lower in lactating cows than one storage structure and how many 3) smell is not a very good field While fiber digestibility does not
steers primarily because cows have higher feed different hybrids were ensiled in the indicator of either palatability or change over time in fermented storage,
intake and more fiber in their diets which increases 91.0 same structure. Variation in silage dry nutritional value. starch digestibility in corn silage must
40 84.2
ruminal outflow rates. 76.3 matter, starch and NDF content can be be monitored due to the tremendous
reduced by feeding off the entire face Look for signs of heating in the corn
60.6
silage. Steam rolling off a recently faced impact of both degree of kernel
Flaking shifts the site of digestion from the rumen 48.8 51.8 rather than removing small sections. processing and time in storage.
20 bunker during cold weather does not
to the intestines; whereas the fermentation process
shifts the site of digestion toward the rumen.
Source: Owens F. A. and S. Soderlund 2007.

Getting the most out of your dry and high-moisture corn. Proceedings
0
Dry rolled
Cows Steers
High moisture
Cows Steers
Steam flaked
Cows Steers
KERNEL DAMAGE
Four State Nutrition and Management Conference.
Perhaps the most overlooked aspect quickly discuss with the chopping
of assessing corn silage at the bunker crew how to improve (e.g. roller mill
is attention to physical damage of gap setting and differential speed)
CHANGES IN RUMINAL DIGESTIBILITY OF HMC the corn kernels. Recent advances in and consider having a laboratory Poor processing
OF VARYING MOISTURE LEVELS roller mill design (e.g. Shredlage® and kernel processing test conducted
KernelStar) have vastly improved the to help in potentially discounting the
Most ration balancing software does not 100
ability to adequately process kernels energy value of the silage. Looking
adjust for increasing digestibility over time in corn silage and snaplage. Even at the kernels also helps estimate
in fermented storage. For the 28% moisture 80
with improved methods, the Pioneer the maturity of the corn at harvest.
corn, if feeding 10 lbs in October, it would
corn silage processing cup (32 oz) If kernels are more immature, then
need to reduce to 7 lbs by spring.
ISDMD, %
60
should still be used as a routine, lower starch, slightly higher oil (germ
DRC = The dry rolled corn treatment showed on-farm method to quantify kernel is not as diluted by starch) and higher
no change over time for ISDMD, but when 40
24% moisture HMC is a “safe” feed but you give up the
damage during harvest. Fill the cup to sugar content would be expected on
the same hybrid was harvested as wetter
HMC, ISDMD increased over time in storage.
✖
feed efficiency that can be captured with higher-moisture HMC. the rim, spread the silage out on a flat the forage analysis. This can influence Adequate processing
20
surface and pick out any ½ or whole both ration formulation and the
ISDMD - in situ dry matter disappearance ✖ DRC 24% HMC 28% RECON 30% HMC 35% RECON
kernel pieces. If the sample contains tendency for the silage to be prone to
RECON - reconstituted 0
more than 2-3 of these kernel pieces, bunklife and palatability problems.
0 56 112 168 224 280 336 392
Ensiling Period (d)
Source: J.R. Benton, G.E. Erickson, and T.J. ISDMD Increase at 280 Days in Storage Compared to 60 Days in Storage
Klopfenstein U of NE, Lincoln. 28% recon – 30% higher | 30% HMC – 8% higher | 35% recon – 14% higher
the rise due to availability of supply, digestibility and physical attributes with specific attention to lysine and
STARCH energy density, consistency and such as physically-effective NDF, kernel methionine levels supplied from plant-
palatability. Close attention should damage and feed storage and delivery animal-marine or rumen-protected
The starch in corn silage is often high-starch corn silage. highly related to starch digestibility. It
be paid to silage starch content and management. High corn silage based sources.
considered the “villain” when cows fed There is an abundance of corn silage is important nutritionists continue to
changing digestibility over time in rations should include moderate levels
high levels of silage do not respond fermentation research showing rapid account for the upward drift in ruminal
fermented storage, NDF content and of CP and rumen-degraded protein
as expected, experience low butterfat changes in silages in the first two to starch digestibility (about 2 percent
tests or display inconsistency in three months of the ensiling process. units per month) which occurs in corn
manure scores. The villain-image has This research lends scientific credence silage, following the early dynamic TOTAL MIXED RATION COMPOSITION
lessened as laboratory starch, starch to the common recommendation to period. Corn silage drifts up in ruminal FROM 14 COMMERCIAL NEW YORK DAIRIES
digestibility and fecal starch values wait on feeding new crop corn silage starch digestibility for about 6 months
have become commonly available until it has fermented for 3-4 months. before plateauing. High moisture corn Item A B C D E F G H I J K L M N
and nutritionists have learned to focus What was not understood until recently drifts up for about 12 months before
on reducing supplemental grain to plateauing due to the maturity of the Cows 1550 108 270 920 140 100 700 60 180 45 220 45 250 53
is what happens in longer-stored
compliment the starch delivered in silages and grains. Time course studies kernel (blacklayer) at high moisture Milk, lbs 88 88 85 116 89 85 89 60 95 80 75 85 85 72
modern corn genetics. Starch levels with lab-scale research silos indicate corn harvest versus corn silage harvest
in the entire dairy diet typically range that corn silage starch digestibility (3/4 milk line). Failure to account for Milk fat, % 3.6 3.6 3.8 3.2 3.65 4.0 3.5 4.0 3.6 3.6 3.85 3.7 3.56 3.64
from 30% for new crop corn silage to plateaus after five to six months starch digestibility changes may explain
Milk, True Protein, % 3.05 3.2 3.07 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.1 3.1 3.1 3.1 3.2 3.2 3.03 2.9
as low as 22-24% when feeding long- in storage. This finding is further some of the “spring acidosis” and milk
fermented corn silage. It is virtually supported by monitoring average fat depression seen on dairies feeding MUN, mg/dl 10.6 12.0 – 8.0 8-10 9.0 7-9 9.0 8-9 8-9 8-9 8-9 10 14
impossible to exceed these total ration protein solubility in corn silage samples high levels of corn silage in conjunction
starch levels with corn silage, even with high rumen fermentable high- Ration CP, % 15.9 15.5 15.7 15.9 14.3 16.0 16.3 16.5 15.8 15.6 15.0 15.6 15.5 15.8
submitted to commercial laboratories,
under the highest inclusion rates of the assuming that protein solubility is moisture or steam flaked corn.
Microbial Protein (MP), g/cow 2625 2720 2961 3306 2599 3016 2792 1991 2744 2305 2256 2419 2739 -
Lysine, % of MP 6.60 6.23 6.40 6.74 6.42 6.17 6.64 5.63 5.77 6.32 6.32 6.31 6.29 6.40
PROTEIN Methionine, % of MP 1.94 4.96 2.05 2.71 2.10 1.77 2.79 1.78 1.85 1.91 1.88 1.91 1.93 1.90
One area that has recently captured yields. However, excess CP and animal from protein deamination to Lys:Meth 3.4:1 3.18:1 3.12:1 2.5:1 3.05:1 3.5:1 2.38:1 3.16:1 3.12:1 3.3:1 3.3:1 3.3:1 3.3:1 3.3:1
interest among nutritionists is the RDP is a luxury that can no longer ammonia and conversion to urea for NDF, % 28.9 30.8 30.7 30.9 31.4 31.5 32.2 30.5 32.3 29.3 31.5 29.3 31.5 33.7
protein supplementation of corn silage be tolerated as soybean meal prices excretion.
rations. Attention to both protein elevate, nitrogen-related environmental Success has been achieved in rations Forage NDF, % of BW 0.88 0.86 0.86 0.94 0.99 0.91 0.88 0.78 0.99 0.89 0.78 0.89 1.02 0.94
quantity and quality has helped in the concerns mount and more is learned containing upwards of 25 lbs of DM from NFC, % 43.4 41.9 40.6 41.5 42.4 38.1 39.1 40.0 39.3 41.3 40.7 44.4 42.5 40.0
implementation of high corn silage about urea and intra-ruminal nitrogen high-starch corn silage by targeting 15-
rations in herds that had previously recycling and the specific amino 16% CP levels with conservative levels Starch, % 28.5 27.1 31.6 28.7 29.3 24.0 27.6 26.3 28.7 28.6 27.6 29.5 28.6 29.0
struggled under this type of forage acid needs of high-producing cows. (8-8.5%DM) of RDP. Use of ration
feeding regime. Furthermore, overfeeding rumen- Sugar, % 3.5 3.1 4.2 5.4 5.0 3.3 5.1 7.0 3.5 3.7 3.4 4.1 7.4 3.9
software to track amino acid intake has
There has been a tendency in the past undegraded protein (RUP) can be allowed for reduction in increasingly Fat, % 4.3 3.8 4.3 5.1 4.4 5.2 5.4 5.4 5.1 5.1 4.8 4.0 5.2 4.1
to provide excess rumen-degraded expensive and decreases efficiency of expensive CP sources like soybean
protein (RDP) from increased protein ration metabolizable protein because meal. These ration savings can be Forage, % of ration DM 57 60.4 48 60 59 57 53 50 51 59 52 59 55 60
supplementation justified when (lower RUP generally has lower concentrations effectively used to supplement more
of lysine and methionine than microbial Corn silage, % of forage 80 72 37 68 53 48 64 0 58 56 49 38 74 46
protein) corn silage replaced (higher balanced amino acid blends of plant-
protein) alfalfa in the ration. High crude protein. Excessive CP also takes up animal-marine proteins or commercial Milk N Efficiency, milk N as %
space in the ration that could be filled 35 35 32 38 36 28 35 28 35 35 36 31 32
protein (CP) and RDP rations seemed bypass amino acid products. of N Intake
to compliment high corn silage rations with an energy source and can also
result in a net energy burden to the Corn silage inclusion rates are on Source: Chase et al., 2009
by promoting high microbial protein
FEED DELIVERY COMMON FORAGE ANALYSIS TERMINOLOGY
Monitoring particle size is very to incorporating straw or poor quality Most nutritionists prefer a minimum The following compilation of forage analysis terms and descriptions is provided for convenience of the reader.
important in a high corn silage ration. In hay in the ration to help build a mat- of 12-12.5 lbs of NDF from forage in It should be noted that most commercial laboratories will have analyte definitions and their unique analytical
addition to looking at corn silage chop matrix and stimulate rumination. This high corn silage rations. This works procedures described in more detail on their respective websites.
length (ideally about 19mm or about approach often helps when forage out to about 22% of the ration NDF
26mm if using a Shredlage® kernel particle size is not suitable. However, coming from forages. These fiber levels Dry Matter (% DM): DM is the resulting Ammonia: (NH3): A pungent, colorless, Acid Detergent Insoluble Crude Protein
feedstuff after 100% of the water gaseous alkaline compound of nitrogen (ADICP, %CP): Sometimes called
processor), it is important to note the close attention to particle size of added are often exceeded (24-25% total has been removed by drying (100% and hydrogen which is very soluble heat damaged protein or unavailable
chop length and texture of the other straw is required to prevent sorting and NDF from forages) if the corn silage - moisture). Drying causes delay in in water. An indicator of non-protein protein. It quantifies the unavailable
forages in the TMR. Overlap of old- acidosis episodes. is particularly high in NDFD due to analysis turnaround so some labs dry nitrogen content. protein resulting from the condensation
crop and new-crop corn silage feeding either impact of the growing season to a certain moisture and then use a Ammonia-N (NH3-N, %CP): Ammonia- of carbohydrate degradation products
Nutritionists feeding high corn silage NIR scan to account for any residual with protein forming, dark-colored,
is helpful in minimizing cow adjustment rations tend to feed slightly higher (drought), hybrid genetics or the nitrogen expressed as a percent
moisture. Feed analysis reports typically of crude protein as an indicator of insoluble polymers poorly digested
at switch-over time. If possible, watch levels of NDF in the entire ration. use of inoculants proven to improve report nutrients on an “as fed” or wet by ruminants. It is an input in ration
the feeder load the TMR to observe NDFD. Some nutritionists monitor the excessive protein degradation in silage.
A University of Minnesota review basis and on a “DM” basis. All dairy balancing programs using Cornell
both feed sequencing and length of relationship of forage NDF to the level of and beef nutrition is based around Nitrates (%N03 or ppm N03-N): The Model logic.
indicated 30% NDF in the ration can be nitrogen concentration expressed as
time the corn silage has been exposed rumen fermentable starch (determined DM values due to the large variation Neutral Detergent Insoluble Crude
fed in high corn silage rations without in moistures in ruminant feedstuffs. nitrate. To convert % nitrate ion (N03) to
to mixing. Particle size and nutritional loss of milk production. In rations by calculation or estimated via in situ ppm Nitrate-Nitrogen divide %N03 by
Protein (NDICP, %CP): Protein
Monogastric diets are typically based associated with the residue remaining
analysis of the TMR mix at feed delivery where physically effective NDF (peNDF) or in vitro lab methods). Providing 1.25 on “as fed” values. 4.4 to obtain %N03-N. Multiply %N03-N
is often helpful to detect mixer abuse pounds of NDF for each one pound after performing a NDF analysis.
levels are tracked, most high corn x 10,000 to obtain ppm N03-N.
Crude Protein (% CP): Calculated by It is an input in ration balancing
of fiber particle size as well as assess silage herds prefer balancing at 22- of fermentable starch has proven a multiplying the total nitrogen in the Soluble Protein, %CP: A chemical programs using Cornell Model logic.
mixer consistency. Some herds feeding 23% peNDF which is at the high-end useful thumb rule, especially in rations feed by 6.25, based on the assumption (Borate-Buffer) test typically reported It is sometimes referred to as (Neutral
high corn silage rations have resorted of typical peNDF recommendations. containing very high NDFD corn silage. that 100% protein contains about 16% as % of crude protein which measures Detergent Insoluble Protein) or NDP
nitrogen (100/16=6.25). the amount of protein rapidly degraded (Neutral Detergent Protein). It could
to ammonia to supply rumen bacteria also be expressed in terms of Nitrogen
Adjusted CP %: A calculated value,
nitrogen requirements. or “N,” a component of crude protein
sometimes referred to as available
Soluble Protein (Microbial), %CP: and called Neutral Detergent Insoluble
protein, used for forages to discount
A microbial analysis available on Nitrogen (NDIN) or just Neutral
the total crude protein level based
Fermentrics™ reports calculated as Detergent Nitrogen (NDN). The NDIN
upon the amount of heat damaged
the amount of crude protein degraded value can be calculated by dividing the
(bound, caramelized) protein resulting
in three hours of sample incubation NDICP by 6.25.
from the condensation of carbohydrate
degradation products with protein divided by the total crude protein of the Prolamines: Prolamines are proteins such
forming, dark-colored, insoluble sample. as zeins, and other proteins (albumins,
polymers poorly digested by ruminants. Rumen-Undegraded Protein (RUP, globulins, glutelins) encapsulating corn
It is sometimes calculated by %CP): Portion of the protein that is kernel starch granules to protect starch
subtracting ADF bound CP (ADF-CP or not degraded in the rumen. Sometimes from premature hydration prior to
ADICP) from CP. ADF-CP is calculated called bypass protein, escape protein germination. Corn prolamins tend to be
by multiplying acid detergent insoluble or undegraded intake protein. in higher concentrations in the vitreous
nitrogen (ADIN, sometimes called (glassy) endosperm (high in flint hybrids)
ADF-N) by 6.25. Alternately adjusted Rumen-Degraded Protein (RDP, than in the more centrally-located floury
CP is calculated on a proportional %CP): Portion of total protein which endosperm of dent hybrids.
basis depending on ADFCP level such is degraded in the rumen; sometimes
as when ADIN (% of N) is greater than referred to as degraded intake protein.
14%. Commonly determined using a
Streptomyces griseus (SGP) enzymatic
digestion method developed at Cornell
University.
Microbial Biomass Production sample. If the dry matter intake (DMI) of not measured in the biomass value. Starch Digestibility (STRD, % starch): Nonfibrous Carbohydrate (% NFC): Neutral Detergent Fiber (%aNDF):
(MBP, mg/g): A value reported on the diet is known, the estimated grams Using an actual TMR example with 160 In vitro rumen fluid (or enzymatic) An estimate of the rapidly available The NDF value is the total cell wall
Fermentrics™ reports measured directly of rumen microbial protein produced mg/g MBP and an average cow DMI starch digestibility. Sample grind size carbohydrates (primarily starch and comprised of the ADF fraction plus
by analyzing the substrate that remains are calculated with this equation: MBP of 23.5 kg, equates to 2004 grams of (e.g. 1-4mm) and incubation time (e.g. sugars). Calculated from one of the hemicellulose. It is the residue left after
after 48-hour incubation with a NDF x 0.41 x 1.3 x Kg of DMI. The 0.41 microbial protein produced. The total 2-10 hours, but most commonly 7 following equations: NFC = 100% - boiling sample in neutral detergent
analysis (without amylase or sodium is the assumed amount of microbial contribution of microbial protein plus hours) differ by laboratory. This is only (CP% + NDF% + EE% + Ash %) or, solution. If amylase and sodium
sulfite). The difference between the protein contained in the biomass being any RUP provided in the diet is what ruminal starch disappearance and does if corrected for NDICP, NFC = 100% sulfite are used during the extraction
weight of the substrate before and after measured, 1.3 is an adjustment factor will contribute to the total protein supply not account for post-ruminal starch - [CP% + (NDF% - NDICP %) + EE% (recommended procedure), the fiber
NDF analysis is the microbial biomass accounting for about 30% of the rumen utilized for milk production. digestion to determine total tract starch + Ash%]. Since NFC is calculated by fraction should be called amylase-
yield of the rumen fluid incubated bacteria existing in the liquid phase thus digestion. subtraction, the result includes the treated NDF (aNDF) to distinguish from
additive errors of each component, original method. As NDF increases, dry
Fecal Starch, %: measurement of the %
particularly the NDF procedure. NFC matter intake generally decreases.
starch on a DM basis found in manure.
and nonstructural carbohydrates (NSC)
Composite samples of fresh manure
EXAMPLE OF A TMR FERMENTRICS® REPORT from 10-12 cows are submitted to
are not interchangeable, especially in Undigested Neutral Detergent Fiber
(uNDF240, %DM): uNDF is the neutral
forages, with much of the difference
the lab for starch analysis. Levels less detergent fiber (cell wall or lignin +
being pectins and organic acids found
TMR than 3% fecal starch indicate excellent
in NFC but not NSC. cellulose + hemicellulose) that is not
total tract (rumen + intestinal) starch digested after x-number of hours
Description: 4882 Origin: Pioneer
digestion. Nonstructural Carbohydrates (%NSC): incubated with rumen bacteria. uNDF
Sample #: 81505 Run Date: Aug 22 2016 Carbohydrate Digestion Rates
An enzymatic method where all is reported as a % of DM (not as a %
constituents are analyzed to estimate of the NDF) with typical rumen retention
(Kd, %/hour): Carbohydrate pool
the sugars, starch, organic acids, and times of either 24, 30, 120 or 240
DM digestion rates (Kd) are maximum
Moisture, % 56.3 other reserve carbohydrates such as hours. uNDF improves predictions of
rates of degradation per hour for the
Dry Matter, % 43.7 fructans. It is a lower value than NFC dry matter intakes and rumen function
B1 (starch), B2 (soluble fiber) and B3
Crude Protein, % 15.0 because NFC contains compounds (e.g. rumen microbial yield).
AD-ICP, %CP 1.0 (NDF) carbohydrate pools as defined
other than starch and sugars. NFC and
MI Gas Produced per 400 mg Sample
80
ND-ICP, %CP 2.40 by models like CNCPS or CPM. Some
NSC are not interchangeable, especially
SP (BB), %CP 41.08 laboratories publish Kd values for the
in forages, with much of the difference uNDF 240h,
SP (Microbial), %CP 40.15 B3 (NDF) pool by employing published
Lignin % 3.24 being pectins and organic acids found % of DM
60 equations from Cornell University
ADF % 20.79 in NFC but not NSC.
aNDF % 29.7
utilizing single time point NDFD values FEED TYPE GOAL AVERAGE
peNDF 26.40 (e.g. 24, 30 or 48-hour), NDF and lignin
EE % 5.84 quantity and an assumed digestion lag Alfalfa hay or haylage < 13 18
40 FEED NFC NSC
Sugar % 4.0 value (e.g. six hours). Fermentrics™
Starch % 28.26 reports use gas production methods Corn silage <7 9
Microbial Biomass Production
NFC % 43.50
Alfalfa silage 18.4 7.5
to directly measure digestion rates for
aPartitioning Factor 5.04
both fast (primarily starch) and slow Corn silage 41.0 34.7 Sorghum, sudan or
20
172.00
Low
(mg/g)
Optimal
aOMD (%DM) 67.90
(primarily fiber) pool nutrients. Curve small-grain hay or <9 14
TDN (Est.) 72.85 Beet pulp 36.2 19.5
0 60 180 NE/Lact, Mcal/lb 0.76 peeling techniques and published silage
NEMaint. Mcal/lb equations are used to estimate the High-Moisture Corn 71.8 70.6
0 Source: Dr. Rick Grant, W.H. Miner Institute
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 NE/Gain, Mcal/lb 0.53 carbohydrate pool Kd values.
Ash % 8.32 Soy hulls 14.1 5.3
Time (Hr) Calcium (Ca), % 0.74 Sugar, %: Sometimes called water
Fast Slow Total
soluble carbohydrates (WSC). Sample Ground corn 67.5 68.7
Phophorus (P), % 0.33
Digestion Rates Relative Pool Contributions Relative Times to Max Rate
Potassium (K), % 0.42 incubated with water in a 40ºC bath
Magnesium (Mg), % 1.17 extracting simple sugars and fructan.
Fast Pool (Kd/hr) 29.18 ml gas % of total Max (hr)
Sodium (Na), % 0.35 Acid Detergent Fiber (% ADF): Residue
Slow Pool (Kd/hr) 4.03 Fast Pool 18.24 29.72% Fast Pool 2.00 WSC determined after acid hydrolysis remaining after boiling sample in acid
uNDFom 240% 4.6
C:B1 (Kd/hr) 20.10 Slow Pool 43.13 70.28% Slow Pool 12.50 with sulfuric acid and colorimetric detergent solution. ADF contains
2-Pool Total 61.38 Fermentrics™ reaction with potassium ferricyanide. cellulose, lignin and silica, but not
C:B3 (Kd/hr) 4.03 www.fermentrics.com
Starch, %: A polysaccharide consisting of hemicellulose.
a long chain of glucose units.
Relative Feed Value (RFV): An index
NDF DEFINITIONS NO amylase amylase amylase

amylase TYPICAL RANGES IN NDFD (48-HOUR INCUBATION) that combines factors affecting forage
intake and digestibility allowing for
Na sulfite
NO Na sulfite NO Na sulfite Na sulfite relative comparisons of legume, grass
Ash free Legume Silage
and legume/grass forages (not corn
silage). RFV Is used to determine the
NDF NDR aNDF aNDFom Grass Silage/Hay relative value for marketing purposes.
It is calculated as: RFV= (DMI, % of
High Grain Corn Silage 37.7 38.1 36.0 35.2 body weight) * (DDM, % of DM) / 1.29
Corn Silage where: DMI is dry matter intake (% of
What was required in the Cornell Model body weight) calculated as 120/ (NDF,
prior to the release of V 6.0 %DM) and DDM is digestible dry matter
Poor Fair Average Good Excellent
calculated as 88.9–(0.779 x ADF, %DM)
What most labs, especially in the Midwest, have been running since early 90’s
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
-
-
when Mertens started promoting his method although not all labs use the “a” NDF Digestibility, % of NDF
Source: Dave Taysom. Dairyland Laboratories.
Typically not run unless requested. Might be worth requesting on hay/haylages if high inclusion
rates, pushing upper limits of total ration NDF quantity and ash levels in sample are high (>12%)
Source: Dave Mertens, Pioneer Symposium at the 2002 Cornell Nutrition Conference
THE 24-HOUR VERSUS 48-HOUR NDFD INCUBATION TIME DEBATE
NDFD, as %NDF: A measurement of the Lignin: Sometimes called acid detergent Ash %: the residue remaining after burning 24-hour NDFD
NDF digestibility typically measured by lignin (AD-lignin). It is the indigestible sample at 550ºC as an estimate of total
in vitro incubations with rumen fluid and plant component (chain of phenyl mineral content. More variability, but also more
buffers or in situ by hanging samples propane units), giving plant cell walls Minerals: Macro minerals (e.g. calcium,
biological relevancy.
in fistulated animals. Grind size of strength and water impermeability. phosphorus, potassium, magnesium, Solution – run more samples 48-hour NDFD
sample (finer grind will generate higher High levels of lignin tend to reduce
values) and incubation times (12, 24, digestibility within a plant species.
sodium, sulfur) are reported as a Less variability,
percent and trace minerals (e.g. copper,
30, 48-hour) vary by laboratory. Some There are two methods of measuring iron, manganese, zinc) are reported as but also less
labs report dNDF which is the portion lignin in acid detergent fiber: sulfuric
of the neutral detergent fiber digested acid lignin and permanganate lignin.
parts per million (ppm). biological relevancy
by animals at a specified level of feed Permanganate lignin is a larger value Corn Silage Processing Score (CSPS,
intake, expressed as a percent of the than sulfuric lignin for most feeds. %total starch): Analysis of dried
dry matter. NDFD = dNDF/NDF x 100. corn silage sample to assess level of
Total Tract NDF Digestibility (TTNDFD, kernel damage at harvest. Sample
Physically Effective NDF (peNDF, %NDF): An in vitro method that is separated by particle size using
%DM): An estimate of the coarse measures NDFD and uNDF (at 24, 30
portion of the fiber believed effective in and 48 hours) in standardized rumen
sieves and then analyzed for percent Family of NDFD curves
starch on coarse (> 4.7 mm), medium
stimulating chewing activity and salivary fluid with incorporating rate (Kd) of fiber (1.18 to 3.35 mm) and fine screens from repeated sub-samples
buffer production to increased rumen digestion, the amount of potentially (0.6 mm or less). Scores above 70% run from the same forage sample
pH. It is calculated by dry sieving the digested NDF (pdNDF), rate of feed indicate optimum kernel processing;
sample for ten minutes and taking the passage (Kp) in high-producing dairy 50-70 indicate average processing and
proportion of the dry matter retained on cows and hindgut fiber digestion to scores less than 50% indicate under
a 1.18mm sieve (termed the pe factor) provide a total tract estimate of NDF processed samples.
multiplied by the NDF content of the digestibility.
sample. Crude Fat, %: An estimate of the fat
content of feeds determined by ether 24 hrs 48 hrs
extraction; sometimes termed ether
extract (EE). Crude fat contains true
fat (triglycerides) as well as alcohols,
waxes, terpenes, steroids, pigments,
ester, aldehydes and other lipids.
Relative Feed Quality (RFQ): An index
which incorporates NDFD to more
Milk per Ton, lbs/ton: A corn silage or
alfalfa index that estimates the pounds
Energy Calculations: Most labs report
calculated values for total digestible
NOTES
accurately compare potential animal of milk produced per dry matter ton nutrients (TDN, %), net energy lactation
performance when fed legume, grass of forage based on the University of (NEL, Mcal/lb), net energy maintenance
and legume/grass forages (not corn Wisconsin MILK2006 decision aid. (NEM, Mcal/lb), net energy gain (NEG,
silage). It is based on the digestibility of Mcal/lb). There are several different
Milk per Acre, lbs/acre: A corn silage or
the forage dry matter and how much the equations that can be used for each
alfalfa index that estimates the pounds
cow can eat based on filling capacity. It of these energy values, so it is best to
of milk produced per acre from the total
is calculated as: RFQ = (DMI, % of BW) source the equations being used from
yield of forage dry matter based on
* (TDN, % of DM) / 1.23. See page 95 the individual laboratories.
the University of Wisconsin MILK2006
for calculation examples. decision aid. Fermentation Profiles: Typical silage
fermentation analysis will include
levels of volatile fatty acids (acetic,
propionic, 1,2 propanediol, isobutyric,
butyric) along with pH, lactic acid, and
occasionally ammonia-N and ethanol.
NOTES NOTES
NOTES NOTES
Suggested Price $25.00 USD www.pioneer.com/silagezone
@PioneerForage
PIONEER® brand products are provided subject to the terms

and conditions of purchase which are part of the labeling and
purchase documents. ®, TM, SM Trademarks and service marks
of DuPont, Pioneer or their respective owners. © 2017 PHII.
16D-3420
PIONEER® brand products are provided subject to the terms and conditions of purchase which are part of the labeling and purchase documents.
®, TM, SM
Trademarks and service marks of DuPont, Pioneer or their respective owners. © 2017 PHII. 16D-3420

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I

Plant Grow Harvest Store Feed 1

4 Plant Grow Harvest Store Feed 5

Corn Traits and Technology* (as of July 2016)

Southwestern Corn Borer #

Western Corn Rootworm#

Northern Corn Rootworm

Southern Cornstalk Borer

Mexican Corn Rootworm

Stalk Borer (Common)

Evenly spaced plants are in the best

MIXED STANDS require maintenance of the current thin

Dry Matter Yield

© Iowa State University Extension

© Iowa State University Extension

Progression of black abscission layer formation

How a corn plant develops: V18 Stage

through the vegetative stages.

Reproduction through maturity

DETERMINING CORN LEAF STAGES

European Corn Borer Japanese Beetles Black Cutworm

Eyespot Lesions Northern Leaf Spot

Fall Armyworm Wireworms Southwestern Corn Borer

Southern Leaf Blight Gray Leaf Spot

Western Bean Cutworm Spider Mites Corn Earworms

Corn Rootworm White Grubs Aphids Southern Rust Goss’s Wilt

IMPACT OF MOISTURE AND GROWING ENVIRONMENT 0.5

Crop water use (in/day)

Grain Yield (bu/acre)

Relationship of grain yield to total seasonal crop water use or Ear

and more weather variability, struggle

% NDFD, 48 HR, %NDF

FIBER DIGESTIBILITY STARCH CONTENT STARCH DIGESTIBILITY

T/A @ 30% DM / % Starch / % NDF

Alfalfa is very small with about 220,000

• Small root hairs develop on the lower radicle

Photo courtesy of University of Madison-Wisconsin

Photos courtesy of University of Madison-Wisconsin

increases in maturity from vegetative

higher respiration or leaching losses and 45

LENGTH OF CUT for corn silage.

It is difficult to offer generalized chop

NDF Digestibility declines only minimally

2. Potential for the corn crop to get

HARVEST MATURITY OF MIXED STANDS

NDF Of Stand Mixture

Alfalfa Height, Inches

Opens the harvest window by 4 days. Exact number

USING VARIETY MANAGEMENT TO “WIDEN THE HARVEST WINDOW”

This slower intermediate drying stage involves radial moisture

The final drying stage is influenced

THE ENSILING PROCESS Continues until all

(= lost weight, DM basis/original C6 H12 O6 + 6 O2 6 C O2 + 6 H2O + Energy

Torulopsis. Yeasts do not reproduce capable of producing esters (fruity

Protected by oxygen-barrier film/plastic

Protected by Pioneer® brand inoculants

Feeds should be limited to 35-40% of

Feeds should be limited to 25% of total DM in

Feeds containing these levels are potentially