Carbohydrates as an Information Carrier Molecule

(ASSIGNMENT # 01 SEMESTER FALL - 2024)

Submission Date (March 25, 2024)
BY
Iqra Anwar
ROLL # 22011514-068
Zoo-466 (Biochemistry -I)
BS Zoology IV(Section-A)
Dr. Razia Iqbal
Department of Zoology

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 Table of Contents
Introduction ........................................................................................................................................ 4
1. General structure: ....................................................................................................................... 4
2. Classification of Carbohydrates: .................................................................................................. 4
3.1 Disaccharide .................................................................................................................................. 4
3.2 Oligosaccharide: ............................................................................................................................ 5
3.3 Polysaccharide: ............................................................................................................................. 5
3.4 Monosaccharide: .......................................................................................................................... 6
3. Biological Importance of Carbohydrates ..................................................................................... 6
4.1 Energy Storage: ....................................................................................................................... 6
4.2 Lipid Metabolism: ......................................................................................................................... 6
4.3 Production of Energy: ................................................................................................................... 6
5 Carbohydrates as an information carrier molecule: ................................................................... 6
5.1 Antigens specific to blood type ............................................................................................... 6
5.2 Cell to Cell Communication: .......................................................................................................... 6
5.3 Signaling Pathways: ....................................................................................................................... 7
5.4 Genetic information’s importance: ............................................................................................... 7
5.5 Immune Reactions: ....................................................................................................................... 7
 Table of Figures
Figure: 2.1: General structure of carbohydrate 4
Figure: 3.1: Structure of Disaccharide 5
Figure: 3.3: Classification of Carbohydrate 5
Introduction
Carbohydrates are a broad class of substances that include sugars, starches, gums, and
celluloses. Every carbohydrate has the characteristic of releasing carbon dioxide and one or
more water molecules upon combustion. Additionally, they only include the elements oxygen,
hydrogen, and carbon. Naturally occurring polysaccharides, which are usually produced from
plants, are the most complicated type of carbohydrates; on the other hand, three-carbon sugars,
which are important for intermediate metabolism, are the simplest. The diets of fish and
mammals contain two main types of polysaccharides.

A. structural polysaccharides, such as cellulose, lignin, dextrans, mannans, insulin,

pentosans, pectic acids, algic acids, agar, and chitin, that are metabolized by
herbivorous.
B. Polysaccharides that are universally absorbed, primarily starch.
Although they make up three-fourths of the biomass of plants, carbohydrates are only found in
trace amounts in the bodies of animals as sugars, glycogen, and other derivatives. Since
glycogen is not found in plants, it is frequently referred to as animal starch. Living organisms
consist of derived mono-saccharides, which include deoxy sugars, amino sugars, and sugar
acids.
1. General structure:
Carbohydrates are polymers made up of carbon ©, hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O). The formula
for carbohydrates is typically Cx(H2O)y. The following criteria are used to categories the
chemical characteristics of carbohydrates: The number of carbons.

Figure: 2.2: General structure of carbohydrate

2. Classification of Carbohydrates:
There are four types of carbohydrates: Oligosacchare, Polysaccharides, Disaccharide and
Monosaccharide.
3.1 Disaccharide
Two molecules of monosaccharides condense to form disaccharides. The main ingredient in
sugar cane and sugar beetroot is sucrose, which is the main disaccharide that occurs in the free
form. It also develops as legume seeds germinate. The prevalent disaccharides lactose and
maltose are also present. Lactose is a copolymer of galactose and glucose, while maltose is a
dimer of glucose. While the two hexose molecules of galactose are joined at the b -1,4 position,

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the two glucose molecules in maltose are bound together by an a -1,4 glycosidic bond. In
sucrose, glucose and fructose are joined in an a-1,2 bond.

3.2 Oligosaccharide:

Figure: 3.2: Structure of Disaccharide

Legumes seeds contain notable amounts of the oligosaccharides verbascose, stachyose, and
raffinose. The most common of the three, raffinose, is made up of one glucose molecule
connected to one sucrose molecule at the a -1,6 position. Chemically speaking, its name can be
shortened to a -D-Gal (1® 6) -a - D -Glu - (1® 2) -b -D-Fru.
3.3 Polysaccharide:
Many complex carbohydrates are grouped together as polysaccharides. Starch is the main
reserve carbohydrate in plants and is a high molecular weight polymer of D-glucose. Amylose
and amylopectin are the two types of polymers that make up the majority of starches. The
proportion of amylose and amylopectin is generally one part of amylose and three parts of
amylopectin.

Figure: 3.3: Classification of Carbohydrate

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3.4 Monosaccharide:
There is only one sugar unit in each of these compounds. Among the monosaccharides are
fructose, glucose, and glyceraldehyde. The molecular structure of this kind can be triose,
tetrose, pentose, or hexose, contingent upon the number of carbon atoms present.
3. Biological Importance of Carbohydrates
4.1 Energy Storage:
When the body needs energy to support its functions, excess glucose is stored as glycogen, the
majority of which is preserved in the muscles and liver. When glucose is needed, glycogen
molecules can transfer it to cells fast because they are highly branched and have the capacity
to store over 50,000 single glucose units.
4.2 Lipid Metabolism:
As blood glucose levels rise, the body uses lipids less readily as an energy source. Therefore,
an excess of glucose has a "fat-sparing" effect. This is because higher blood sugar levels
encourage the production of the hormone insulin, which tells cells to synthesize energy from
glucose instead of lipids. Sufficient blood glucose also prevents the start of ketosis. Ketosis is
a metabolic condition characterized by an increase in ketone bodies in the bloodstream. In
situations where glucose is scarce, such as during fasting, cells have the ability to switch to an
alternative energy source called ketone bodies.
4.3 Production of Energy:
The body uses carbohydrates primarily to provide energy to every cell in the body. Many cells
choose glucose above other compounds like fatty acids as their energy source. Red blood cells
are among the cells that can only utilize glucose as an energy source.
Glycolysis is the initial stage of the breakdown of glucose and entails a complex series of ten
chemical reactions. The second stage of glucose breakdown happens in the mitochondria, the
cell's power plant. Removing one carbon atom and two oxygen atoms produces more energy.
The energy released by these carbon bonds is sent to a different region of the mitochondria
where it is utilized by the cell's energy system in the most efficient way possible.

5 Carbohydrates as an information carrier molecule:

5.1 Antigens specific to blood type

One well-known example of cell-cell recognition mediated by carbohydrates is the ABO blood
type system. Everyone who has given or received blood is probably aware with the following
facts regarding blood compatibility. Blood type O donors can donate any kind of blood, but
they can only receive blood that is also type O. Blood types A and O are the only blood types
that blood type A donors can receive; recipients who are A and AB can only receive blood type
A. Similarly, blood type B donors can only accept blood types B and O, but they can donate
blood to receivers who are B and AB. Blood type AB carriers can accept any kind of blood,
but they can only donate to other AB carriers.
5.2 Cell to Cell Communication:
Carbohydrates on cell surfaces help to connect adjacent cells by attaching to complementary
carbohydrate-binding proteins (lectins) on those cells. Among the processes reliant on this
connection are cell adhesion, migration, and recognition.

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5.3 Signaling Pathways:
Carbohydrates have the ability to alter established signaling pathways or act as signaling
molecules in and of themselves through their interactions with cell surface receptors.
Glycosylation, for example, may have an effect on the shape and activity of proteins, which
may subsequently have an effect on downstream signaling pathways.
5.4 Genetic information’s importance:
The structural foundation of nucleic acids, including DNA and RNA, is a sugar-phosphate
backbone. The phosphate and sugar groups that alternately make up this molecule's backbone
define its directionality. Nucleotides, the building blocks of DNA and RNA, are linked together
in a chain by chemical compounds called ester bonds between the sugar base of one nucleotide
and the phosphate group of another nucleotide. The 3' end of each nucleotide corresponds to
sugar, and the 5' end to phosphate. The free hydroxyl on the 3' carbon of the next nucleotide
and the phosphate group of one nucleotide on the sugar's 5' carbon form an ester bond. These
bonds are referred to as phosphodiester bonds, and the sugar-phosphate backbone is said to be
developing in the 5' to 3' direction during the synthesis of molecules. The two linear sugar-
phosphate backbones that make up double-stranded DNA's chemical double-helix structure
twist together helical as they run in opposite directions.
5.5 Immune Reactions:
To stimulate the immune system, pathogens or carbohydrates found in host cells can function
as antigens. These carbohydrate antigens are recognized by immune cells such as
macrophages and dendritic cells, which in turn set off immune responses that either eradicate
infections or modify inflammatory processes.

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References:

1. https://www.britannica.com/science/DNA
2. https://link.springer.com
3. https://byjus.com

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