CARBOHYDRATES AS CARRIER PROTEIN MOLECULE

ASSIGNMENT#01SEMESTERFALL-2024
Submission Date (March 25,2024)
BY
Rehan Asghar
ROLL#22011514-114
ZOO-473(Biochemiestry-1)
Dr.Razia Iqbal
Department of Zoology
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
CONTENT PAGE

Contents
1.Introduction ............................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Structural arrangements and properties ...................................................................................... 1
1.1.1Stereoisomerism ........................................................................................................................... 1
1.1.2 Hemiacetal and hemiketal forms ..................................................................................................... 2
2.Classes of carbohydrates ........................................................................................................................... 3
2.1 Monosachrides define........................................................................................................................ 3
2.2 Sources of monosachrides .................................................................................................................. 3
2.3 Function of monosachrides............................................................................................................. 3
3.1 Disaccharides .......................................................................................................................................... 4
3.2 Polysaccharides ....................................................................................................................................... 5
4 Glycans principle ........................................................................................................................................ 5
4.1 Glycans as information carrier molecule ............................................................................................ 6
4.1.1 Cell-to-Cell Recognition.................................................................................................................... 6
5.Glycoprotein as information carrier molecule........................................................................................... 7

............................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

5.2 Glycoprotein structure ........................................................................................................................ 7
.................................................................................................................................................................. 8
5.4 Function of glycoproteins ............................................................................................................... 8
6.Glycolipids definition ................................................................................................................................. 9
6.2 Structure ............................................................................................................................................. 9
6.3 Functions ......................................................................................................................................... 9
7.Carbohydrate protiens interaction .......................................................................................................... 10
 Table of Figures

Contents Page

Figure#1.1: Isomers Structure------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------2

Figure#1.2: Structure of hemiketals-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------2
Figure#2.1: Structure of monosaccharides---------------------------------------------------------------------------4
Figure#3.1: Maltose and Lactose Structure--------------------------------------------------------------------------5
Figure#5.1: Glycoprotein Structure-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------8
Figure#6.1: Glycolipids Structure------------------------------------------------------------------------------------10
1.Introduction
A carbohydrate is a naturally occurring compound, or a derivative of such a compound, with the
general chemical formula Cx(H2O)y, made up of molecules of carbon (C), hydrogen (H),
and oxygen (O). Carbohydrates are the most widespread organic substances and play a vital role in
all life. A carbohydrate is defined as "hydrated carbon" and has the chemical formula Cx(H2O)y,
which represents some carbon atoms (C) with some water molecules (H2O) connected. There are
four different forms of carbohydrates: polysaccharides, oligosaccharides, disaccharides, and
monosaccharides. The basic sugar that makes up monosaccharides is represented by the chemical
formula C6H12O6. Two simple sugars are called disaccharides. Three to six monosaccharide units
make up an oligosaccharide, while more than six make up a polysaccharide. All carbohydrates that
are not monosaccharides, such as disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides, are
polymers, which are composed of many monomers, or simpler units. A simple sugar or
monosaccharide is the monomer in this instance. Stephen, A.M. Cummings,J.H. (2007)

n CO2 + n H2O + energy CnH2nOn + n O2

Structural arrangements and properties

1.1.1Stereoisomerism
Research conducted in the late 1800s by German chemist Emil Fischer revealed that
relatively simple changes in the spatial, or geometric, arrangements of carbohydrates, such
as fructose and glucose, could form these molecules with the same molecular formulas but
distinct structural arrangements and properties (i.e., isomers). All biological systems
exhibit stereoisomerism, a particular kind of isomerism. Glyceraldehyde, a three-carbon
aldose sugar, is the most basic example of a carbohydrate. The structures of the two isomers
of glyceraldehyde, which are identified by the so-called Fischer projection formulas,
cannot be made identical in any way, with
the exception of severing and reassembling the bonds connecting the hydroxyl (―OH) and
hydrogen (―H) groups to the carbon at position In actuality, the isomers are mirror images,
similar to the right and left hands; this type of isomerism is sometimes referred to as
enantiomorphism. With the exception of optical rotation, enantiomers have the same
chemical and physical characteristics. Smith, J. K. (2020).

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Figure 1.1 isomers structure

Smith, J. K. (2020)

1.1.2 Hemiacetal and hemiketal forms

The rotational behavior of freshly prepared solutions of various sugars differs from that of
solutions that have been allowed to stand, despite the fact that optical rotation has been one
of the most frequently determined features of carbohydrates since its identification in the
late 19th century. This phenomenon, called mutarotation, is induced by a sort of
stereoisomerism that involves the creation of an asymmetrical center at the first carbon
atom (aldehyde carbon) in aldoses and the second one (keto carbon) in ketoses. It can be
observed even with sugars that appear to be identical. Smith, J. K. (2020)

Figure 1.2 Structure of hemiacetals

Smith, J. K. (2020)

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2.Classes of carbohydrates
2.1 Monosachrides define
Carbohydrates come in the most basic form as monosaccharides. Glycosidic linkages allow
monosaccharides to join together to generate bigger carbohydrates, sometimes referred to
as polysaccharides or oligosaccharides. A disaccharide is an oligosaccharide that contains
just two monosaccharides. An oligosaccharide transforms into a polysaccharide when it
combines more than 20 monosaccharides with glycosidic linkages. Thousands of
monosaccharides can be found in some polysaccharides, such as cellulose. One kind of
monomer, or molecule, that can unite with other similar molecules to form a larger
polymer, is a monosaccharide. Smith, J. K. (2020)

2.2 Sources of monosachrides

The most prevalent naturally occurring monosaccharides are D-xylose and L-arabinose
among the pentoses, and D-glucose, D-mannose, D-fructose, and D-galactose among the
hexoses. Because they comprise the carbohydrate component of ribonucleic acid (RNA)
and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), respectively, D-ribose and 2-deoxy-D-ribose are
particularly ubiquitous. These sugars are found in all organisms as parts of nucleic acids.
Smith, J. K. (2020)

2.3 Function of monosachrides

Within cells, monosaccharides serve a variety of purposes. Monosaccharides are primarily
used in the synthesis and storage of energy. Breaking down the monosaccharide glucose
and obtaining the energy released from the bonds is how most organisms produce energy.
Long fibers that can be employed as a kind of cellular structure are formed from other
monosaccharides. For this purpose, plants manufacture cellulose, and some bacteria can
use slightly different polysaccharides to make a cell wall that is comparable to what plants
do. A complex network of polysaccharides, derived from smaller monosaccharides,
envelops even animal cells. Smith, J. K. (2020)

2.4 Structure
The generic formula for all monosaccharides is (CH2O)n, denoting a core carbon molecule
bound to two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. A hydroxyl group will be created

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when the oxygen forms a connection with a hydrogen atom. Many of these carbon
molecules can join together because carbon may create four bonds. A carbonyl group,
created when one of the chain's carbons forms a double bond with an oxygen, is the result.
The monosaccharide belongs to the aldose family if this carbonyl is found at the end of the
chain. The monosaccharide belongs to the ketose family if the carboxyl group is located in
the center of the chain. Smith, J. K. (2020)
Figure 2.1 structure of monosachrides

Peter C. Collins and Robert J.

3.1 Disaccharides
A disaccharide, which is often referred to as a double sugar, is the type of sugar that results
from the glycosidic bonding of two monosaccharides, or simple sugars. Disaccharides are
soluble in water, much as monosaccharides. Lactose, maltose, and sucrose are three typical
examples. Disaccharides are carbohydrates that yield two molecules of monosaccharides—
which may or may not be the same—when they are hydrolyzed by acids or enzymes.
Following the removal of the water molecule, the oxide bond forms, which subsequently
results in the formation of the two monosaccharides. Glycosidic bonds are formed when
two monosaccharide units are connected by an oxygen atom. Smith, J. K. (2020)

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Figure#3.1 Maltose and lactose structure

Peter C. Collins and Robert J. Ferrier (1995)

3.2 Polysaccharides
A big molecule composed of numerous smaller monosaccharides is called a
polysaccharide. Monosaccharides, such as glucose, are simple sugars. These tiny
monomers are joined by certain enzymes to form enormous sugar polymers, or
polysaccharides. Another name for a polysaccharide is a glycan. A polysaccharide can be
either heteropolysaccharide, where the monosaccharides differ, or homopolysaccharide,
where all the monosaccharides are the same. Polysaccharides can take on a range of shapes
depending on which monosaccharides are linked and which carbons within the
monosaccharides join. A branched polysaccharide is a chain that has arms and twists,
whereas a linear polysaccharide is a molecule with a straight chain of monosaccharides.
Smith, J. K. (2020)

4 Glycans principle
Glycans, like other important groups of macromolecules, have a variety of biological roles
that can range from being rather mild to being essential for an organism's growth,
development, maintenance, or survival. There are still several glycans for which certain
functions are unknown. Additionally, the functionalities of a single glycan might vary
based on the aglycone (protein or lipid) to which it is bound. Alberts B, Johnso A, lewis
J, (2002)
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4.1 Glycans as information carrier molecule
Glycans, sometimes referred to as saccharides or carbohydrates, are important information
carriers in biological systems. Although proteins and nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) are
more frequently linked to the storage and transmission of genetic information, glycans also
play a major role in cellular signaling and communication. Alberts B, Johnso A, lewis J,
(2002)
4.1.1 Cell-to-Cell Recognition: Glycans on the cell surface operate as indicators of
recognition for cell-to-cell interactions. Numerous biological functions, including
immunological responses, tissue growth, and cell adhesion, depend on this recognition.
Alberts B, Johnso A, lewis J, (2002)

4.1.2 Glycan Binding Proteins: A variety of proteins, including lectins, are able to identify
particular glycan structures. These proteins mediate a number of biological activities, such
as immunological responses, pathogen recognition, and cell communication, by attaching
to these glycans. Alberts B, Johnso A, lewis J, (2002)

4.1.3 Glycan Modifications: Glycans can be added to proteins post-translationally, a

process called glycosylation that can change the structure and function of the protein. This
alteration can control various activities, including protein folding, stability, and targeting,
and it acts as a mechanism for adjusting the activity of proteins.
Alberts B, Johnso A, lewis J, (2002)

Glycan Signaling: Signaling molecules can be formed by glycans themselves. For

instance, alterations to the glycan structures on the surfaces of cells might initiate signaling.
Pathogen Recognition: Glycan-protein interactions are a common way that bacteria,
viruses, and other pathogens communicate with their hosts' cells. For the purpose of
creating plans to fight infectious diseases, it is essential to comprehend these relationships.
Alberts B, Johnso A, lewis J, (2002)

Glycan Code: A "glycan code" controls how the sugar molecules in glycans are arranged.
It is comparable to the genetic code, which determines the nucleotide sequence in DNA.

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Through controlling the interactions between glycans and other molecules, this code affects
a number of biological processes.
Alberts B, Johnso A, lewis J, (2002)

Glycan Diversity: A variety of specific interactions with other molecules are made
possible by the structural diversity of glycans. The complexity of cellular communication
and signaling networks is increased by this diversity. Drickamer K, Taylor ME, (2009)

5.Glycoprotein as information carrier molecule

Glycoproteins are connected chains of amino acids and carbohydrates that are incredibly
varied. Glycoproteins are ubiquitous in nature and serve a wide variety of purposes. They
belong to one of two groups of glycoconjugates; glycolipids make up the other group.
Membrane glycoproteins on bacteria, viruses, and body cells are examples of
glycoproteins, as are fibrillins, mucins, and tumor necrosis factor. Drickamer K, Taylor
ME, (2009)

5.2 Glycoprotein structure

The name "glycoprotein structure" describes it: a protein with a sugar component (glyco)
attached. There is a covalent link between the two parts.
The majority of scientists refer to a glycoprotein's carbohydrate (sugar) component as a
glycan. Glycans are oligosaccharides that make up 1% to 80% of the structure of
glycoproteins. Initially referred to as a glycosyl group, this sugar molecule exists outside
of proteins.
Glycoproteins are complex polymers that are defined by the covalent attachment of a
protein to a carbohydrate component, known as a glycan. This portion of carbohydrates,
also known as an oligosaccharide, can make about one to eighty percent of the total
glycoprotein structure. This carbohydrate item is known as a glycosyl group before it is
linked to the protein.
When a hydroxyl group (-OH) is taken out of a monosaccharide inside a polysaccharide
chain, a glycosyl group is created. An unstable site is produced on the monosaccharide by
this removal. Thirteen known monosaccharides can bind to eight different amino acids to

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stabilize this structure. The lost -OH from the glycosyl group is made up for by the
hydroxyl group of the corresponding aminoacid. Benoff S, (1977).

Figure#5.1 Glycoprotein structure

Benoff S, (1977)

5.4 Function of glycoproteins

Glycoproteins are essential to many different biological processes since they are proteins
that have carbohydrate chains covalently linked to them. Their complex involvement in a
variety of physiological systems highlight how important they are to preserving
homeostasis and supporting essential biological processes.

Cell membrane composition Glycoproteins are essential parts of the lipid bilayer that
makes up the cell membrane. They can work well in aquatic situations because of their
hydrophilic character, which also helps with chemical bonding and cell-cell recognition.
Tissue Stabilization Glycoproteins play a crucial role in the cellular cross-linking of
proteins, including collagen, with cells. Tissues are stabilized and strengthened by this
contact, maintaining structural integrity.
Plant Structural Support In the world of plants, the glycoproteins found in their cells
give them resistance to gravity, which in turn gives them structural support.
immune survelience White blood cells monitor blood arteries, looking for possible

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infections as part of their immune surveillance role. Lectin-type glycoproteins mediate
their adhesion to the blood vessel lining, guaranteeing alert immune monitoring.
Neurological function Glycoproteins are present in the brain's grey matter and cooperate
with synaptosomes and axons to facilitate neuronal communication. This is their
neurological function.
Blood Coagulation To help stop excessive bleeding, the hemostatic system uses
glycoproteins including fibrinogen, prothrombin, and thrombin to aid in blood clotting.
Blood Typing Red blood cells' glycoproteins identify the blood kinds. Type A blood cells,
for example, have A antigens or A glycoproteins, which help the immune system identify
the blood as belonging to the self and prevent autoimmunity.
Reproductive Function Glycoproteins help sperm cells stick to the surface of the egg
during fertilization, which ensures successful reproduction.
Mucosal Protection Mucus is made up of a type of glycoproteins called mucins. These
compounds protect the epithelium surfaces of many different systems, such as the gut.
Benoff S, (1977).

6.Glycolipids definition
Glyco refers to a single or several monosaccharide particles or compounds joined by a
glycosidic bond. Glycolipids are a kind of lipid network made up of fatty acids,
carbohydrates, and other lipids such as sphingolipids and fatty acids that are followed by a
glycerol group.
The glycosidic or covalent bond holds the chemicals together. Stryer, L. (1988).
6.2 Structure
Monosaccharide or oligosaccharide groups linked to sphingolipids or glycerol groups that
are naturally acetylated or alkylated with one or two fatty acids make up glycolipids.
These classes include glycoglycerolipids and glycosphingolipids.
Glycolipids are able to attach to the plasma membrane surface by binding to the lipid
bilayer due to the hydrophobic nature of their lipid tail. Stryer, L. (1988).

6.3 Functions
 Glycolipids provide energy to cells.
 A crucial component or section of cell membranes is made up of glycolipids.

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  Glycolipids can be used to determine a person's blood type.
 Glycolipids, which function as receptors, are found in red blood cells.
 Glycolipids support the immune system by eradicating and removing infections
from the body.
Stryer, L. (1988)

Figure#6.1 glycolipids structure

Peter C. Collins and Robert J. Ferrier (1995)

7.Carbohydrate protiens interaction

Lectins
A varied class of proteins called lectins is present in microbes, animals, and plants. These
are proteins that bind to carbohydrates and have the ability to recognize and attach to
particular sugar molecules. Lectins are frequently found in the seeds, tubers, roots, and
leaves of plants, where they function as protection against pests and diseases. They may
also play a part in plant development or serve as storage proteins.Lectins are present in a
variety of tissues and bodily fluids in animals, including humans, and are involved in
immunological responses, cell-cell interactions, and other physiological functions. Vark,
A., Cummings, R.D., (2015)
Binding to specific carbohydrate
The structural characteristics of both the lectin and the carbohydrate ligand determine how
selectively lectin binds to carbs. Lectins frequently bind to and recognize particular sugar
moieties or carbohydrate sequences that are present on the surface of molecules or cells.

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Different lectins can interact with different carbohydrate structures due to their vast range
of binding specificities.
Lectins that are specific to galactose: These lectins attach themselves to carbohydrates
that contain galactose.
Mannose-specific lectins: They bind exclusively to residues of mannose.
Selectins that are specific to N-acetylglucosamine (GlcNAc): These lectins identify and
attach to GlcNAc residues.
Selectins that are specific to sialic acid residues are known as sialic acid-specific lectins.
Fucose-specific lectins: These lectins bind only to carbohydrates that contain fucose.
Vark, A., Cummings, R.D., (2015).

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 REFRENCES
Alberts B, Johnso A, lewis J, etal (2002). Molecular biology of the cell (4th ed).
Newyork: Garland Science. ISBN 978-0-8153-3218-3
Benoff S, (1997). Carbohydrates and fertilization: an overview., Molecular Human
Reproduction, Volume 3, Issue 7, pages 599-637
Cummings, J.H. and Stephen, A.M. (2007) Carbohydrate Terminology and
Classification. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 61, S5-S18.
https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.ejcn.1602936
Carbohydrates in cell membrane. (n.d). Study.com. https://study.com/
Drickamer K, Tayor ME, (2009). Structural Insights into what glycan arrays tell us about
how glycan-binding proteins interact with their liands, Glycobiology. Vol:19 pages:
1155-112, ISSN: 9959-6658
Peter C. Collins and Robert J. Ferrier. (June 1, 1995). Monosaccharides: Their chemistry
and their role in natural products
Stryer, L., (1988). Biochemistry, 3rd ed. Carbohydrates
Smith, J.K. (2020) Introduction to Stereoisomerism
Vark, A., Cummings, R.D., (2015). Essentials of Glycobiology (3rd ed). Cold spring
Harbor Laboratory press

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