TABLE OF CONTENT

1.1. General Geological setting of CUU LONG basin 2

1.1.1. Location 2
1.1.2 History of petroleum geological research of Cuu Long basin. 3
Before 1975. 4
After 1975. 4
1.1.3. Sedimentology and Stratigraphic characteristics. 5
1.1.4.1 Cuu Long basin formation mechanism. 12
1.1.4.2 Geological development history of Cuu Long basin. 12
a) Pre-rift period 12
b) Syn-rift period. 13
c) Post-rift period. 13
1.1.4.3 Structural and Tectonic characteristics of Cuu Long basin. 15
a) Monoclinic 15
b) Low-lying zones 16
c) Uplift zones 16
d) System of faults 17
1.1.5 Petroleum system of Cuu Long basin. 18
1.1.5.1 Source rock. 18
1.1.5.2 Reservoir rock. 21
1.1.5.3 Seal rock. 23
1.1.5.4 Migration and trap 24
1.1.5.5. Play classification 25

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 CHAPER 1: OVERVIEW OF RESEARCH ON THE CUU LONG BASIN

1.1. General Geological setting of CUU LONG basin

1.1.1. Location

Cuu Long basin (Mekong basin), located offshore southern Vietnam, is a

Cenozoic rift basin and Vietnam's most significant petroleum producer. Filled
primarily with Cenozoic clastic sediments, the basin reaches a central depth of
approximately 7-8 kilometers. These sediments cover basement rocks with intrusive
rocks whose composition varies from felsic to neutral, with ages ranging from Late
Triassic - Early Jurassic, Late Jurassic, Late Cretaceous and Late Cretaceous –
Paleogene.

Figure 1.1. Location map of Cuu Long Basin

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Figure 1.2. Cuu Long Basin – Areas corresponding to red rectangle show in overview
map

The basin is located at coordinates 9° -11 degrees North latitude, 106.5-109

degrees East longitude, with a surface area of about 36,000 km². The basin has an
almost semicircular shape, extending along the coast from Phan Thiet to Hau River
(extending in the Northeast-Southwest direction with the convex arc facing
Southeast), separated from the Nam Con Son basin by Con Son uplift zone, to the
southwest is the Khorat-Natuna uplift zone and to the northeast is the Tuy Hoa shear
zone separating it from the Phu Khanh basin.

1.1.2 History of petroleum geological research of Cuu Long basin.

The Cuu Long basin was explored quite early in the 1960s. It can be said that
the basin's research history is divided into two main periods, with the year 1975 as
the benchmark with important characteristics and turning points.

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 Before 1975.

After discovering a gravity anomaly in the area off the coast of Vung Tau,
scientists began to research and understand the geology of the area and the ability of
the Cuu Long basin to contain liquid minerals (oil - gas).

In 1969, the Saigon government signed a search and exploration contract with
a number of foreign companies to conduct geological surveys in the Mekong basin
area using seismic, gravity, and magnetic measurement methods. . Mobil Company
then conducted a comprehensive geophysical survey of the 30km x 50km route
network.

In 1973, Mobil Company covered the 8km x 8km physical route network.

In 1974, based on the exploration results, Mobil company decided to place

the first two wells at White Tiger ( Bach Ho) and Dragon (Mo Rong). In particular,
well BH-1X tested the reservoir and detected industrial oil flow in upper Oligocene
and lower Miocene sediments with a flow of 2,400 barrels/day.

After 1975.

In 1976, GGC company - a French geophysical survey company - conducted

geophysical exploration of the area, expanding to the Mekong Delta.

In 1977, the Norwegian company GECO conducted geophysical research

within the prospective area. Two lots 9 and 17 have been woven thickly with a
network of 2km x 2km and 1km x 1km.

In 1981, the joint venture oil and gas enterprise Vietsovpetro was born,
developing in association with the exploration and exploitation of Bach Ho (White
Tiger) and Mo Rong (Dragon fields).

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 In 1984, the BH-5 exploration well located in the White Tiger Structure
Center dome produced industrial oil flow, reaffirming the previous results that
Mobiil company had discovered.

In 1985, the reservoir test results of well BH-4 located in the North circle of
White Tiger formation, and well R-1 located in the Central dome of Dragon
formation gave industrial oil flow with a flow of 53.2m3/day. night.

In 1986, the first tons of oil were taken from the Vietnamese continental shelf,
specifically the White Tiger field, opening a new turning point for exploration (in
the pre-Cenozoic foundation).

In 1990, GECO company conducted a 3D seismic survey, providing more

accurate cross-sections and maps of the geology of the Mekong basin.

In 1991, exploration well R-6 discovered a new type of trap in the Dragon
mine area, which is extrusive rock of upper Oligocene age.

In the years 1994 - 1995, JVPC and Petronas companies announced crude oil
discoveries in Rang Dong field in block 15 - 2 in the basement and in Miocene -
Oligocene sediments; in the foundation of the Ruby mine in blocks 01 - 02.

On August 13, 2001, the joint venture operating Cuu Long announced the
discovery of the Black Lion field with reserves of 420 million barrels. According to
comments, this is the second largest oil field after White Tiger.

Cuu Long Basin is considered by world investors in the oil and gas industry
to be a promising area, with the highest rate of wells finding oil in the world.

1.1.3. Sedimentology and Stratigraphic characteristics.

The stratigraphic column of the Cuu Long basin was built based on the results
of analyzing core samples, debris samples, carota documents, seismic exploration
documents and paleontological research results, etc… from the system of drilled

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 wells arranged in the tank area. In general, the stratigraphy of the Cuu Long basin is
divided into two main parts: formations in the pre-Cenozoic foundation (KZ) and
sediments of KZ age.

1.1.3.1 Pre-Cenozoic

Mostly magnetic intrusive rocks with main lithologies of granite, granite -

gneiss, granodiorite, diorite, adamellite, monzodiorite, gabbro, monzogabbro.

Hon Khoai Complex

Late Triassic complex, mainly composed of diorite (amphibole-biotite),

monzonite and adamellite. Fractures are filled with secondary minerals such as
calcite, epidote and zeolite. The rocks are mainly distributed in the basement uplifts
such as the northeast flank of the Bach Ho field

Dinh Quan Complex

The complex is of Middle Jurassic age and is predominantly composed of

granodiorite and biotite-quartz monzonite. The intrusive complex has undergone a high
degree of fracturing and alteration. The fractures are filled with secondary minerals such
as calcite, zeolite, quartz, and chlorite.

Ca Na Complex
The Late Jurassic-aged complex, predominantly granitoid in lithology, exhibits
intrusive magmatic complexes with less fractured rocks compared to the Hon Khoai
and Dinh Quan complexes. It is the most developed and widespread magmatic
complex in the Cuu Long Basin.

The intrusive magmatic cross-sections typically feature bands with distinct

petrological compositions: Acid - Neutral - Basic. At Dragon (Mo Rong), the rocks
undergo thermal metamorphism, forming paragneiss or orthogneiss. These rock types
usually exhibit less fracturing and alteration compared to intrusive rocks.

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 1.1.3.2 Cenozoic Formation

a) Paleogene – Eocene System

Ca Coi Formation

The thickness can reach up to 600m, characterized by coarse clastic

sedimentation such as conglomerates with multiple minerals, interbedded with thin
layers of clay minerals (hydromica, chlorite, sericite). The sedimentation exhibits colors
ranging from reddish-brown to purple, violet, with very poor sorting. The sedimentation
is characteristic of molasse type (deposited in nearshore areas) of continental
sedimentation in front of pre-mountainous basins. Spore-pollen grains identified
include Klukisporires, Triporopollenites, Trudopollis, Plicapolis, Jussiena of Eocene
age.

b) Paleogene – Oligocene System

Tra Cu Formation (Lower Oligocene)

The stratigraphic sequence ranges from 0 to 800 meters, characterized by

conglomerates, mudstones, and sandstones, along with thin coal seams and limestone
mudstones, deposited under fluvial-lacustrine conditions. The formation is divided into
upper and lower sections with distinct lithologies; the upper section comprises fine-
grained sandstone while the lower section consists of coarse-grained sandstone,
delineated by the CL61 fault surface. Palynological analysis reveals the presence of
Oculopollis and Magnastriatites of early Oligocene age. The Trà Cú Formation holds
significant potential for oil and gas accumulation and generation, being the second
exploitation target after fractured basement reservoirs.

Tra Tan Formation (Oligocene Upper)

The sedimentary section can be divided into three different lithological units. The
upper part is predominantly composed of brown, dark brown, and black clays, with
occasional red clays, along with conglomerates and cemented sands. The sand/clay ratio

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ranges from 35 to 50%. The middle part consists mainly of dark brown and black
cemented clays, with some conglomerates and cemented sands. The sand/clay ratio
ranges from 40 to 50%. The lower part contains conglomerates ranging from fine to
coarse, gravelly conglomerates, and interbedded clay and cemented sands. The
sand/clay ratio fluctuates from 20 to 50%. These sedimentary deposits are believed to
have been deposited in fluvial, deltaic, and lacustrine environments. In addition to
sedimentary deposits, volcanic formations such as andesite, andesite-basalt, and
gabbro-diabase with thicknesses ranging from a few meters to 100 meters are also
found. According to seismic data, the thickness of these sedimentary units
corresponding to three seismic sequences is typically around 200-1000 meters for the
lower part (CL5-3), 400-1000 meters for the middle part (CLS-2), and 200-400 meters
for the upper part (CL5-1).

Microfossils such as F. Trilobata, Verutricolporites, and Cicatricosiporites of late

Oligocene age are found. The Trà Tân layer of cemented clays contains organic matter
ranging from high to very high, especially in the middle part, making it a potential
source rock and also a sealing layer for reservoirs with fractures and fissures.

c) Neogen – Miocene System

Bach Ho Formation ( Miocene Lower)

The thickness of the stratigraphic sequence varies from 100 to 1500m and is
divided into two parts. The upper part consists mainly of gray, bluish-gray clay
interbedded with sandstone, with the proportion of sandstone and mudstone
increasing downwards, reaching up to 50% in some places. The upper part is further
divided into two subunits: the uppermost layer is the "Rotalid" clay layer covering
the entire basin with a thickness ranging from 50 to 150m, and its lower part consists
of sandstone and mudstone (over 60%) interbedded with layers of gray, yellow, and
red clay. The sedimentation of the Bai Tu layer system is deposited from a plain
environment, a coastal plain (lower part), and a shallow coastal plain (upper part).
Volcanic rocks are also found in this layer system, mainly basalt and basalt tuff with

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 thicknesses ranging from several tens of meters to 250m. Fossil spores and pollen
found include F. levipoli, Magnastriatites, Pinuspollenites, Alnipollenites, and the
ancient diatom Synedra fondaena, and notably, in the Rotalid clay layer, there are
characteristic fossils of the Rotalia Orbulina universa group and Ammonia. The
Rotalid clay layer acts as an effective barrier for the basin, and the sand layers just
below the Rotalid clay layer have good permeability, making them potential
reservoir targets.

Con Son Formation (Miocene Middle)

The thickness of the basin varies from 250 to 900 meters, predominantly
composed of coarse to medium-sized sandstone, with mudstone comprising 75-
80%, alternating with gray clay layers ranging from 5 to 15 meters thick,
occasionally interspersed with thin coal seams. The sedimentary sequence of the
Con Son Formation was deposited in a fluvial environment to the west and a marsh
- deltaic plain to the east. Situated above the Rotalid mudstone of the Bach Ho
Formation, the Con Son Formation sandstones possess good reservoir properties but
are isolated from underlying productive layers, rendering them unlikely to contain
hydrocarbons. Within this formation, fossils such as F. Meridionalis, Plorschuetzia
levipoli, Acrostichum, and Compositea have been identified, along with trace fossils
and algae similar to those found in the Bach Ho Formation.

Dong Nai Formation (Miocene Upper)

The Dong Nai Formation, ranging in thickness from 500 to 700 meters,
primarily consists of medium-sized sand grains interbedded with clayey silt or thin
layers of gray, multicolored mudstone. Occasional thin seams of coal or
carbonaceous layers are also encountered. The depositional environment of the
Dong Nai sedimentary system is characterized by lacustrine and fluvial settings,
with marshes and floodplains predominating in the western region, transitioning to
coastal plains and shallow marine environments in the eastern and northern parts of
the basin. Abundant palynomorphs and Nannoplankton such as Stenoclaena

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 Palustris Carya and Florschuetzia Meridionalis are commonly found within this
formation.

d) Neogen – Pliocene system

Bien Dong Formation

Thickness from 400 to 700 meters and predominantly comprises fine to

medium-sized sand grains with minor amounts of silt, and light gray clayey silt,
occasionally interbedded with carbonate rock. Sedimentation occurred in shallow
marine and coastal environments. Commonly encountered fossils within this system
include foraminifera such as Pseudorotalia and Globorotalia, bryozoans, mollusks,
corals, algae, and palynomorphs like Dacrydium and Polocarpus imbricatus.

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 Figure 1.3 . Generalised litho-stratigraphic column of Cuu Long basin

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 1.1.4 Structural characteristics.

1.1.4.1 Cuu Long basin formation mechanism.

The Cuu Long basin is located on the Southeast edge of the Indochina plate.
To the south, the Indochina plate is separated by the Sunda plate. To the north, it is
separated by the China plate through the Red River fault system and to the east, it is
separated by the East Vietnam and West Baram fault systems.

The history of tectonics from the Jurassic - is now divided into 3 periods:

● Phase 1: subduction phase from Upper Jurassic - Lower Cretaceous.

● Phase 2: transitional phase from Upper Cretaceous - Paleogene.
● Phase 3: regional expansion period from Eocene - present.

Phases 1 and 2 created a magma belt that includes igneous rocks that are
exposed throughout South Vietnam and underlying Cenozoic sediments in the Cuu
Long and Nam Con Son basins. Phase 3 created sedimentary basins including Cuu
Long overlapping the igneous belts.

1.1.4.2 Geological development history of Cuu Long basin.

The Cuu Long Basin is a rift basin formed by rifting. The history of basin
development in relation to the tectonic history of the region is divided into 3 main
periods:

a) Pre-rift period

From the late Jurassic to the Paleocene, a period of tectonic activity and magma
intrusion led to the formation and uplift of crystalline basement rocks. These processes
impacted the Indian Plate's interaction with the Eurasian Plate, resulting in the formation
of the Sunda subduction zone, characterized by intrusive magmatic bodies and volcanic
eruptions during the late Mesozoic to early Cenozoic. Ancient sediments deposited over
prolonged periods of erosion, faulting, and extension, primarily in the northeast-

12
southwest direction. The eroded surface terrain of the crystalline basement within the
basin area during this time was not entirely flat, exhibiting a mix of valleys, hills, and
low mountains.

b) Syn-rift period.

From the late Eocene to the end of the late Oligocene, the effects of northeast-
southwest trending faults due to subsidence and extension manifested primarily as half-
graben structures plunging southeastward. In the Cuu Long Basin, the main faults
exhibited typical half-graben shapes trending northeast-southwest, along with
numerous secondary faults and fracture zones developing parallel to the major faults.
These secondary basins and troughs were filled with coarse clastic sediments and
predominantly basaltic to intermediate volcanic eruptions. During this period, irregular
and locally high relief surfaces emerged. By the early Oligocene, continental and fluvial
sedimentation surrounded and draped over the basement highs. Lakes developed within
individual troughs, interconnected and developed in the northeast-southwest direction.
In the late Oligocene, compressional activities pushed deeper basement blocks,
resulting in inversion tectonics within the central main troughs.

c) Post-rift period.

In the early Miocene, weak faulting activities persisted, completely ceasing by

the mid-Miocene. By the late early Miocene, widespread deposition of Rotalid clay
layers led to significant subsidence of the early Miocene top surface, with clay layers
becoming key stratigraphic markers and effective seals for the Cuu Long Basin.
Throughout the mid-Miocene, subsidence continued, with the influence of the sea
extending significantly to surrounding areas of the South China Sea.

A late mid-Miocene uplift phase reconstructed environmental conditions in the

southwestern part of the basin. In the late Miocene, intense subsidence in the South
China Sea initiated the formation of the East Vietnam Continental Shelf, the Cuu Long
Basin, the Nam Con Son Basin, and the Dong Nai river system.

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 These river systems began to connect during this period, becoming the primary
sediment supply for the two basins. By the Pliocene, pre-existing landmasses across the
entire current South China Sea region were submerged below sea level.

Figure 1.4 Oligocene Roof Structure Map - CL50 Cuu Long Basin

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 Figure 1.5. Structural map of the Mio-Pliocene roof structure - CL40 Cuu Long
Basin

1.1.4.3 Structural and Tectonic characteristics of Cuu Long basin.

a) Monoclinic

Northwest monoclinic (Vung Tau - Phan Rang terrane): located at the

northwest edge of the basin. The monocline has a terraced shape due to the cleavage
of the Northwest - Southeast and East - West faults.

Southeast monocline: located at the southern - southeast edge, adjacent to the

Con Son uplift. This monocline has little differentiation and is separated from the
Central inclined zone by the main fault in the Northeast - Southwest direction.

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 b) Low-lying zones

West White Tiger Valley (Southwest of Cuu Long): is one of the deepest
valleys of the Cuu Long basin with a thickness of Paleogene - Neogene sediments
of up to 700m. This structure develops in the direction of the Northeast - Southwest
and East - West fault systems, deep to the East.

Northern Cuu Long Valley: this is the deepest (>8 km) and widest depression
(80 km x 20 km) extending in the Northeast - Southwest direction, the East - West
structural direction is less prominent, especially in the East and Northeast wings of
this basin.

c) Uplift zones

Most of the uplift zones in the Cuu Long basin inherit the outcrops of the pre-
Cenozoic basement, mainly concentrated in the central part of the basin.

Dragon - White Tiger uplift zone: also known as the Central high zone
separating the two sub-basins of Dong White Tiger and Tay White Tiger. This uplift
zone is attached to the Con Son uplift zone in the south, develops and sinks gradually
to the North, East - North, ending in the north of White Tiger field.

Tra Tan - Dong Nai uplift zone: located in the North and Northeast of the
basin, developing in the Northeast - Southwest direction. This uplift zone is
controlled by the Northeast - Southwest fault system, separated by the Northwest -
Southeast faults, and blocked to the Southwest by the Southwest-oriented fault.

Tam Dao - Ba Den uplift zone: developed successively on the outcrops of the
pre-Cenozoic basement and continued until the early Miocene. The East - West
faults in the uplift zone create a number of small, local structures and further
complicate the structure.

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 Southwest structural differentiation zone: includes a series of local structures
formed by the East - West fault system and separated by local faults oriented
Northeast - Southwest and Northwest - Southeast. produce local uplift and slump
blocks that diverge toward the center of the basin.

Figure 1.6 Map of structural elements of Cuu Long basin

d) System of faults

Fault systems in the Cuu Long basin can be divided into four main systems
based on their alignment:

● East - West fault system.

● Northeast - Southwest fault system.
● North - South fault system.
● Group of other faults.

The East - West, Northeast - Southwest, North - South fault systems play the
most important role. They are highly active in the basement group and Oligocene

17
 sediments, with only very few active faults in the lower Miocene sediments. The
Northeast - Southwest faults are often structural limiting faults and the East - West,
North - South direction faults play a particularly important role within the scope of
each structure. In particular, in White Tiger field, the Northeast - Southwest faults
play the most important role. Compaction in the late Oligocene caused minor
inversions in the Oligocene sediments and reverse faults in some places.

Figure 1.7. Structural map of the Cuu Long basin

1.1.5 Petroleum system of Cuu Long basin.

1.1.5.1 Source rock.

Based on the sedimentary characteristics and distribution scale of the

mudstone assemblages in the Cuu Long basin, three source rock layers can be
divided into:

● The Lower Miocene clay (N11) formation has a thickness of 250 m at the
margin and up to 1,250 m at the center of the basin.

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 ● Oligocene shale (E32) is 100 meters thick at the margin and up to 1,200
meters thick at the center of the basin.
● The Oligocene lower and Eocene shale (E31 + E2) has a thickness of 0 to
600 meters in the deep basin

The Upper Oligocene (E32) is very rich in organic matter (very good quality),
with Corg (TOC) ranging from 3.5% to 6.1% Wt, and up to 11-12% in some places.
The S1 and S2 parameters are also very high, with S1 reaching 4-12 kg HC/t.rock and
S2 reaching 16.7-21 kg HC/t.rock. In deep troughs, these values can be very high, such
as the samples from well CNV-1X, where the HI value can reach 477 kg HC/t.TOC.

In the Lower Miocene (N11), the organic carbon content is medium, the S1 and
S2 values are very low, belonging to the poor type, and have not yet been able to
generate hydrocarbons (HC). Therefore, the oil and gas contained in this layer are
migrated products from other places to (HI = 0.48 - 0.5 kg HC/t.TOC)

The Lower Oligocene and Eocene (E31 + E2) formations are of good to very
good quality. TOC = 0.97% - 2.5% Wt, with S1 = 0.4-2.5 kg HC/t.rock and S2 = 3.6-
8.0 kg HC/t.rock. The amount of hydrocarbon in the source rock in this layer is lower
than in the upper layer due to oil generation and the release of most of the hydrocarbon
into the reservoir. Therefore, the HI index is only 163.6 kg HC/t.TOC.

Figure 2. Maturity of Organic Matter in the Cuu Long Basin

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 Type of organic matter and accumulation environment

For the Miocene Lower reservoir, type III is dominant, with type II
interspersed. The Pr/Ph index of 1.49 to 2.23 indicates that they were deposited in a
fluvial, coastal plain environment with alternating shallow marine. Ro is less than
0.6%.

For the Oligocene Upper reservoir, type II is dominant, type I is secondary,

and type III is less common. The Pr/Ph index is typically 1.6-2.3, reflecting
deposition in a fluvial environment, brackish water - shallow marine, with a few in
lacustrine conditions. Ro ranges from 0.6% to more than 0.6%.

For the Oligocene Lower + Eocene reservoir, type II is dominant, type III is
secondary, and type I is absent. The Pr/Ph values are also only 1.7-2.35, reflecting
fluvial, brackish, nearshore conditions and part of lacustrine. Ro is 0.8%.

In summary, the scale of oil generation of the reservoir rocks in the Cuu Long
basin is as follows:

● The strong oil generation zone of the Oligocene Upper reservoir mainly
includes the central part with an area of approximately 193 𝑘𝑚2 . The condensate
generation zone is only concentrated in the deepest part with an area of 24.5 𝑘𝑚2 .
● The strong oil generation and oil release zone of the Oligocene Lower and
Eocene reservoir extends to the margin compared to the Oligocene Upper reservoir
and has a larger area. The oil generation zone covers an area of approximately 567-
580 𝑘𝑚2 . The condensate generation zone covers an area of approximately 146
𝑘𝑚2 .

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 1.1.5.2 Reservoir rock.

Oil and gas reservoirs in the Cuu Long Basin include: fractured granitoid rocks,
cavities of crystalline basement, sedimentary rocks, and sandstone with intergranular
pore structure, sometimes fractured, with different origins and ages.

Fractures and cavities are formed by two factors: primary - the contraction of
magma rocks when they cool and crystallize: secondary - tectonic activity and the
process of weathering, hydrothermal alteration, equivalent to the value of primary
porosity (Φns) and secondary (Φts).

In fact, Φns is often closed, which are gaps between crystals, and have little
significance for permeability. but they are also significant, forming a zone of
weakness, easily broken when subjected to external forces.

For fractured reservoir rocks, secondary porosity plays a dominant role,

including fracture porosity (Φnn) and cavity porosity (Φhh). Hydrothermal activity
accompanying tectonic activity plays a dual role in increasing or decreasing the
reservoir capacity: increasing the size of fractures and cavities that have been formed
before, but can also fill completely or partially fractures by secondary minerals.

In the section, fracture zones alternate with tight zones, with thicknesses
ranging from a few centimeters to tens of meters, sometimes reaching over a hundred
meters. The values of porosity, fractures, and the proportion of effective thickness
to overall thickness according to well data generally tend to decrease gradually with
depth and at the upper part of the section, the degree of breakage is often more
variable.
In general, fractured basement reservoirs have good quality, with many wells
producing up to 1,000 m3/day, and even reaching 2,000 m3/day.

Sandstone is one of the main reservoir rocks of the Cuu Long Basin, with ages
ranging from Early Oligocene to Late Miocene.

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 Oligocene Lower sandstone is arkose-lithic, with occasional interlayers of
thick volcanic rocks. It corresponds to the Tra Cu Formation, which has a
fanglomerate and fluvial origin. It lies on crystalline basement rocks at the top of the
basement and transitions to prodelta clay and lacustrine deposits in the deeper parts
of the basin.

The porosity of Oligocene Lower sandstone can reach 18%, with an average
of 12-16%. Permeability ranges from 1 to 250 millidarcy. In the middle and upper
parts of the Oligocene Lower section, the sandstone has better quality. With
increasing depth, the reservoir properties of the rock tend to decrease. Especially
below 3,800 m, due to strong quartzification and chlorite, the porosity is usually
only at the level below 14-15%, except in some cases such as at the Dragon East and
White Lion fields, the porosity of the rock is still well preserved, they can still be
kept at 15-16%. The tendency of porosity of Oligocene Lower sandstone to decrease
with depth is mainly due to the influence of diagenesis and strong compression.

Oligocene Upper sandstone has a porosity of 12-21%, with an average of

14%, and a permeability of 2-26mD.

Miocene Lower oil-bearing sandstone has a porosity of 13-25%, with an

average of 19%, and an average permeability of 137 (milidarcy).

Miocene Lower oil-bearing sandstone is the most widespread reservoir rock

in the basin. It is mainly of fluvial, deltaic, floodplain, and tidal bay origin. Here,
sandstone beds interlayer with silt and clay. Feldspar grauvac sandstone with arkos-
lithic and lithic colors brown, light gray, fine to coarse grained.

Porosity 13-25%, average 19%, average permeability 137 milidarcy. Contact

cement is the main type. The oil-bearing sandstone beds in this part of the section
often have resistivity up to 10 ohm.m. However, they are difficult to distinguish
according to natural gamma ray (GR) data due to poor differentiation.

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 1.1.5.3 Seal rock.

Based on the lithological, structural, thickness, and distribution

characteristics of shale layers in the sedimentary section of the Cuu Long Basin, it
can be divided into : 4 main seals,

● 1 regional seal
● 3 area seals.
Regional seal - shale of the top of the Bach Ho Formation, also known as
the Rotalid Shale (shale containing many Rotalia). This is a relatively clean shale
that is widely developed throughout the Cuu Long Basin. The thickness is
relatively stable, about 180-220m. The rock is massive, with a high clay content
(90-95%), and a dispersed, fine texture. The main clay mineral is montmorillonite,
followed by hydromica, kaolinite, mixed (hydromica-mont), and minor chlorite.
The bedding coefficient is less than 0.1. Organic material is rare in the rock. This
is a good seal for both oil and gas. Oil reservoirs have been discovered within and
below this seal, such as 21-22 (Dragon field), MI-09-50 (Pearl, Hong Ngoc fields),
or B10 (Su Tu Den), etc.

Area Seal I - Claystone cap. It is a mixed claystone, shallow marine,

overlying directly the producing zones 23,24 (Dragon and White Tiger fields), MI60
(Pearl). The thickness of this seal layer varies from 60 to 150 (m). Layering
coefficient: 0.1-0.47. The average clay content is 51%. Thickly bedded clay. This is
a good type of seal, widely developed in the deep trough of the basin.

Area Seal II - Claystone of the middle and upper Tram Tan formation, mainly
developed in the deep trough of the basin. The thickness of this claystone varies
strongly from zero to several hundred meters, reaching over a thousand meters in
some places. The clay is mainly of lacustrine, pre-delta origin, with thick layers and
good sealing ability. This is an important seal of the Cuu Long basin, it determines
the existence (tightness) of the trap reservoirs of the pre-Cenozoic fractured
basement. The results of exploration drilling show that the oil bodies discovered in

23
 the fractured basement such as the fields: Southeast Dragon, White Tiger, Dawn,
Ruby, Black Lion, Golden Lion, etc. all have the presence of this seal, covering the
entire area and especially the top of the basement with a thickness of up to a few
hundred meters.

Area Seal III - Claystone of the Tra Cu formation. This is a area seal with a
narrow distribution area. They often develop around the ancient basement uplifts,
very rarely cover the tops of the uplifts. The clay is mainly lacustrine, thickly
bedded, and has a relatively good sealing ability, especially for river sand bodies
lying below or within them. Oil discoveries (White Tiger, Dragon East) and
condensate gas (White Lion) are evidence of the sealing ability of this layer.

1.1.5.4 Migration and trap

Oil and gas in the Cuu Long basin are mainly generated from two main source
rocks: Upper Oligocene and Lower Oligocene + Eocene. These sedimentary rock
formations are located in the lower part of the sedimentary section, so they are affected
by paleothermal factors during the geological development history of the basin. The oil
generation time of the E31 and E2 source rocks began in early Miocene, but the strong
oil generation intensity and release of oil from the source rock and especially the
significant amount of source rock lying in the oil generation phase occurred in the late
Miocene middle, early late Miocene to the present day. The oil generation process of
the Upper Oligocene source rock occurred later and mainly began from the late
Miocene.

After oil is generated, it is transported from the source rocks to the reservoir rocks
by different paths and in different directions. The path that oil travels can be coarse-
grained formations that develop widely in the section. Along the migration path, oil can
be retained and become hydrocarbon accumulations, if there is a sealing factor (trap),
otherwise they will be dispersed and escape. According to the geological development
history of the basin, in general, the trap types were formed in the rifting stage and the
early post-rifting stage (early Miocene), earlier than the time when oil and gas in the

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basin began to be generated. Thus, the Cuu Long basin has a very favorable condition
that when oil is generated from the source rocks, the traps are ready to receive.

In the De Tam fractured basement, the traps commonly found are related to
buried uplift blocks in the form of massifs or buried hills, closed in three dimensions by
the overlying Oligocene fine-grained sedimentary formations and surrounded by
underlying rocks. The trap is a mixed type, closely related to faults and tectonic
destruction. Meanwhile, in the Oligocene sediments, there are oil traps of the
stratigraphic type, or non-structural, with a separate oil-water boundary, sealed by
lithology and tectonics. Structural traps, dome-shaped traps, and beds, sealed by
lithology and tectonics, are also found in the lower Miocene

1.1.5.5. Play classification

Based on the reservoir, seal, source, and migration characteristics of

hydrocarbons within the Cuu Long Basin, the following hydrocarbon plays can be
distinguished:

Play 1 – De Tam fractured granitoid: This is the most important play in the Cuu
Long Basin. The reservoir is granitoid bedrock with a fracture-cavity pore space
structure, such as macrofracture zones, microfracture zones, cave systems, and matrix
rock zones. Traps in this play are often associated with uplifted bedrock blocks or buried
hills. Oil is charged into the trap from the Eocene-Oligocene source rocks. The seal for
this complex is mainly the Trà Tân Formation shale.

Play 2 - Lower Oligocene sandstone: This is mainly quartz-feldspar sandstone

with coarse grains and gray to gray-brown color. It developed in the structural wings,
adjacent to the basement. In some places, the sandstone and bedrock combine to form
a single oil column. Thick sandstone units are divided by faults into separate blocks.
The trap contains oil in either stratigraphic or non-structural styles. The rocks have
moderate to low porosity and permeability. The presence of the black shale at the base
of the Trà Tân Formation and the "black shale 1" in the southeastern margin play a local

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sealing role. Oil accumulated in the traps of the Lower Oligocene was charged from the
corresponding or older source rock.

Play 3 - Upper Oligocene sandstone: These are arkose sandstone beds

interbedded with thin layers of shale, siltstone, limestone, and coal, lying on top and
adjacent to the wings of the structure, and are divided by faults. The reservoir rocks
have porosity and permeability ranging from moderate to good. In particular, for the
first time in the Cuu Long Basin, an oil and gas bed was discovered in the lower part of
the Oligocene sediments. The reservoir includes alluvial fans and riverbed sandstone
with a thickness of about 45 m and an average porosity of 17%. The traps are alluvial
fans and coastal sand fans. Oil is generated mainly from the shale unit of the formation
and migrates and accumulates into nearby and overlying sandstone units, which is also
the most important source rock in the Cuu Long Basin.

Play 4 - Lower Miocene sandstone: This is fine- to coarse-grained arkosic

sandstone with a fluvial, shallow marine nearshore origin. The reservoir rocks have high
porosity and permeability. On the top of the reservoir unit is the thick Rotalit shale,
which plays a regional sealing role for the basin. The traps are mainly dome and mixed
structures, sealed by lithology and tectonics. Oil is charged into the trap from deeper
source rocks.

Play 5 - Middle Miocene sandstone: This sandstone was deposited mainly in

shallow marine and bay environments, with a thickness of up to 20 to 25 m and very
high porosity and permeability. The trap is of stratigraphic type and is limited in
development. To date, this play has only been discovered in the Dong Do field in an
area with a thin, poor-sealing Lower Miocene shale, so oil can migrate from deep below
to charge the trap.

Play 6 - Oligocene volcanic rocks: Within the Cuu Long Basin, Oligocene
volcanic rocks found in Oligocene sediments are basalt diabase and andesite diabase.
When they directly overlie weathered-fractured basement rock, they are considered part
of the pre-Tertiary fractured basement play. When volcanic rocks are found within the

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sedimentary section, they are considered an independent play (Northeast Dragon). The
overlying and surrounding shale both plays a role as a seal and as a source rock for the
trap. Oil can also be supplied from the underlying source rocks, migrating along faults.

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