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 Author
Victoria Boobyer is a freelance writer, presenter, and teacher trainer
with a background in English-language teaching and teacher
management. She has a keen interest in the use of graded readers and
the sound pedagogical use of technology in teachin.

Course consultant
Tim Bowen has taught English and trained teachers in more than 30
countries worldwide. He is the co-author of works on pronunciation
teaching and language-teaching methodology, and author of
numerous books for English-language teachers. He is currently a
freelance materials writer, editor, and translator. He is a member
of the Chartered Institute of Linguists.

Language consultant
Professor Susan Barduhn is an experienced English-language
teacher, teacher trainer, and author, who has contributed to
numerous publications. In addition to directing English-language
courses in at least four different continents, she has been President
of the International Association of Teachers of English as
a Foreign Language, and an adviser to the British Council
and the US State Department. She is currently a Professor
at the School for International Training in Vermont, USA.
ENGLISH
FO R E V E RYO N E
COURSE BOOK
LEVEL ADVANCED
 Contents
How the course works 8
Editors Lili Bryant, Ben Ffrancon Davies
Art Editors Daniela Boraschi, Clare Joyce, Making conversation 12
Clare Shedden, Michelle Staples
New language Present tenses
Editorial Assistants Jessica Cawthra, Sarah Edwards
Illustrators Edwood Burn, Denise Joos, Clare Joyce, Vocabulary Meeting new people
Michael Parkin, Jemma Westing New skill Using question tags
Audio Producer Liz Hammond
Managing Editor Daniel Mills Action and state verbs 16
Managing Art Editor Anna Hall New language State verbs in continuous forms
Project Manager Christine Stroyan Vocabulary Action and state verbs
Jacket Designer Natalie Godwin
New skill Describing states
Jacket Editor Claire Gell
Jacket Design Development Manager
Sophia MTT Using collocations 18
Producer, Pre-Production Luca Frassinetti New language Collocations
Producer Mary Slater Vocabulary Beliefs and opinions
Publisher Andrew Macintyre New skill Talking about your life
Art Director Karen Self
Publishing Director Jonathan Metcalf Complex descriptions 22
DK India New language General and specific adjectives
Jacket Designer Surabhi Wadhwa Vocabulary Personalities
Managing Jackets Editor Saloni Singh New skill Ordering adjectives
Senior DTP Designer Harish Aggarwal
Making general statements 26
First published in Great Britain in 2016 by
New language Introductory “it”
Dorling Kindersley Limited
80 Strand, London, WC2R 0RL Vocabulary Talents and abilities
New skill Expressing general truths
Copyright © 2016 Dorling Kindersley Limited
A Penguin Random House Company Vocabulary Travel and tourism 30
10 8 6 4 2 1 3 5 7 9
001–289759–Jun/2016
Phrasal verbs 32
All rights reserved. New language Phrasal verbs overview
No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in or Vocabulary Travel
introduced into a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form, or New skill Using complex phrasal verbs
by any means (electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or
otherwise), without the prior written Narrative tenses 36
permission of the copyright owner.
New language The past perfect continuous
A CIP catalogue record for this book Vocabulary Travel adjectives and idioms
is available from the British Library. New skill Talking about a variety of past actions
ISBN: 978-0-2412-4232-2
Giving advice and opinions 40
Printed and bound in China New language Modals for advice and opinion
Vocabulary Recommendations
All images © Dorling Kindersley Limited
New skill Giving advice and opinions
For further information see: www.dkimages.com

A WORLD OF IDEAS: Making predictions 44

SEE ALL THERE IS TO KNOW New language Degrees of likelihood
Vocabulary Idioms about time
www.dk.com New skill Talking about possibilities
 Vocabulary Family and relationships 48 Vocabulary Working 84

Using discourse markers 50 Job applications 86

New language Linking information New language Prepositions and gerunds
Vocabulary Family history Vocabulary Job applications
New skill Talking about relationships New skill Writing a résumé and cover letter

Past habits and states 54 Asking polite questions 90

New language “Used to” and “would” New language Direct and indirect questions
Vocabulary Family values Vocabulary Job interviews
New skill Contrasting the past with the present New skill Asking questions politely

Comparing and contrasting 58 Complex verb patterns 94

New language “As... as” comparisons New language Verb + infintive / gerund
Vocabulary Adjective-noun collocations Vocabulary World of work
New skill Comparing and contrasting New skill Using complex verb patterns

Two comparatives together 62 Double object verbs 98

New language Two comparatives together New language Double object verbs
Vocabulary Age and population Vocabulary New businesses
New skill Expressing cause, effect, and change New skill Talking about starting a business

Vocabulary Studying 66 Vocabulary Meeting and presenting 102

Taking notes 68 Reflexive pronouns 104

New language Organizing information New language Reflexive pronouns
Vocabulary Academic life Vocabulary Workplace language
New skill Taking notes New skill Talking about work issues

Speaking approximately 72 Meeting and planning 108

New language Generalization New language Combining verbs
Vocabulary Approximate quantity phrases Vocabulary Office tasks
New skill Talking about numbers New skill Taking part in meetings

Changing emphasis 76 Qualifying descriptions 112

New language The passive voice New language Non-gradable adjectives
Vocabulary Online learning Vocabulary Qualifying words
New skill Changing sentence emphasis New skill Adding detail to descriptions

Things that might happen 80 Expressing purpose 118

New language “What if,” “suppose,” “in case” New language “In order to,” “so that”
Vocabulary Exams and assessment Vocabulary Language of apology
New skill Talking about hypothetical situations New skill Expressing purpose
 Vocabulary Environmental concerns 122 Vocabulary Media and celebrity 162

Conditional tenses 124 Reporting with passives 164

New language The third conditional New language Passive voice for reporting
Vocabulary Environmental threats Vocabulary Reporting language
New skill Talking about an unreal past New skill Distancing yourself from facts

Past regrets 130 Making indirect statements 168

New language “Should have” and “ought to have” New language Indirect statements
Vocabulary Time markers Vocabulary Hedging language
New skill Expressing regret about the past New skill Expressing uncertainty

Actions and consequences 134 Adding emphasis 172

New language Dependent prepositions New language Inversion after adverbials
Vocabulary Actions and consequences Vocabulary Media and celebrity
New skill Changing sentence stress New skill Adding emphasis to statements

Few or little? 138 Shifting focus 176

New language “Few,” “little,” “fewer,” “less” New language Focusing with clauses
Vocabulary Nature and environment Vocabulary Phrases for emphasis
New skill Describing quantities New skill Shifting focus

Vocabulary Tradition and superstition 144 Vocabulary Crime and the law 180

Past possibility 146 Relative clauses 182

New language “Might / may / could” in the past New language Relative clauses
Vocabulary Urban myths Vocabulary Crime and criminals
New skill Talking about past possibility New skill Specifying and elaborating

Speculation and deduction 150 More relative clauses 186

New language More uses for modal verbs New language Where, when, whereby, whose
Vocabulary Phrasal verbs with “out” Vocabulary Courtroom phrases
New skill Speculating and making deductions New skill Using relative words

Mixed conditionals 154 Modal verbs in the future 190

New language Mixed conditionals New language “Will be able to,” “will have to”
Vocabulary Personality traits Vocabulary Legal terms
New skill Talking about hypothetical situations New skill Expressing future ability and obligation

Adding “-ever” to question words 158 Modal verbs overview 194

New language Words with “-ever” New language Using modal verbs
Vocabulary Chance and weather phrases Vocabulary Modal verbs
New skill Joining a clause to a sentence New skill Asking, offering, and predicting
 Vocabulary Customs and cultures 198 Vocabulary Art and culture 234

Talking about groups 200 Leaving words out 236

New language Using adjectives as nouns New language Ellipsis
Vocabulary Countries and nationalities Vocabulary Entertainment
New skill Generalizing politely New skill Leaving out unneccessary words

Old and new situations 204 Substituting words 240

New language “Be used to” and “get used to” New language Substitution
Vocabulary Moving and living abroad Vocabulary Books and reading
New skill Talking about old and new situations New skill Replacing phrases

Articles 208 Shortening infinitives 244

New language Articles New language Reduced infinitives
Vocabulary Commonly misspelled words Vocabulary Music and performance
New skill Saying words with silent letters New skill Avoiding repetition

Abstract ideas 212 Expressing reactions 248

New language Concrete and abstract nouns New language Informal discourse markers
Vocabulary Education systems Vocabulary Advanced prefixes
New skill Talking about abstract ideas New skill Structuring conversation

Vocabulary Technology and the future 216 Getting things done 252
New language “Have / get something done”
Future hopes 218 Vocabulary Services and repairs
New language “Wish” with “would” or “could” New skill Describing things people do for you
Vocabulary Hopes for the future
New skill Talking about future hopes and wishes Complex agreement 256
New language Complex agreement
The future continuous 220 Vocabulary Collective nouns
New language The future continuous with “will” New skill Using the correct agreement
Vocabulary Polite requests
New skill Planning your career “So” and “such” 260
New language “So” and “such” for emphasis
The future perfect 226 Vocabulary Medical science
New language The future perfect New skill Emphasizing descriptions
Vocabulary Life plans
New skill Making plans and predictions Using articles to generalize 264
New language Generic “the”
The future in the past 230 Vocabulary Exploration and invention
New language “Would” and “was going to” New skill Using advanced articles
Vocabulary Changing plans
New skill Saying what you thought
Answers 268

Index 286
How the course works
English for Everyone is designed for people who want to teach Giving advice and opinions Fill in the GaPs with the recommendations From the Panel

themselves the English language. Like all language courses, it

When you want to give advice or make recommendations, New language Modals for advice and opinion
you can use a variety of modal verbs. You can vary the Vocabulary Recommendations
strength of your advice by using different modals. New skill Giving advice and opinions

mark aLL The recommendaTions

covers the core skills: grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation,

listening, speaking, reading, and writing. Unlike in other courses,
the skills are taught and practiced as
Giving advice and opinions
visually as possible, using images and
FILL IN THE GAPS USING THE RECOMMENDATIONS FROM THE PANEL

When you want to give advice or make recommendations, New language Modals for advice and opinion
you can use a variety of modal verbs. You can vary the Vocabulary Recommendations
strength of your advice by using different modals. New skill Giving advice and opinions

graphics to help you understand and

listen to the audio and mark whether victor liked or disliked
KEY LANGUAGE MAKING RECOMMENDATIONS each activity
One of the most common ways of recommending something TIP LisTen To The audio and mark The revieW ThaT
You can add emphasis by
or making a suggestion is to use modal verbs. When you offer
putting “really” in front
mosT cLoseLY maTches charLoTTe’s opinion
advice, you often also give your opinion about a topic. of “should,” “ought to,”

remember. The best way to learn is to

and “must.”
General suggestion.

Stronger suggestion.

work through the book in order, making

38 39

PRACTICE BOOK
038-041_Unit9_Adv_Giving_advice_and_opinions.indd 38 22/01/16 10:32 pm 038-041_Unit9_Adv_Giving_advice_and_opinions.indd 39 22/01/16 10:32 pm

Very strong suggestion.

full use of the audio available on the MARK THE SPEECH BUBBLES THAT INCLUDE RECOMMENDATIONS
LISTEN TO THE AUDIO AND MARK WHETHER JEFF LIKED
OR DISLIKED EACH ACTIVITY

website and app. Turn to the practice

book at the end of each unit to reinforce
your learning with additional exercises. 40

040-043_289759_EFE_09.indd 40 22/01/2016 10:44 040-043_289759_EFE_09.indd 41

41

22/01/2016 10:44
COURSE BOOK

Modules Each unit is broken down

Unit number The book is divided Learning points Every unit into modules, which should be done
into units. The unit number helps begins with a summary of in order. You can take a break from
you keep track of your progress. the key learning points. learning after completing any module.

Conditional tenses FILL IN THE GAPS BY PUTTING THE VERBS IN THE CORRECT TENSES
TO MAKE SENTENCES IN THE THIRD CONDITIONAL
You can use the third conditional to describe an unreal New language The third conditional
past, or events that did not happen. This is useful for Vocabulary Environmental threats
talking about regrets you have about the past. New skill Talking about an unreal past

KEY LANGUAGE THE THIRD CONDITIONAL

SECOND CONDITIONAL THIRD CONDITIONAL

The second conditional is used to Use the third conditional to describe

describe unreal situations in the present. unreal situations in the past.
Language learning
Modules with colored
backgrounds teach new KEY LANGUAGE FORMAL INVERSION
You can make the
vocabulary and grammar. third conditional
more formal by
Study these carefully inverting the
subject and “had,”
before moving on to and dropping “if.” This is used more in formal and
academic written English.

the exercises. HOW TO FORM THE THIRD CONDITIONAL

LISTEN TO THE AUDIO AND MARK THE THINGS
“IF” “HAD” + PAST PARTICIPLE “WOULD / COULD / MIGHT” “HAVE” + PAST PARTICIPLE
THAT ACTUALLY HAPPENED

The “if “ clause is the Using different modals varies the The conditional clause
unreal past condition. certainty of the imagined result. is the unreal result.

ANOTHER WAY TO SAY THE THIRD CONDITIONAL

The past perfect continuous can also
follow “if ” in the third conditional.

Often “have” is contracted Sentences in the third conditional can be reordered

when spoken. without a comma so the “if ” clause is second.

124 125

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Audio support Most modules Exercises Modules with

have supporting audio white backgrounds
FREE AUDIO recordings of native English
speakers to help you improve
contain exercises that help
you practice your new
website and app your speaking and listening skills. skills to reinforce learning.
www.dkefe.com
8
 Language modules
New language points are taught in carefully graded stages, starting with a simple
explanation of when they are used, then offering further examples of common
usage, and a detailed breakdown of how key constructions are formed.

Two comparatives together

Module number Every module
is identified with a unique number, Module heading The teaching
You can use two comparatives in a sentence to show the New language Two comparatives together
so you can track your progress and topic appears here, along with
effect of an action. You can also use them to show that Vocabulary Age and population
easily locate any related audio.
something is changing.
a brief introduction.
New skill Expressing cause, effect, and change

KEY LANGUAGE TWO COMPARATIVES TOGETHER

You can make
comparisons that
show cause and Sample language New language points
effect by using two are introduced in context. Colored
comparatives in
one sentence.
highlights make new constructions easy
to spot, and annotations explain them.
Implies that training causes
you to get stronger.

Graphic guide Clear, simple visuals help

FURTHER EXAMPLES TWO COMPARATIVES TOGETHER
to explain the meaning of new language
forms and when to use them, and also
act as an aid to learning and recall.

Supporting audio This symbol

indicates that the model sentences
featured in the module are available
as audio recordings.

HOW TO FORM TWO COMPARATIVES TOGETHER

COMPARATIVE COMPARATIVE
“THE” SUBJECT VERB “THE” SUBJECT VERB
EXPRESSION EXPRESSION
Formation guide Visual guides
break down English grammar into its
simplest parts, showing you how to
recreate even complex formations.
62

Vocabulary
TRAVEL AND TOURISM
062-065_289759_EFE_15.indd 62 22/01/2016 10:44

Vocabulary Throughout the book,

vocabulary modules list the most useful
English words and phrases, with visual
cues to help you remember them.

Write-on lines You are

encouraged to write your own
translations of English words to
create your own reference pages.
30

030-031_289759_EFE_06_VOCAB_TRAVEL.indd 30 22/01/2016 10:43

9
 Practice modules
Each exercise is carefully graded to drill GRAMMAR VOCABULARY
Apply new language rules Cement your understanding
and test the language taught in the
in different contexts. of key vocabulary.
corresponding course book units.
Working through theSENTENCES
REWRITE THE exercises alongside
CORRECTING THE ERRORS READING SPEAKING
the course book will help you remember Examine target language Compare your spoken English
what you have learned and become in real-life English contexts. to model audio recordings.
more fluent. Every exercise is introduced LISTENING
with a symbol to indicate which skill is Test your understanding
being practiced. of spoken English.

Module number Every module Exercise instruction Every

is identified with a unique exercise is introduced with
number, so you can easily locate a brief instruction, telling
answers and related audio. you what you need to do.

KEY LANGUAGE SUBSTITUTING WITH “SO” AND “NOT”

FILL IN THE GAPS USING “COULD,” “WOULD,” OR “WOULDN’T” In positive clauses after verbs of
thinking, you can use “so” to
avoid repetition. Use “not” or
“not… so” in negative sentences.
Sample answer The first question
of each exercise is answered for
you, to help make the task easy to
understand.

FURTHER EXAMPLES SUBSTITUTING

Supporting NEGATIVES
audio This symbol WITH “NOT… SO” AND “NOT”
shows
that the answers to “believe,”
theUseexercise are
“not… so” with “think,”
“expect,” and “imagine.”

available as audio tracks. Listen to

them after completing the exercise.
Use either “not” or Use “not” with “hope,”
CHECKLIST “not… so” with “appear,” “assume,” and “be afraid”
“seem,” and “suppose.” (when “afraid” means “sorry”).

Supporting graphics
“Wish” with “would” or “could” Space for writing
Hopes for the future Talking about future hopes and wishes

Visual cues are given You are encouraged 219

RESPOND TO THE AUDIO, SPEAKING OUT LOUD USING SUBSTITUTION
to help you understand to write your answers
the exercises.
218-219_289759_EFE_57.indd 219
in the book for future 22/01/2016 16:48

reference.

Listening exercise This

symbol indicates that you
should listen to an audio
track in order to answer the
questions in the exercise.
CHECKLIST

LISTEN TO THE AUDIO AND DECIDE WHICH THINGS ACTUALLY HAPPENED

Substitution Speaking exercise
Books and reading Replacing This
phrasessymbol

indicates that you should say your 243

answers out loud, then compare

240-243_289759_EFE_63.indd 243
them to model recordings 22/01/2016 19:52

included in your audio files.

CHECKLIST
10 “Would” and “was going to” Changing plans Saying what you thought
 Audio
English for Everyone features extensive supporting audio materials.
You are encouraged to use them as much as you can, to improve
your understanding of spoken English, and to make your own
accent and pronunciation more natural. Each file can be played,
paused, and repeated as often as you like, until you are confident
you understand what has been said.

LISTENING EXERCISES
This symbol indicates that you should
listen to an audio track in order to
answer the questions in the exercise.

FREE AUDIO
SUPPORTING AUDIO
This symbol indicates that extra audio website and app
material is available for you to listen www.dkefe.com
to after completing the module.

RESPOND TO THE AUDIO, SPEAKING OUT LOUD

Track your progress

The course is designed to make it easy to monitor your progress,
Answers Find the
with regular summary and review modules. Answers are provided answers to every
for every exercise, so you can see how well you have understood exercise printed at
each teaching point. the back of the book.
RESPOND TO THE AUDIO, SPEAKING OUT LOUD

Checklists Every unit ends with a

Audio This symbol
checklist, where you can check off
indicates that the
the new skills you have learned.
answers can also
be listened to.
CHECKLIST
Introductory “it” Talents and abilities Talking about your abilities

REVIEW THE ENGLISH YOU HAVE LEARNED IN UNITS 1–5

NEW LANGUAGE SAMPLE SENTENCE UNIT

PRESENT TENSES Check boxes Use these boxes

Review modules At the end of a to mark the skills you feel
ACTION AND STATE VERBS
group of units, you will find a more comfortable with. Go back and
detailed
CHECKLISTreview module, summarizing
COLLOCATIONS review anything you feel you
the language
Introductory “it” you have learned.
Talents and abilities need to practice further.
Talking about your abilities
ADJECTIVE ORDER

REVIEW THE ENGLISH YOU HAVE LEARNED IN UNITS 1–5

INTRODUCTORY “IT”

NEW LANGUAGE SAMPLE SENTENCE UNIT

29
PRESENT TENSES

ACTION AND STATE VERBS

026-029_289759_EFE_05.indd 29 22/01/2016 16:47
Exercise numbers
COLLOCATIONS
Match these numbers
ADJECTIVE ORDER
to the unique identifier
at the top-left corner
INTRODUCTORY “IT”
of each exercise.
29

11
026-029_289759_EFE_05.indd 29 22/01/2016 16:47
 Making conversation
Verbs have various forms in the present tense, including New language Present tenses
continuous and perfect. You need to understand these Vocabulary Meeting new people
differences when making question tags. New skill Using question tags

KEY LANGUAGE PRESENT SIMPLE AND PRESENT CONTINUOUS

PRESENT SIMPLE PRESENT CONTINUOUS

The present simple refers to something The present continuous refers to something
that happens in general or as part of a that is happening right now and will
daily routine. continue for a limited amount of time.

REWRITE THE NOTE, CORRECTING THE HIGHLIGHTED ERRORS

12
KEY LANGUAGE PRESENT PERFECT AND PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS

PRESENT PERFECT PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS

Use the present perfect to talk about the Use the present perfect continuous to talk
recent past or general experiences in a about an action that started in the past, but
lifetime up until now. is continuing until now or has present results.

FILL IN THE GAPS BY PUTTING THE VERBS IN THE PRESENT PERFECT

OR THE PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS

13
 KEY LANGUAGE QUESTION TAGS
If the main clause Question tags are small questions added to the
of the sentence is end of a statement in informal conversation.

positive, the question

tag is negative, and
vice versa. In most
cases, the question
tag uses the verb “do.”

If the main verb The negative question

is “be,” “be” is also form of “I am” is “aren’t I.”
used in the
question tag.

If the main clause

of the sentence
contains an auxiliary
verb or a modal
verb, the question
tag uses this verb.

MATCH THE STATEMENTS TO THE CORRECT QUESTION TAGS

14
 KEY LANGUAGE INTONATION WITH QUESTION TAGS
If the intonation goes up
at the end of the question
tag, it is a question
requiring an answer.

If the intonation goes down

at the end of a question tag,
the speaker is just inviting
the listener to agree.

LISTEN TO THE SENTENCES ADD QUESTION TAGS TO THE

AND MARK WHETHER OR NOT SENTENCES AND SAY THEM WITH
AN ANSWER IS REQUIRED BOTH TYPES OF INTONATION

CHECKLIST
Present tenses Meeting new people Using question tags

15
 Action and state verbs
Verbs that describe actions or events are known as New language State verbs in continuous forms
“action” or “dynamic” verbs, whereas those that describe Vocabulary Action and state verbs
states are known as “state” or “stative” verbs. New skill Describing states

KEY LANGUAGE ACTION AND STATE VERBS

Action verbs can be used in simple and continuous forms.
State verbs are not usually used in continuous forms.

ACTION STATE

KEY LANGUAGE USING STATE VERBS IN CONTINUOUS FORMS

Some verbs can be both action and state verbs. When these verbs
are describing an action, they can be used in continuous forms.

ACTION STATE

Other state verbs can be used in continuous forms. They keep their stative
meaning, but emphasize a change, development, or temporary situation.

CONTINUOUS FORM SIMPLE FORM

16
 MARK THE SENTENCES THAT ARE CORRECT

FILL IN THE GAPS USING THE WORDS IN THE PANEL

CHECKLIST
State verbs in continuous forms Action and state verbs Describing states

17
 RESPOND TO THE AUDIO, SPEAKING OUT LOUD

CHECKLIST
Introductory “it” Talents and abilities Expressing general truths

REVIEW THE ENGLISH YOU HAVE LEARNED IN UNITS 1–5

NEW LANGUAGE SAMPLE SENTENCE UNIT

PRESENT TENSES

ACTION AND STATE VERBS

COLLOCATIONS

ADJECTIVE ORDER

INTRODUCTORY “IT”

29
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 ELI WHITNEY
New Haven, Conn. SIMEON NORTH
THOS. After his death business carried on by Middletown, Conn.
BLANCHARD E. W. & Philos Blake, nephews, Four sons—
Blanchard lathe followed by Eli Whitney, Jr. Business Reuben, James,
and stocking sold to Winchester Repeating Arms Co. Alvin and Selah
machinery 1888
HARPER’S FERRY ARMORY
SPRINGFIELD ARMORY
Capt. John H. Hall Jas. H. Burton
SMITH & WESSON
ROBBINS &
Norwich, Conn. later Springfield,
LAWRENCE
Mass.
Windsor, Vt.
Horace Smith worked for Whitney
Fredk. W. Howe
Arms Co. D. B. Wesson invented
Henry D. Stone
cartridge, which was sold to
AMES MFG. CO. SAMUEL COLT VOLCANIC
Chicopee, Mass. Hartford, Conn. ARMS CO.
N. P. Ames, Jas. T. First revolvers made by Sold to O. F.
Ames, Jas. H. Burton Whitney Arms Co. Winchester
ENFIELD GUN E. K. ROOT TYLER HENRY
MACHINERY Built Colt’s Armory: Workman at
Robbins &
 and other machinery for Drop hammers, Lawrence.
European governments cartridge machinery Improved the
Jennings’ Rifle
C. M. SPENCER GEO. S. LINCOLN & CO.
Rifles, drop Hartford, Conn. NEW HAVEN
hammers, Lincoln Miller, first built for Colt. Pratt ARMS CO.
automatic lathes and Whitney were two of their foremen “Henry” Rifle
PRATT &
WHITNEY
JONES & LAMSON MACH.
Hartford. Conn. WINCHESTER REPEATING
CO.
Gun machinery, ARMS CO.
Turret lathes, etc.
machine tools, New Haven, Conn.
etc. “Model ’66” Winchester, etc.
BILLINGS & SPENCER
Drop Hammers, Drop
Forgings, etc.
Billings apprentice at HARTFORD MACH. SCR. CO.
Robbins & Lawrence. Automatic Lathes, Screw
Billings and Spencer Machine Products Fairfield and
worked at Colt’s. Spencer. Both worked at Colt’s

Figure 27. Genealogy of the New England Gun Makers

As a result of this visit 20,000 interchangeable Enfield rifles were

ordered by the English Government, and in 1855, 157 machines for
the manufacture of guns were sent to England. These machines
comprised seventy-four millers, twenty-three drilling machines, five
tapping machines, and seven edging machines. The remainder were
special machines for threading, rifling, turning, boring, and so on.[164]
In this list of machines scarcely a single lathe is found and no
mention is made of any turret machines. Ten or fifteen years later
there would have been a large number. James H. Burton, who had
been at the Harper’s Ferry armory and was at the time with the
Ames Manufacturing Company, went over to England to install the
new system and operate the new plant. The Ames Manufacturing
Company alone is said to have exported four to five hundred
stocking machines of the Blanchard type on these early foreign
orders. Within the next fifteen or twenty years nearly every
government in Europe was supplied with American gun-making
machinery, all planned to operate on the interchangeable system,
which was known everywhere as “the American system.”
[164] Fitch: “Report on Manufactures of Interchangeable Mechanism,” U.
S. Census, 1880. Volume on “Manufactures.”

Nasmyth was concerned in the introduction of this machinery into

England. His mention of it in his autobiography throws light on how
the interchangeable system was looked upon by the English
engineers:
In 1853 I was appointed a member of the Small Arms Committee for the
purpose of remodeling and, in fact, re-establishing, the Small Arms Factory at
Enfield. The wonderful success of the needle gun in the war between Prussia and
Denmark in 1848 occasioned some alarm amongst our military authorities as to
the state of affairs at home. The Duke of Wellington to the last proclaimed the
sufficiency of “Brown Bess” as a weapon of offense and defense; but matters could
no longer be deferred. The United States Government, though possessing only a
very small standing army, had established at Springfield a small arms factory,
where, by the use of machine tools specially designed to execute with the most
unerring precision all the details of muskets and rifles, they were enabled to
dispense with mere manual dexterity, and to produce arms to any amount. It was
finally determined to improve the musketry and rifle systems of the English army.
The Government resolved to introduce the American system,[165] by which arms
might be produced much more perfectly, and at a great diminution of cost. It was
under such circumstances that the Small Arms Committee was appointed.
[165] Italics are ours.

Colonel Colt had brought to England some striking examples of the admirable
tools used at Springfield[166] and he established a manufactory at Pimlico for the
production of his well-known revolvers. The committee resolved to make a
personal visit to the United States Factory at Springfield. My own business
engagements at home prevented my accompanying the members who were
selected; but as my friend John Anderson (now Sir John) acted as their guide, the
committee had in him the most able and effective helper. He directed their
attention to the most important and available details of that admirable
establishment. The United States Government acted most liberally in allowing the
committee to obtain every information on the subject; and the heads of the various
departments, who were intelligent and zealous, rendered them every attention and
civility.
[166] Hartford?
 The members of the mission returned home enthusiastically delighted with the
results of their inquiry. The committee immediately proceeded with the entire
remodeling of the Small Arms Factory at Enfield. The workshops were equipped
with a complete series of special machine tools, chiefly obtained from the
Springfield factory.[167] The United States Government also permitted several of
their best and most experienced workmen and superintendents to take service
under the English Government.[168]
[167] This must be a mistake. The machinery seems to have been
supplied chiefly by Bobbins & Lawrence and the Ames Mfg. Co. Mr. Burton
of the latter company installed it.
[168] Autobiography of James Nasmyth, pp. 362-363.

In using the term “interchangeable” it must be remembered that

the meaning attached to this word grew during these years. The
interchangeability of 1813 would not have been considered
satisfactory in 1855, much less so today. When Hall completed his
first hundred rifles at Harper’s Ferry in 1824, it is said that “the joint
of the breech block was so fitted that a sheet of paper would slide
loosely in the joint, but two sheets would stick.” This system of
gauging will have a familiar sound to the older mechanics who grew
up before the days of the micrometer. When Colonel North was
given his first contract for the rifles and furnished two models to work
from, these models were so unlike that he asked to have one set
aside and that he be allowed to gauge his work from the other.
Of the various tools associated with interchangeable manufacture,
drilling jigs were in use very early, probably from the start. The filing
jig is said to have been invented by Selah North, the son of Colonel
North, but it was used by Whitney almost as early. Both Whitney and
Colonel North were using plain milling by 1820. A light sort of milling
machine is shown in the French Encyclopedia of 1772, already
referred to, but the first successful one was built by Mr. Whitney
some time prior to 1818. This machine, still in existence and now in
the possession of the Sheffield Scientific School of Yale University, is
shown again in Fig. 28.[169] In 1817 to 1822 we find the introduction
of forging in hand dies, barrel turning by special machinery, and the
Blanchard lathe for gun-stocks. Receiving gauges are said to have
been used at Middletown in 1829, and were regularly in use at
Springfield by 1840. Automatic machinery for the woodworking was
first invented by Blanchard in 1818 for the Springfield armory. The
accuracy of these machines, shown in Fig. 29, outran that of the
metal work of the time. To accommodate the variations still present
in the metal parts Blanchard devised a machine which used the
actual lock plates as formers and cut the stocks to match, and such
machines were used at Springfield until 1840. By that time the work
on the metal parts could be made as accurately as the stocks, and
this method was no longer necessary. A modern degree of accuracy
in shaping of the metal portions was not possible until the miller
came into general use for irregular shapes, which was some time in
the forties. By 1842, for the new musket to be manufactured at
Springfield, there was a complete set of model jigs, taps and gauges.
The profiling machine was developed by F. W. Howe, R. S.
Lawrence, and E. K. Root, from 1848 to 1852. A drop hammer with
dies was used by Hall of Harper’s Ferry in 1827, the head of which
was raised by a moving chain and freed by a trip at the desired
height. Later Peck invented his lifter, using a strap. The Root drop
hammers we have already mentioned. The board drop is largely the
work of Spencer.
[169] For a detailed account of this machine and its history see American
Machinist, Vol. XXXVI, p. 1037.
 Figure 28. The First Milling Machine

Built by Eli Whitney about 1818. Now in the Mason Laboratory, Yale
University
 Figure 29. Blanchard “Gun-Stocking” Lathe

Built in 1818 for the Springfield Armory. In Use Over Fifty Years

Probably no machine has had so great an influence on

interchangeable manufacture as the automatic turret lathe. The turret
lathe, “the first radical improvement on Maudslay’s slide-rest,” was
built commercially by Robbins & Lawrence in 1854, and is said to
have grown out of a revolving-head bolt cutter which Henry D. Stone
saw at Hartford. The turret idea was not originated by Stone. Root
and Howe had used it a number of years before, and it had been
utilized by several others. All of these turrets except Howe’s seem to
have had a horizontal axis instead of the vertical one which became
general. Later improvements by C. M. Spencer and a long line of
brilliant mechanics have increased the accuracy of the turret lathe
and made it more nearly automatic than any other type of general
machine tool. Today it is, with the milling machine, the main reliance
for interchangeable work.
In sketching the development of interchangeable methods in
American shops, we have confined our attention to gun makers
chiefly. They were by no means the only ones to have a part in this
development, but they were its originators, they determined its
methods, and developed most of the machines typical of the
process. About 1830 Chauncey Jerome began the manufacture of
brass clocks. Terry, Thomas and other Connecticut mechanics had
been manufacturing wooden clocks, which gave way to metal clocks
as the advantage of interchangeable manufacture became
recognized. In 1848 A. L. Dennison founded the American Watch
Company at Waltham. The interchangeable system has nowhere
reached a higher development than in the work of this company and
of the other great watch factories. In 1846 Elias Howe was granted
his patent on sewing machines, and within four or five years their
manufacture sprang up on a large scale. Both of these industries,
watch and clock manufacture and the manufacture of sewing
machines, utilized a system which was already well established.
Since that time it has been applied to a wide variety of articles.
 CHAPTER XII
WHITNEY AND NORTH
In the last chapter we considered the rise of the interchangeable
system of manufacture and saw that it started in the shops of Eli
Whitney, at New Haven, and of Simeon North, at Middletown. The
lives of these men are of much interest, particularly that of Whitney.
His struggle in defense of his patent rights on the cotton gin is
instructive for all who see a high road to fortune in the patenting of a
valuable invention.
Measured by its economic effect, the cotton gin is one of the
greatest of inventions. As an industrial factor its success was
immediate and far-reaching. It developed the agricultural resources
of nearly half the United States, made possible its gigantic cotton
crop, vastly increased the wealth of this country and, to a scarcely
less extent, that of England; and yet toward the end of his life, Mr.
Whitney said that he had hardly more than “come out even on it”;
and this in spite of the fact that his patent was sustained and was
apparently one of the most valuable ever granted.
A patent for an invention which meets a widespread and pressing
need, and for which there is a tremendous demand, is difficult to
defend. Watt’s rights in the steam engine were established only after
a long and bitter fight, and he would have failed and died a
disappointed man had it not been for the indomitable courage and
business skill of his partner, Matthew Boulton. Whitney was a far
better business man than Watt, but his partner was not in any way
the equal of Boulton. If he had been, the story of the cotton gin might
have been different.
Whitney saw the futility of depending solely on patent rights and
wisely turned his splendid talents to manufacturing; where, without
patent protection of any kind, by methods then new, but which have
since spread throughout the world, he built up a fortune. Someone
has said that the besetting sin of mechanics is invention. This may,
or may not, be true, but it is worth pondering whether superior
methods and business judgment are not still the best industrial
protection.
Eli Whitney, whose portrait is shown in Fig. 30, was born in
Westborough, Mass., in 1765. He came from that best school of
mechanics, the New England hill farm. Most of the early American
mechanics, like him, came from the country and had the same
training of hard work with simple implements, and learned to turn
their hand to nearly everything, and to work with few and rough tools.
From his boyhood he showed mechanical talent. When he was
fifteen, with his father’s consent, he began making nails with the aid
of such rudimentary tools as he could contrive. This was during the
Revolutionary War, when nails were in great demand and brought a
high price. By hard work he built up a profitable little business which
he carried on for two winters in addition to the ordinary work of the
farm during the summer. The business grew beyond his capacity to
care for alone, so he set out on horseback to a neighboring town in
quest of a fellow laborer. Not finding one as easily as he had
anticipated, he rode from town to town with the persistence which
was a strong trait in his character, until forty miles from home he
found such a workman as he desired. During this journey he called
at every workshop on his way and absorbed all the information he
could respecting the mechanical arts. When the nail business
ceased to be profitable after the war, he turned his attention to knife
blades and to the making of the long pins for bonnets then in
fashion. He showed so much skill that he nearly monopolized the
latter business.
When nineteen years old, Whitney determined to obtain a liberal
education, but he was not able to gain his father’s consent until he
was twenty-three. Then, in 1788, with money made partly in his little
manufacturing business and partly from teaching school, he entered
Yale College. He completed his college education with but little
expense to his father who paid a few of the last of his college bills,
for which the son gave his note and which he paid soon after
graduation. His work at college was creditable, rather than brilliant;
he left a marked impression behind him for good judgment, sound
reasoning and steady, intelligent work.[170]
[170] The best sources of information on Whitney are: Olmstead: “Memoir
of Eli Whitney, Esqr.” New Haven, 1846. Blake: “History of Hamden, Conn.”
New Haven, 1888. Blake: “Sketch of the Life of Eli Whitney,” “New Haven
Colony Historical Society Papers,” Vol. V, 1894.

There were few school facilities in the South at that time and many
of the wealthy planters had their children educated by private tutors.
In the fall of 1792, the year in which he graduated, Whitney was
engaged as a private tutor in a family in Georgia. On his way there
he met Mrs. Greene, the widow of General Nathaniel Greene, who
was returning to Savannah after spending the summer in the North.
When Whitney reached Georgia he found that, despite his
engagement, another had been given his place and he was
stranded, practically penniless, a thousand miles from home and not
knowing which way to turn. Mrs. Greene kindly invited him to make
her house his home. He did so, and began to study law under her
hospitable roof. Here he met Phineas Miller, a native of Connecticut
and also a graduate of Yale College, who had himself come south as
a tutor in the Greene family and after General Greene’s death had
become manager of his estate. He was a man of cultivated mind, of
eager, hopeful temperament and later he married Mrs. Greene.
Shortly after Whitney’s coming, a large party of gentlemen from
Augusta and the upper country, consisting principally of officers who
had served under the General in the Revolutionary army, were
visiting Mrs. Greene. In the course of the conversation the
deplorable state of agriculture was discussed, and great regret
expressed that there was no means of separating green seed cotton
from its seed, since all the lands which were unsuitable for the
cultivation of rice and long staple cotton, would yield large crops of
green seed cotton. The black or long staple cotton had already been
introduced successfully in the Sea Islands, but it could not be grown
inland. It was vain to think of raising green seed or upland cotton for
the market unless some machine could be devised which would
facilitate the process of cleaning. Separating one pound of the staple
from the seed was a day’s work for one woman. During this
conversation Mrs. Greene told them that Whitney could invent their
machine, saying, “He can make anything.” This incident turned
Whitney’s attention to the subject. Encouraged by Miller he dropped
his law studies, went to Savannah, obtained a small parcel of raw
cotton, and set himself at work on the problem. With such resources
as the plantation afforded he made tools suited to his purpose, drew
his own wire and by the close of the winter had so far developed the
machine as to leave no doubt of its success. The first model he
made (made, it is said, in about two weeks) is still in existence in the
possession of his grandson, the present Eli Whitney. The three
essential elements of his gin, the rotary wheel with forward pointing
wires or teeth, the slotted bar, and the revolving brushes for cleaning
the teeth, remain practically unchanged today.
At that time the market was glutted with such products as Georgia
produced, trade was languishing, and there was little employment for
the negroes or support for the white inhabitants. Mrs. Greene
indiscreetly showed the first machine to visitors and the news soon
leaked out that a means had been devised for separating more
cotton in one day, with the labor of a single man, than could have
been done in the usual manner in the space of many months. An
invention so important to the agricultural interest could not long
remain a secret. The knowledge spread throughout the state and so
great was the excitement that multitudes from all quarters came to
see the machine. It was not deemed safe to gratify their curiosity
until patent rights were secured, but so determined were they that
the building was broken into by night and the machine carried off. In
this way the public became possessed of the invention, and before
Whitney could secure his patent a number of machines were in
successful operation. They deviated only slightly from the original
and gave Whitney much trouble later in establishing his rights to the
invention.
In the spring of 1793, Miller and Whitney formed a partnership
under the name of Miller & Whitney, for developing the business, and
Whitney returned to Connecticut to perfect the machine, obtain a
patent, and manufacture and ship to Georgia machines to meet the
demand. At the start they made a fatal error of policy in deciding to
buy the seed themselves, gin it and sell the product. Protected by
their patent, they planned to maintain a monopoly of this business.
Later they were willing to manufacture and sell the machines for
general use or to sell the rights. If they had done this at the start
much of the opposition which they incurred might have been
obviated. Whitney, at least, was a clear-sighted business man and if
he had realized the magnitude of the result of his invention he would
probably not have chosen this course.
There is not another instance in the history of invention of the
letting loose of such tremendous industrial forces so suddenly. The
inventions of Arkwright, Watt, Fulton and Stephenson have affected
society quite as profoundly as did that of the cotton gin, some of
them more so, but in none of these cases were the results so
immediate. In 1784, only eight years before Whitney’s invention,
eight bales of cotton from the United States which were landed at
Liverpool were seized on the ground that they could not have been
produced in the United States.[171] In 1791 the total production of
cotton in the world was estimated at 490,000,000 pounds, of which
the United States produced 2,000,000 pounds, or only ¹⁄₂₄₅, of which
189,316 pounds were exported. In 1792 they exported 138,328
pounds, an actual decrease of 51,000 pounds from the previous
year. In 1793, the year after the gin was invented, there was an
exportation of 487,000 pounds; in 1794 of 1,601,000 pounds; in
1795 of 6,276,000 pounds. By 1800 the total production had risen to
35,000,000 pounds, of which 17,790,000 pounds were exported. In
1845 the total estimated output of the world was 1,169,600,000
pounds, of which the United States produced nearly seven-
eighths.[172] At the present time the output of the United States is
about 15,000,000 bales, or 7,000,000,000 pounds. Less than 1 per
cent of this is “Sea Island” or long staple cotton. All the rest is upland
or green seed cotton, cleaned on the Whitney type of gin, and made
commercially available by his method of cleaning.
[171] Olmstead: “Memoir of Eli Whitney, Esqr.” p. 63. Also, Encyclopedia
Britannica, Eleventh Edition, Vol. VII, p. 264.
[172] Olmstead: “Memoir.” Also Merchant’s Magazine, Vol. VI, Article on
“History of the American Cotton Trade,” by James H. Lanman.

The intensity of the demand for the use of this machine made it
practically impossible to defend a patent right upon it. The patent
laws of the country, as has been stated, were crude at that time, and
the infringement suits were tried before juries composed of the very
men who were interested in breaking the patent.
Nearly all of the great inventions have been developments to
which a number of inventors have contributed, as in the case of the
steam engine, the locomotive, and the steamboat; but the
fundamental invention of the cotton gin was due to Whitney and to
Whitney alone. And yet in a letter written to Robert Fulton, at a later
date, he says:
My invention was new and distinct from every other: it stood alone. It was not
interwoven with anything before known; and it can seldom happen that an
invention or improvement is so strongly marked, and can be so clearly and
specifically identified; and I have always believed, that I should have had no
difficulty in causing my rights to be respected, if it had been less valuable, and
been used only by a small portion of the community. But the use of this machine
being immensely profitable to almost every planter in the cotton districts, all were
interested in trespassing upon the patent-right, and each kept the other in
countenance. Demagogs made themselves popular by misrepresentation and
unfounded clamors, both against the right and against the law made for its
protection. Hence there arose associations and combinations to oppose both. At
one time, but few men in Georgia dared to come into court and testify to the most
simple facts within their knowledge, relative to the use of the machine. In one
instance, I had great difficulty in proving that the machine had been used in
Georgia, although, at the same moment, there were three separate sets of this
machinery in motion, within fifty yards of the building in which the court sat, and all
so near that the rattling of the wheels was distinctly heard on the steps of the
court-house.[173]
[173] Olmstead, p. 58. (Italics are ours.)

It should in justice be said that at first there was no widespread

disposition on the part of the Georgia planters to avail themselves of
the invention unlawfully, but later nearly all, deluded by the general
attitude, joined in the attack upon the inventor’s rights.
The unfortunate policy adopted by Miller & Whitney worked to their
disadvantage in two ways. First, they could not themselves produce
machines fast enough to gin the rapidly increasing crops; and
second, their policy of buying the seed and ginning it themselves
meant financing the entire crop and called for a vastly greater capital
than they had at their command. Infringing machines sprang up on
every side, their most formidable rival being the saw gin of Hodgin
Holmes, in which circular saws were used instead of a drum with
inserted wires as in Whitney’s original gin. The idea of such teeth
had occurred to Whitney, as he afterward proved; but not until 1807
did he completely establish his right over this machine.
Figure 30. Eli Whitney
 Perplexities and discouragements dogged their steps from the
start. In 1795 the shop which they had built in New Haven, together
with all machines and papers, was consumed by fire. In the diary of
President Stiles of Yale College is an entry: “March 12 (1795).
Yesterday morning Mr. Whitney’s workshop consumed by fire. Loss
3000 Dol. about 10 finished machines for seeding cotton & 5 or 6
unfinished, & all the tools which no man can make but Mr. Whitney,
the inventor, & which he has been 2 years in making.” They found
great difficulty in raising money, even at rates from 12 to 25 per cent.
With these misfortunes upon them, word was received from England
that the manufacturers condemned the cotton cleaned by their
machines on the ground that the staple was injured. They had thirty
gins at work in eight different places in Georgia and many of these
were brought to a standstill. It was nearly two years before this
prejudice could be overcome. By that time, however, encroachments
on their patent right had become so extensive as almost to annihilate
its value. The first infringement suit was tried in 1797 and went
against them. An appeal was denied on technicalities.[174] At a
second trial, in 1798, a great number of witnesses had been
collected from various parts of the country, some of them from one
hundred miles away, when the judge failed to appear, and, of course,
no court was held.[175] Mr. Miller writes in 1799 that “the prospect of
making anything by ginning in this State, is at an end. Surreptitious
gins are being erected in every part of the country; and the jurymen
at Augusta have come to an understanding among themselves, that
they will never give a verdict in our favor, let the merits of the case
be as they may.”[176] The firm would now gladly have relinquished
their plan of doing the ginning themselves and confined their
operations to the sale of patent rights; but few people would buy a
patent right which could be used with impunity without purchase.
[174] Ibid., p. 26.
[175] Ibid., p. 27.
[176] Ibid., p. 27.

In 1801 South Carolina voted the purchase of the patent rights on

the cotton gin for that state for $50,000, $20,000 to be paid in hand
and the remainder in three annual payments of $10,000 each. A year
later Whitney sold the right for North Carolina. The legislature laid a
tax on every saw, to be continued for five years. After deducting the
expenses of collection, the proceeds were to be passed over to the
patentee. Negotiations were also entered into with the state of
Tennessee. The prospects of the firm were, therefore, growing more
favorable, when the legislature of South Carolina suddenly annulled
the contract, refused payment due, and sued for the refunding of
what had already been paid. Doubts were raised as to the validity of
the patent; the patentees were charged with nonfulfillment of a part
of their contract relating to the submission of models; it was charged
that somebody in Switzerland had conceived of the idea beforehand;
and that Whitney had been antedated in the use of saws instead of
wire teeth by Holmes. This action was the result of the political
agitation against the patent, which was strong throughout the cotton-
growing states. Tennessee followed the example of South Carolina,
and the same attempt was made in North Carolina, but the
legislative committee to whom it was referred reported in Whitney’s
favor, declaring that such action was a breach of contract and of
good faith. In 1803 Mr. Miller, who had represented the firm in the
South, died disappointed and broken by the struggle.
In the following year South Carolina rescinded its action and
carried out its contract, so that from North and South Carolina
Whitney received a considerable sum. In all he received about
$90,000; $50,000 from North Carolina; at least $30,000 from South
Carolina and about $10,000 from Tennessee. A large portion of this
amount was, however, balanced by the cost of the endless litigation
in Georgia. More than sixty suits had been instituted in the latter
state before the first decision was obtained on the merits of the
claims.
This decision was rendered in the United States Court in
December, 1807, by Judge Johnson. Whitney, as the survivor of the
firm of Miller & Whitney, was suing a man named Arthur Fort for
violation of the patent right and for a perpetual injunction restraining
him from use of the gin. Judge Johnson’s decision is so clear a
statement of the situation, and so splendid an example of justice in
the face of popular agitation that we give it nearly in full:
 Defendant admits most of the facts in the bill set forth, but contends that the
complainants are not entitled to the benefits of the act of Congress on this subject,
because:
1st. The invention is not original.
2d. It is not useful.
3d. That the machine which he uses is materially different from their inventions,
in the application of an improvement, the invention of another person....
There are circumstances in the knowledge of all mankind, which prove the
originality of this invention more satisfactorily to the mind, than the direct testimony
of a host of witnesses. The cotton plant furnished clothing to mankind before the
age of Herodotus. The green seed is a species much more productive than the
black, and by nature adapted to a much greater variety of climate. But by reason of
the strong adherence of the fiber to the seed without the aid of some more
powerful machine for separating it, than any formerly known among us, the
cultivation of it would never have been made an object. The Machine of which Mr.
Whitney claims the invention, so facilitates the preparation of this species for use,
that the cultivation of it has suddenly become an object of infinitely greater national
importance than that of the other species ever can be. Is it then to be imagined
that if this machine had been before discovered, the use of it would ever have
been lost, or could have been confined to any tract or country left unexplored by
commercial enterprise? But it is unnecessary to remark further upon this subject. A
number of years have elapsed since Mr. Whitney took out his patent, and no one
has produced or pretended to prove the existence of a machine of similar
construction or use.
2d. With regard to the utility of this discovery, the Court would deem it a waste of
time to dwell long upon this topic. Is there a man who hears us, who has not
experienced its utility? The whole interior of the Southern States was languishing,
and its inhabitants emigrating for want of some object to engage their attention and
employ their industry, when the invention of this machine at once opened views to
them, which set the whole country in active motion. From childhood to age it has
presented to us a lucrative employment. Individuals who were depressed with
poverty and sunk in idleness, have suddenly risen to wealth and respectability. Our
debts have been paid off. Our capitals have increased, and our lands trebled
themselves in value. We cannot express the weight of the obligation which the
country owes to this invention. The extent of it cannot now be seen. Some faint
presentiment may be formed from the reflection that cotton is rapidly supplanting
wool, flax, silk, and even furs in manufactures, and may one day profitably supply
the use of specie in our East India trade. Our sister states, also, participate in the
benefits of this invention; for, besides affording the raw material for their
manufactures, the bulkiness and quantity of the article afford a valuable
employment for their shipping.
3d. The third and last ground taken by the defendant, appears to be that on
which he mostly relies. In the specification, the teeth made use of are of strong
wire inserted into the cylinder. A Mr. Holmes has cut teeth in plates of iron, and
passed them over the cylinder. This is certainly a meritorious improvement in the
mechanical process of constructing this machine. But at last, what does it amount
to except a more convenient method of making the same thing? Every
characteristic of Mr. Whitney’s machine is preserved. The cylinder, the iron tooth,
the rotary motion of the tooth, the breast work and brush, and all the merit that this
discovery can assume, is that of a more expeditious mode of attaching the tooth to
the cylinder. After being attached, in operation and effect they are entirely the
same. Mr. Whitney may not be at liberty to use Mr. Holmes’ iron plate, but certainly
Mr. Holmes’ improvement does not destroy Mr. Whitney’s patent right. Let the
decree for a perpetual injunction be entered.[177]
[177] Ibid., p. 39.

This decision was confirmed by a series of subsequent ones, and

from that time onward there was no serious questioning of the patent
right.
In 1812 Mr. Whitney made application to Congress for the renewal
of his patent. In his memorial he points out that his patent had nearly
expired before it was sustained; that his invention had been a source
of wealth to thousands of citizens of the United States; that the
expense to which he had gone in defense of the patent had left him
little or no return on the invention; that the men who had grown rich
by the use of his machine had combined to prevent the patentee
from deriving reward from his invention; that in the state where he
had first introduced the machines he had received nothing; that from
no state had he received all told an amount equal to ¹⁄₂ cent per
pound on the cotton cleaned by his machine in one year; that the
whole amount received by him for his invention had not been equal
to the labor saved in one hour by the cotton gins then in use in the
United States; that the invention had already trebled the value of
land throughout a great extent of territory; that the degree to which
the cultivation of cotton would still be augmented was incalculable;
and that the species of cotton grown had from time immemorial
never been known as an article of commerce until his method of
cleaning it had been invented. He closed with an argument for the
policy of providing adequate reward for the encouragement of
invention.[178] Notwithstanding these arguments and a favorable
committee report, the application was rejected. With the exception of