(Geography Model Answer)

UPSC Mains - English Medium

Indian Geography

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Theme : Climate

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By Sudarshan Gurjar

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(Geography Model Answer) UPSC Mains - English Medium / Indian Geography

Theme : Climate
 Q1. Discuss the meaning of colour-coded weather warnings for
cyclone prone areas given by India Meteorological Department. 2022
(Answer in 150 words) 10 marks

Indian Meteorological Department established in 1875 under The Ministry of

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Earth Sciences is the principal agency responsible for meteorological
observations, weather forecasting and seismology.

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The department has four colour-coded warnings that it flashes depending on
how intense or violent a weather system is at a given point in time.
The four colours are green, yellow, orange and red.

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According to IMD, a special matrix is followed to decide the colour of weather
situations. It is based on the “probability of occurrence of the event as well as its
impact assessment”. The decision of the colour also depends on the

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meteorological factors, hydrological factors, geophysical factors that indicate
the risk.

Colour Code Meaning

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GREEN ● “All is well”
● No likelihood of adverse weather
● No advisories issued
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YELLOW ● “Be Aware”

● Bad weather could last several days
● Could take a turn for worse

ORANGE “Be Prepared”

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●
● Extremely bad weather, signs of evacuation.
● Electricity black outs, communication disruption
and closure of road and rail.

RED “Take Action”

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●
● Could cause significant risk to lives
● Time to bring in disaster management teams

The point of the exercise is to give authorities to prepare required resources and
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people likely to be impacted enough forewarning to be prepared to meet harsh

or hazardous weather that has the potential to wreak severe damage, disrupt
daily life or cause loss of life.

(Geography Model Answer) UPSC Mains - English Medium / Indian Geography

Theme : Climate
 Q2. Troposphere is a very significant atmospheric layer that
determines weather processes. How? 2022
(Answer in 250 words) 15

Troposphere is the lowermost layer of the Earth's atmosphere extending roughly

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to a height of 8 km at the poles and 18 km at the equator. The troposphere ends
with the Tropopause. Meteorologically it is the most significant zone in the

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entire atmosphere as almost all the weather phenomena like rainfall, fog and
hailstorm etc. are confined to this layer

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Troposphere and Weather processes -

● Earth's troposphere contains 80% of the mass and most of the water vapor

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in the atmosphere, and consequently most of the clouds and stormy
weather.

● Tropospheric processes, such as the water or hydrologic cycle (the

formation of clouds and rain) and the greenhouse effect, have a great
influence on meteorology and the climate.
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● The troposphere is marked by temperature inversion, turbulence and
eddies. The inversion plays an important role in determining cloud form,
precipitation and visibility. And since air near the base of inversion tends
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to be cool, presence of fog exists.

● The turbulence connected to the thermal profile of the troposphere

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decreases the temperature with the altitude, at an average of 6°C/km

favoring the fast convection of air from the lowest layers to higher
altitudes in the troposphere. This convection goes hand in hand with the
formation of clouds.
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● One of the many ways that the troposphere determines weather

processes is through the movement of air masses. Air masses are large
bodies of air that have similar temperatures, humidities, and other
characteristics. With movement, they bring different weather conditions
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with them and when these air masses collide, they produce different
weather phenomenas, such as rain, thunderstorms.

● Another way that the troposphere determines weather processes is

through the transfer of heat and moisture between the Earth's surface and
the atmosphere.

(Geography Model Answer) UPSC Mains - English Medium / Indian Geography

Theme : Climate
 ● In the troposphere, water vapor, which accounts for up to 1% of air, varies
spatially and decreases rapidly with altitude. This traps terrestrial radiation
affecting humidity levels.

Also called the “weather layer”, Troposphere is an important layer in the

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atmosphere where the air is heated by the Earth's surface, where water vapor is
added to the air through evaporation, and where precipitation occurs.

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(Geography Model Answer) UPSC Mains - English Medium / Indian Geography

Theme : Climate
 Q3. How do the melting of the Arctic ice and glaciers of the
Antarctic differently affect the weather patterns and human
activities on the Earth? Explain. 2021
(Answer in 250 words) 15 marks

Ice acts like a protective cover over the Earth and our oceans. These bright white

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spots reflect excess heat back into space and keep the planet cooler. As per IPCC

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between 2000 and 2019, glaciers lost an average of 267 billion metric tons of ice
per year. If emissions around remain unchecked far reaching impacts on
weather patterns, sea levels and human activities will be visible around the

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globe. The effects of glacial and sea ice melt vary from place to place depending
on their features and geographic locations.

Melting of Arctic Ice

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Effects -

1. The retreat of the sea ice over the polar ocean has distorted the pattern of
flow of the stratospheric winds known as the jet stream. Less ice means
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less reflected heat, meaning more intense heatwaves worldwide. But it
also means more extreme winters: as the polar jet stream which is a
high-pressure wind that circles the Arctic region is destabilized by warmer
air, it can dip south, bringing bitter cold with it.
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2. The magnitude and pattern of Arctic sea-ice loss can directly influence El
Niño. the increased frequency of strong El Niño events can produce
unusual and, sometimes dangerous, weather conditions around the world
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including droughts, floods and severe storms.

3. Arctic ice and permafrost—ground that is permanently frozen—store large
amounts of methane, a greenhouse gas that contributes to climate
change. When it thaws, that methane is released, increasing the rate of
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warming.
4. Arctic sea ice causes freshwater to be added to the seawater in the Arctic
Ocean which flows into the North Atlantic. The added freshwater makes
the seawater less dense. This has caused the North Atlantic to become
fresher over the past several decades and has caused the ocean currents
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to slow which will affect regional cooling in Western Europe and North
America.

(Geography Model Answer) UPSC Mains - English Medium / Indian Geography

Theme : Climate
 Human Activities -
1. Polar vortexes, increased heat waves, and unpredictability of weather
caused by ice loss are already causing significant damage to crops.
2. Reduced opportunities for subsistence hunting, fishing, herding, and
gathering are likely to cause psychological stresses due to the loss of
important cultural activities.

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3. Indigenous people in some parts of the circumpolar North are reporting
incidences of stress related to high temperature extremes not previously

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experienced.

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Melting of Antarctic Ice -

Effects

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1. Researchers found that melting sea ice in Antarctica is likely warming
ocean surface temperatures, delivering more rain, and potentially creating
El Niño-like effects in the equatorial Pacific.
2. Slowing down of Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation, disrupting
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the Gulf Stream, and fueling colder winters and hotter summers in the
North Atlantic.
3. There could be a tipping point ahead where the AMOC abruptly shifts,
leading to climate disruptions that will ripple across the planet. A sluggish
AMOC can also lead to higher regional sea levels in areas like the Eastern
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United States.

Human Activities -
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1. Sea level rise is perhaps the most serious impact. Coastal towns and
cities face increasing storm surges and becoming permanently
flooded. Alongside this, the loss of freshwater from glaciers means
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less to drink, to water crops, or to use in generating electricity.

2. Changing water temperatures and nutrient flows are also harming
fisheries for important commercial species like cod.

If humanity manages to cap warming at 1.5 degrees Celsius, glaciers in the

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mountains would still decline by one-third. That would lead to huge declines in
drinking water and irrigation for agriculture. It’s time to make conscious
decisions for our environment and address the issue of climate change.

(Geography Model Answer) UPSC Mains - English Medium / Indian Geography

Theme : Climate
 Q4. Briefly mention the alignment of major mountain ranges of the
world and explain their impact on local weather conditions, with
examples. 2021
(answer in 250 words) 15 marks

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A mountain range is a series of mountains arranged in a line and connected by
high ground.
The major mountain ranges of the world include The Himalayas in Asia, The

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Andes in South America, The Alps in Europe, The Atlas in Africa and The Rockies
in North America.

THE HIMALAYAS -

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● Lifted by the subduction of the Indian tectonic plate under the Eurasian
Plate, the Himalayan mountain range runs west to east in an arc 2,400 km
long.
● They obstruct the passage of cold continental air from the north into India
in winter and also force the southwesterly monsoon (rain-bearing) winds
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to give up most of their moisture before crossing the range northward.
The result is heavy precipitation (both rain and snow) on the Indian side
but arid conditions in Tibet.
● They also protect the Indian mainland from the chilly winds of Siberia.
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● They are responsible for the formation of Taklamakan and Gobi Desert as
they fall in the rain shadow area.
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THE ANDES -
● The Andes is the longest mountain range in the world and boasts some of
the highest peaks.
● Covering 7 countries, they act as a large wall between the Pacific Ocean
and the continent.
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● The northern part of the Andes is typically rainy and warm. The weather is
also wet in the eastern part of central Andes, and the area to the
southwest.
● To the west, the dry climate is dominated by the Atacama Desert in
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northern Chile. The mountains also form a rain cover over the eastern
plains of Argentina giving them extremely dry weather.

(Geography Model Answer) UPSC Mains - English Medium / Indian Geography

Theme : Climate
 THE ALPS -
● It is the highest mountain range system of Europe, stretching for 1200 km,
west to east, across 8 alpine countries, such as: France, Switzerland, Italy
etc.
● The great variations in their elevations and exposure, give rise to extreme
differences in climate - from the west flows the relatively mild, moist air of

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the Atlantic, cold polar air descends from northern Europe, continental air
masses dominate in the east and to the south, warm Mediterranean air

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flows northward.
● It influences precipitation patterns, in South Europe and Eurasia.
● Dry wind like Foehn, and Avalanches are common in these regions.

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THE ATLAS -
● They are a mountain range in the Maghreb in North Africa, separating

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Sahara Desert from Mediterranean Sea and Atlantic Ocean. It stretches
around 2,500 km through Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia.
● Westerly winds from the Atlantic Ocean carry moisture into the region,
but the mountains act as a weather barrier between the coastal
grasslands and wetlands and the Sahara Desert. They cause a rain shadow
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effect, preventing the areas beyond the mountains from receiving much
rainfall.
● During the winter months, the highest peaks of the Atlas Mountains are
among the few parts of Africa to see snow.
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THE ROCKIES -
● They are the largest mountain system in North America extending from
the northernmost part of western Canada, to New Mexico in the
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southwestern United States.

● They form a barrier between the Pacific Ocean and inland provinces and
states, significantly influencing weather and creating areas of dense forest
and lush greenery as well as desert-like conditions.
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● They play an integral role in the formation of the famed snow-eater

Chinook winds, which pass over the plains and prairies during winter
months, bringing a rush of warm weather and melting snow packs in their
wake.
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The mountains play an important role in influencing and driving weather

conditions and climatic patterns. But with increasing global warming and other
anthropogenic activities, mountains are under serious threat. It is thus
important to understand their geology and take sustainable steps to conserve
them.

(Geography Model Answer) UPSC Mains - English Medium / Indian Geography

Theme : Climate
 Q5. The process of desertification does not have climatic
boundaries. Justify with examples. 2020
(Answer in 150 words) 10 marks

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The UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) defines desertification as
land degradation in arid, semi-arid, and dry sub-humid areas resulting from
various factors, including climatic variations and human activities. It

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encompasses far beyond the world’s deserts, defying climate boundaries.

CAUSES OF DESERTIFICATION -

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1. Climate Change - As the days get warmer and periods of drought become
more frequent, desertification becomes more and more eminent.
Changing rain patterns, frequent floods, and other such calamities are
degrading the vegetation of a particular area, thus, gradually leading to
desertification.
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2. Overgrazing - Animal grazing is a huge problem for many areas that are
starting to become desert biomes. If there are too many animals that are
overgrazing in certain spots, it makes it difficult for the plants to grow
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back, which hurts the biome and makes it lose its former green glory.

3. Farming Practices - Some farmers do not know how to use the land
effectively. They may essentially strip the land of everything that it has
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before moving on to another plot of land. By stripping the soil of its

nutrients, desertification becomes more of a reality for the area that is
being used for farming.
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4. Deforestation - When people are looking to move into an area, or they

need trees in order to make houses and do other tasks, then they are
contributing to the problems related to desertification. Without the plants
(especially the trees) around, the rest of the biome cannot thrive.
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5. Excessive use of Fertilizers and Pesticides - The use of excessive amounts

of fertilizers and pesticides to maximize their crop yields in the short term
often leads to significant damages for the soil. In the long run, this may
turn from arable into arid land over time, and it will no longer be suitable
for farming purposes.

(Geography Model Answer) UPSC Mains - English Medium / Indian Geography

Theme : Climate
 6. Urbanization and other types of Land Development - Development can
cause people to go through and kill plant life. It can also cause issues with
the soil due to chemicals and other things that may harm the ground. As
areas become more urbanized, there are fewer places for plants to grow,
thus causing desertification.

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7. Stripping the Land of Resources - If an area of land has natural resources

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like natural gas, oil, or minerals, people will come and mine it or take it
out. This usually strips the soil of nutrients, which in turn kills the plant
life, and eventually leads to the process of becoming a desert biome as

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time goes on.

DESERTIFICATION KNOWS NO CLIMATE BOUNDARIES -

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According to Food and Agricultural Organisation (FAO), desertification affects

about two-thirds of the countries of the world and one-third of the earth’s land
surface, on which approximately one billion people live.

(Geography Model Answer) UPSC Mains - English Medium / Indian Geography

Theme : Climate
 ● The impact of global warming and human activities like increased
logging, illegal farming and land clearing are presented in the Sahel.
All areas situated in the eastern part of Africa are characterized by a
dry climate, hot temperatures, and low rainfall.
A survey done by the Research Institute for Development, had
demonstrated that dryness is spreading fast in the Sahelian

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countries. 70% of the arid area has deteriorated and water resources
have disappeared, leading to soil degradation.

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● In the regions of Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan, which surround the
Aral Sea, overuse of water for irrigation has been one of the factors

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responsible for the shrinking of the sea, transforming it into a saline
desert.

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● Another major area that is being impacted by desertification is the
Gobi Desert. The Gobi Desert is the fastest expanding desert on
Earth, as it transforms over 3,600 square kms of grasslands into
wasteland annually.
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● In Mongolia, around 90% of grassland is considered vulnerable to
desertification by the UN. The Mongolia government listed forest
fires, blights, unsustainable forestry and mining activities and
particularly overgrazing as leading causes of desertification.
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● The effects of climate change, in the form of increased droughts and

forest fires, and over-farming are desertifying large parts of the
western and southwestern United States.
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● Fires and deforestation ravaging the Amazon rainforest in Brazil,

directly or indirectly related to livestock farming, are creating an
arid zone incapable of sustaining vegetation.
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While land degradation has occurred throughout history, the pace has
accelerated, reaching 30 to 35 times the historical rate, according to the
UN.
In fact, today two-thirds of the Earth is undergoing a process of
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desertification and, if no action is taken, 1.5 million km2 of agricultural

land, an area equivalent to the entire arable land of India, which is
essential for maintaining biodiversity and feeding the population, will be
lost by 2050.
According to the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification,
the lives of 250 million people are affected by desertification, and as many

(Geography Model Answer) UPSC Mains - English Medium / Indian Geography

Theme : Climate
 as 135 million people may be displaced by desertification by 2045, making
it one of the most severe environmental challenges facing humanity.

STEPS TO CONTROL THE EFFECTS OF DEVASTATING DESERTIFICATION -

1. Since desertification and global warming are closely related, one of

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the main solutions could be the implementation of effective
economic policies (such as carbon trading) and technical measures

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(such as carbon sequestration) that reduce the production of
greenhouse gases.

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2. The solution at the local level to curb desertification is sustainable
management of natural resources, especially the conservation of

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fertile soils and water resources.

3. Cover crops, which prevent soil erosion from wind and water. They
can also reduce the local effects of drought. On larger scales, plant
cover can help maintain normal rainfall patterns. Cover crops may
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be perennials or fast-growing annuals.

4. Buttressing the soil through the use of sand fences, shelter belts,
woodlots and windbreaks.
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5. Rotational grazing, which is the process of limiting the grazing

pressure of livestock in a given area. Livestock to be frequently
moved to new grazing areas before they cause permanent damage
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to the plants and soil of any one area.

6. Residue from pruned trees can be used to provide mulching for

fields thus increasing soil water retention and reducing evaporation.
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Desertification was identified as the greatest challenge to sustainable

development during the 1992 Rio Earth Summit. According to the UN, more than
24 billion tonnes of fertile soil disappear every year making desertification an
international concern.
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(Geography Model Answer) UPSC Mains - English Medium / Indian Geography

Theme : Climate
 Q6. Assess the impact of global warming on coral life system with
examples 2019
(Answer in 150 words) 10 marks

Corals are tiny animals called ‘polyps’, that mostly live in large colonies. They

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often protect their delicate bodies by using minerals from the seawater to build

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a limestone skeleton – known as a ‘calicle’. Colonies of polyps and their
limestone skeletons together form coral reefs.
The amazing thing about reefs is that polyps are clear and their skeletons are

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white. What gives them their brilliant colour are the billions of algae - called
‘zooxanthellae’ - that live within them, photosynthesising on the sun’s rays and
in turn, giving nutrients to the polyps.

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Importance of Coral Reefs -

● Although they occupy less than 0.1% of the ocean floor, coral reefs are
home to a quarter of all marine life, that’s more species than rainforests.
Animals use reefs for shelter, food and laying eggs.
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● They also support organisms at the base of ocean food chains
● Reefs are vital for people too. They protect coastlines by reducing the
impact of storms and waves, which can cause destruction and land
erosion.
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● Corals Reefs also provide food and livelihoods to many millions of people,
worth around £300 billion each year.

Impact of Global Warming on coral life systems -

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1. Bleaching - The leading cause of coral bleaching is climate change. A

warming planet means a warming ocean, and a change in water
temperature, can cause coral to drive out zooxanthellae algae. These algae
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live in a symbiotic relationship and thus their death also leads to the death
of corals. Coral may bleach for other reasons as well like extremely low
tides, pollution, or too much sunlight.
Ex - The series of mass coral bleaching events that killed vast areas of reef
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around the world, including half of the Great Barrier Reef of Australia.

2. Alteration in mineral composition of ocean - The ocean has become more

acidic over the past few decades because of increased levels of
atmospheric carbon dioxide, which dissolves in the water. Higher acidity
affects the balance of minerals in the water, which can make it more

(Geography Model Answer) UPSC Mains - English Medium / Indian Geography

Theme : Climate
 difficult for certain marine animals to build their protective skeleton or
shells.
EX - 80% of corals of Caribbean Island have been destroyed because of
this.

3. Increase in ocean acidity - Each year, the ocean absorbs about one-quarter

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of the carbon dioxide emitted from the burning of fossil fuels (oil, coal, and
natural gas). Increases in ocean acidity (measured by lower pH values)

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reduce the availability of dissolved salts and ions needed by corals to form
the calcium carbonate structure. Consequently, coral growth and reef
growth can be slowed.

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4. Change in storm patterns - Climate change which is triggered by global
warming leads to stronger and more frequent storms that can cause the

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destruction of coral reefs.

5. Solar irradiation - When maximum sunlight reach on the bed of the ocean,
it increase stress among the corals. It increase the rate of coral bleaching.
It also hamper on coral nutrients because excess solar radiation is made
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obstruction to produce sugar by the Zooxanthellae.

Way Forward -

1. Reducing global warming is the need of the hour. It is the leading cause of
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maximum destruction happening around the planet.

2. Global, comprehensive, and immediate action to reduce emissions of
greenhouse gases
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3. Control on deforestation, help businesses, consumers, and cities transition

to renewable energy and guide governments toward climate-smart
policies.
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Coral reef protection and restoration is central to the UN Decade on

Ecosystem Restoration (2021-2030) geared towards the restoration of
degraded and destroyed ecosystems to enhance food security, clean our
air quality, secure water supply, address the climate crisis and protect
habitats that support life on earth as we know it. UNEP has been
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promoting international cooperation and evidence to support the

protection, management and restoration of coral reefs, and related
ecosystems. Unhealthy reefs threaten not only the organisms that inhabit
them but also the livelihoods of the people who depend on them. Reefs
are the backbone of near-shore ecosystems around the world, providing a
home for thousands of species of fish. Thus their protection is of utmost

(Geography Model Answer) UPSC Mains - English Medium / Indian Geography

Theme : Climate
 importance because protecting the coral reefs, is protecting the ocean
ecosystem.

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(Geography Model Answer) UPSC Mains - English Medium / Indian Geography

Theme : Climate
 Q7. What are the consequences of spreading of 'Dead Zones' on
marine ecosystem? 2018
(Answer in 150 words) 10 marks

Dead zones are low-oxygen, or hypoxic, areas in the world’s oceans and lakes.
They are generally caused by significant nutrient pollution, and are primarily a

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problem for bays, lakes and coastal waters since they receive excess nutrients

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from upstream sources. A 2008 study found more than 400 dead zones
worldwide, including in South America, China, Japan, southeast Australia and
elsewhere.

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Causes -
1. Eutrophication happens when a body of water gets too many nutrients,
such as phosphorus and nitrogen. At normal levels, they feed the growth

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of cyanobacteria. But with too many nutrients, cyanobacteria grows out of
control, which can be harmful.
2. Anthropogenic activities like burning of fossil fuels. The largest dead zone
in the United States is in the Gulf of Mexico and occurs every summer as a
result of nutrient pollution from the Mississippi River Basin.
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3. Agricultural activities like run off of fertilizers to the water bodies

Consequences -
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1. The algal blooms in refduce dissolved oxygen in ocean waters, resulting in

loss of marine life.
2. Low oxygen levels in the water have led to reproductive problems for fish,
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leading to lack of spawning and low egg counts

3. They can also lead to the death of marine mammals and shore birds that
rely on the marine ecosystem for food. Slow-moving bottom-dwelling
creatures like clams, lobsters and oysters are unable to escape the dead
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zone and face extinction.

4. Algal blooms can affect human illness. Shellfish, such as oysters, are filter
feeders. As they filter water, they absorb microbes associated with algal
blooms. Many of these microbes are toxic to people. People may become
sick or even die from shellfish poisoning.
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5. When fast-moving marine species flee from the dead zones and occupy a
new habitat, they cause overcrowding of their new habitats

Dead zones in the coastal oceans have spread exponentially since the
1960s and have serious consequences for ecosystem functioning. But

(Geography Model Answer) UPSC Mains - English Medium / Indian Geography

Theme : Climate
 fortunately, dead zones are reversible if their causes are reduced or
eliminated. Like the dead zones of Black sea that disappeared in 1990s
after reduction in supply of chemical fertilizers, it can be used as a lesson
to reduce industrial emissions and control unsustainable and harming
agricultural activities.

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(Geography Model Answer) UPSC Mains - English Medium / Indian Geography

Theme : Climate
 Q8. How does the cryosphere affect global climate? 2017
(Answer in 150 words) 10 marks

According to the 5th Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on

Climate Change (IPCC), the cryosphere, comprising snow, river and lake ice, sea
ice, glaciers, ice shelves and ice sheets, and frozen ground, plays a major role in

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the Earth’s climate system through its impact on the surface energy budget, the

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water cycle, primary productivity, surface gas exchange and sea level and is a
fundamental control on the physical, biological and social environment over a
large part of the Earth’s surface. Cryosphere is a natural integrator of climate

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variability and provides one of the most visible signatures of climate change.

1. Albedo Effect - The cryosphere exerts an important influence on Earth’s

climate, owing to its high surface reflectivity (albedo). This property gives

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it the ability to reflect a large fraction of solar radiation back into space,
and influences how much solar energy is absorbed by land and oceans.

2. Albedo Feedback - As the climate changes, the cryosphere changes with it

and, through feedback processes, these changes have an influence on the
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climate. For example, the increased melting of snow and ice caused by a
warming planet enables more solar energy to be absorbed by land or
water, which in turn leads to more warming. This is also known as the
snow- or ice-albedo feedback.
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3. Sea level rise - Global sea levels are influenced by melting glaciers, ice
caps and ice sheets, and the rate of ice loss is related to increasing global
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temperatures. As temperatures continue to rise, and glaciers and ice

sheets experience mass loss of ice, and sea levels continue to rise, coastal
and island communities will be impacted by major flooding, and loss of
land, in addition to having negative impacts on ecosystems
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4. Greenhouse Gases from Permafrost - The overall rise in surface

temperatures triggers the retreat of subsurface ice, such as permafrost. As
permafrost thaws, substances, which were previously bound become free
and cause the release of greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide and
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methane into the atmosphere. The increase in greenhouse gas emission

fuels further global warming and thus further temperature rise, leading to
further snow and ice retreat, following the water-vapor feedback.

5. Due to cryosphere melting, large amount of cold fresh water empties into
the sea. It changes the salinity and temperature of the ocean, and affects

(Geography Model Answer) UPSC Mains - English Medium / Indian Geography

Theme : Climate
 the global thermohaline circulation and climate change. In addition,
cryosphere change has an important influence to the water resource and
ecosystem.

The continental ice sheets of Greenland and Antarctica undergo changes over
timescales of up to millennia, and influence their regional weather and climate.
Glaciers, with their much smaller volumes and areas, react to climate drivers at

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typical timescales of years to centuries. Lake and river ice, at an even smaller

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size, are good climate indicators at a seasonal timescale. Snow and sea ice are
both of small volumes but large areas, with high seasonal variability, and hence
interact strongly and rapidly with the atmosphere above, and with the ocean or
land surface below. On timescales of years to centuries, permafrost interacts

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with the global climate through the storage or release of large amounts of
methane. This reveals the impact cryosphere has on the global climate.
Understanding and monitoring the cryosphere is essential for predicting future
climate trends and implementing effective strategies to mitigate and adapt to

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climate change
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(Geography Model Answer) UPSC Mains - English Medium / Indian Geography

Theme : Climate
 Q9. Discuss the concept of air mass and explain its role in
macro-climatic changes.
2016 12.5 marks

An air mass is a large volume of air in the atmosphere that is mostly uniform in
temperature and moisture. Air masses can extend thousands of kilometers

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across the surface of Earth, and can reach from ground level to the stratosphere

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into the atmosphere.
There are four categories for air masses: arctic, tropical, polar and equatorial.
● Arctic air masses form in the Arctic region and are very cold.

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● Tropical air masses form in low-latitude areas and are moderately warm.
● Polar air masses take shape in high-latitude regions and are cold.
● Equatorial air masses develop near the Equator, and are warm.
Maritime air masses form over water and are humid. Continental air masses form

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over land and are dry.

Role in Macro Climatic Changes -

1. When winds move air masses, they carry their weather conditions (heat or
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cold, dry or moist) from the source region to a new region. When the air
mass reaches a new region, it might clash with another air mass that has a
different temperature and humidity. This can create a severe storm.
2. While dry in its source region, an air mass often picks up substantial
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moisture during an early-winter transit allowing it to dump so-called lake

effect snow on leeward coasts. Different air masses don’t easily merge
with one another; they clash uneasily in the atmospheric frontiers called
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fronts.
3. They are the cause of the persistent humidity typical of the big summer
season and at the same time supply the heavy mountain rain and snowfall
that nourish vast temperate rainforests and extensive alpine glaciers.
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4. The motion of air masses also affects where a good portion of

precipitation occurs. The air of cold air masses is more dense than warmer
air masses. Therefore, as these cold air masses move, the dense air
undercuts the warmer air masses, forcing the warm air up and over the
colder air and causing it to rise into the atmosphere.
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5. Air masses when pass through warm water or currents acquire their
moisture and cause rain in coastal regions.
6. When cold air mass pushes the warm air mass upwards a void is created
due to decrease in pressure. Air from surrounding area rushes to fill the
void and this leads to formation of a cyclone.

(Geography Model Answer) UPSC Mains - English Medium / Indian Geography

Theme : Climate
 7. They also have a deep impact on their areas of influence. For example, the
Western European type of climate is fully developed by subtropical Marine
Air masses.

Air masses form over large surfaces with uniform temperatures and humidity,
called source regions. Low wind speeds let air remain stationary long enough to

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take on the features of the source region, such as heat or cold. When winds
move air masses, they carry their weather conditions (heat or cold, dry or moist)

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from the source region to a new region thus affecting the weather and climate
at a macro level.

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(Geography Model Answer) UPSC Mains - English Medium / Indian Geography

Theme : Climate
 Q10. Explain the factors responsible for the origin of ocean currents.
How do they influence regional climates, fishing and navigation?
2015 12.5 marks

Ocean currents are the continuous, directional movement of seawater driven by

gravity, wind (Coriolis Effect), and water density. Ocean water moves in two

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directions: horizontally and vertically. Horizontal movements are referred to as

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currents, while vertical changes are called upwellings or downwellings.

Ocean currents are basically influenced by two forces :

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1. Primary Forces that initiate water movement
2. Secondary forces that influence the flow of current.

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1. Temperature - Warm water is less dense than cold water, so it tends to rise
to the surface. This creates surface currents that move warm water away
from the equator and towards the poles. Cold water, on the other hand, is
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more dense than warm water and tends to sink. This creates deep ocean
currents that move cold water toward the equator. Ex : Labrador Current

2. Salinity & Density - When water evaporates, it leaves behind salt, which
increases the salinity of the water. This increases the water’s density,
affecting vertical mobility of ocean currents causing it to sink and creating

(Geography Model Answer) UPSC Mains - English Medium / Indian Geography

Theme : Climate
 deep ocean currents. Ex : current flowing from the Atlantic Ocean to the
Mediterranean Sea via Gibraltar Strait is caused due to heavy salinity.

3. Rainfall - The currents in the northern portion of the Indian Ocean change
their direction from season to season in response to the seasonal rhythm
of the monsoons.

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4. Atmospheric Pressure and Planetary Winds - Areas of high atmospheric

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pressure are characterized by a low volume of water and vice versa. Thus,
water moves as surface current from the areas of higher water level
(low-pressure areas) to low water level areas (high-pressure areas).

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Planetary winds such as trade winds, westerlies, polar winds also play a
major role in the origin of ocean currents. They are responsible for both
magnitude and direction of currents. Wind blowing on the water surface

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also moves water in its direction due to friction.
Ex ; Equatorial currents flow westward due to influence of North East and
South West Trade winds.

5. Coriolis Force - This force intervenes and causes the water to move to the
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right in the Northern Hemisphere (clockwise) and to the left in the
Southern Hemisphere (anti-clockwise). This effect generates circular
patterns and the flow around them are called Gyres.. One such circular
current is the Sargasso Sea.
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6. Seamount - They have a big effect on the deep-sea environment. They

accelerate ocean currents, generate waves and increase upwelling,
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7. Coastal Regions - The shape of the coastline can affect the movement of
ocean currents by creating barriers and channels that alter their direction
and speed. Equatorial current gets obstructed by the Brazilian coast,
bifurcating into 2 branches and then moving along the coast.
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Role of Ocean Currents -

1. Regional Climate -
● Ocean currents act much like a conveyer belt, transporting warm
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water and precipitation from the equator toward the poles and cold
water from the poles back to the tropics. Thus, currents regulate
climate, helping to counteract the uneven distribution of solar
radiation reaching Earth’s surface. Without currents, regional
temperatures would be more extreme, super hot at the equator and

(Geography Model Answer) UPSC Mains - English Medium / Indian Geography

Theme : Climate
 frigid toward the poles, and much less of Earth’s land would be
habitable.
● Warm ocean currents bring rain to coastal areas and even interiors.
Example: Summer Rainfall in British Type climate.
● North Atlantic Drift brings warmness to England. Canary cold
current brings cooling effect to Spain, Portugal etc

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2. Fishing Industry -
● Regions where warm and cold ocean currents meet are rich fishing

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grounds. Like meeting of Labrador current with Gulf stream off the
coast of Newfoundland.
Ex : Grand Bank near the North American coast in the Atlantic
Ocean and Dogger Bank near the European coast.

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● Upwelling is the process by which deep, nutrient-rich water is
brought to the surface. It provides an abundance of nutrients for
marine life. Areas of upwelling, such as the coasts of Peru and West
Africa, are known for their rich fishing grounds.
● Ocean currents also influence the migration pattern of fish by
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impacting their timing and location. This creates retrograde ties in
the fishing industry.

3. Navigation -
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● The ocean currents help in the navigation because a current has its
own momentum which helps the ships to move along with the
current thus consuming less fuel to provide the thrust.
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● Place where the warm current and cold current meet develops
dense fog and reduced visibility, thus making it difficult for
navigation.
● Warm currents help navigation by melting the dangerous icebergs.
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The ocean plays a fundamental role in shaping the climatic zones we see on land
which ultimately affect the economies of the world. Even areas hundreds of
miles away from a coastline are still largely influenced by global ocean currents.
Continuous studies and monitoring of these forces can lead to better
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management and protection for future generations.

(Geography Model Answer) UPSC Mains - English Medium / Indian Geography

Theme : Climate
 Q11. Tropical cyclones are largely confined to South China Sea, Bay of
Bengal and Gulf of Mexico. Why? 2014
(Answer in 150 words) 10 marks

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A tropical cyclone is a warm-core low pressure system, without any "front"

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attached, that develops over the tropical or subtropical waters and has an
organized circulation. It is a rapid rotating storm originating over tropical oceans
from where it draws the energy to develop. It has a low pressure centre and

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clouds spiraling towards the eyewall surrounding the "eye", the central part of
the system where the weather is normally calm and free of clouds. Its diameter
is typically around 200 to 500 km, but can reach 1000 km.
A tropical cyclone brings very violent winds, torrential rain, high waves and, in

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some cases, very destructive storm surges and coastal flooding. The winds blow
counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern
Hemisphere.

In the Gulf of Mexico they are called “hurricanes”

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In Bay of Bengal and Arabian sea they are referred as “cyclones”
The tropical cyclones of China Sea are called “typhoons”

Reasons behind their confinement in Gulf of Mexico, South China Sea and Bay of
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Bengal -

1. The South China Sea, Bay of Bengal and Gulf of Mexico all fall in the
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Tropical zone, thus, increasing their suitability for the formation of tropical
cyclones.
2. Warm oceans with surface temperatures of 26°C or higher provide the fuel
for tropical cyclones. Since sea surface temperatures in the tropics have
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risen on average about 0.5°C over the last decades, these areas allow the
system of formation of cyclones to strengthen.
3. The geography of the South China Sea, Bay of Bengal, and Gulf of Mexico
contributes to their susceptibility to tropical cyclones. The warm waters
and relatively flat coastal areas provide an environment where cyclones
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can form and move over vast expanses of water without significant land
barriers to weaken them.
4. The three landforms are relatively shallow. Their larger surface area allows
faster heating causing higher evaporation. Faster evaporation forms a
high-pressure zone in the area causing instability in the region. All these
factors make it suitable for cyclone formation.

(Geography Model Answer) UPSC Mains - English Medium / Indian Geography

Theme : Climate
 5. The changes of sea surface temperature and tropospheric winds during an
El Niño lead to alterations in the frequency of tropical cyclones. The El
Niño phase, for example, tends to suppress cyclone activity in the Pacific
Ocean but can enhance it in the Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico.
6. The South China Sea and the Bay of Bengal are influenced by the Asian
monsoon systems. These seasonal wind patterns, combined with the

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warm waters, create favourable conditions for cyclone formation during
certain times of the year.

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Tropical cyclones occur in various parts of the Pacific Ocean, affecting coastal
regions of Mexico, southeast Asia, northeast Australia and the south Pacific

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islands. Those that form in the Indian Ocean can affect India, Bangladesh,
northwest Australia, some parts of east Africa and Indian Ocean islands such as
Mauritius and Madagascar. However, the South China Sea, Bay of Bengal, and

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Gulf of Mexico experience a higher frequency of tropical cyclone activity due to
the combination of favorable environmental conditions and geographical factors
as mentioned above in those regions.
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(Geography Model Answer) UPSC Mains - English Medium / Indian Geography

Theme : Climate
 Q12. The recent cyclone on the east coast of India was called
"Phailin". How are the tropical cyclones named across the world?
2013
(Answer in 100 words) 5 marks

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Tropical cyclones are named by various warning centers to simplify
communication between forecasters and the general public regarding forecasts,

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watches and warnings.
At present, tropical cyclones are officially named by one of eleven warning
centers and retain their names throughout their lifetimes to facilitate the

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effective communication of forecasts and storm-related hazards to the general
public. This is especially important when multiple storms are occurring
simultaneously in the same ocean basin.

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1. In general, tropical cyclones are named according to the rules at regional
level. In the Atlantic and in the Southern hemisphere (Indian ocean and
South Pacific), tropical cyclones receive names in alphabetical order, and
women and men's names are alternated.
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2. The common rule is that the name list is proposed by the National
Meteorological and Hydrological Services of WMO Members of a specific
region, and approved by the respective tropical cyclone regional bodies at
their annual/biennual sessions.
3. Cyclones that form in every ocean basin across the world are named by
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the regional specialised meteorological centres and Tropical Cyclone

Warning Centres. There are six RSMCs in the world, including the Indian
Meteorological Department (IMD), and five TCWCs.
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4. In 2000, a group of nations called WMO/ESCAP (World Meteorological

Organisation/United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia
and the Pacific), which comprised Bangladesh, India, the Maldives,
Myanmar, Oman, Pakistan, Sri Lanka and Thailand, decided to start
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naming cyclones in the region. After each country sent in suggestions, the
WMO/ESCAP Panel on Tropical Cyclones (PTC) finalised the list.
Later on, in 2018 five more countries were added, Iran, Qatar, Saudi Arabia,
United Arab Emirates and Yemen.
5. The only time that there is a change in the list is if a storm is so deadly or
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costly that the future use of its name on a different storm would be
inappropriate for reasons of sensitivity. If that occurs, then at an annual
meeting by the WMO Tropical Cyclone Committees the offending name is
stricken from the list and another name is selected to replace it. Infamous
storm names such as Mangkhut (Philippines, 2018), Sandy (USA, 2012),
Katrina (USA, 2005) are examples for this

(Geography Model Answer) UPSC Mains - English Medium / Indian Geography

Theme : Climate
 Q13. Bring out the causes for the formation of heat islands in the
urban habitat of the world. 2013
(Answer in 100 words) 5 marks

An urban heat island is an urban area that is significantly warmer than its
surrounding rural areas due to human activities. The temperature difference is

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usually larger at night than during the day, and is most apparent when winds are

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weak. A study has shown that heat islands can be affected by proximity to
different types of land cover, so that proximity to barren land causes urban land
to become hotter and proximity to vegetation makes it cooler. Waste heat

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generated by energy usage is a secondary contributor.

Causes behind the formation of urban heat islands -

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1. Low Albedo Materials - Albedo is the ratio of the reflected solar energy to
the incident solar energy. it has a direct impact on the formation of the
microclimate. The albedo of a city varies according to various factors like
the surface arrangement, heterogeneity, materials for roofs, pavements,
etc. If the albedo of the urban surface is low, it will store more solar
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energy, and the effect will be an increase of urban temperature.

2. Paved and Impermeable Surface - Paved over surfaces, such as roads and
parking lots, can absorb solar radiation as heat, and these surfaces are
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typically impermeable, which means that water runoff is redirected to the

stormwater system rather than being absorbed by plants or water bodies
that help cool the area through evapotranspiration and evaporation.
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3. Thermal Mass - Buildings contain a lot of thermal mass, which means they
store a lot of heat during the day and are slow to release the heat
overnight
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4. Dark Surfaces - Dark roofs absorb more energy into the building as heat
and blacktop absorbs the sun rays just as well. Neither surface reflects
much solar radiation, so they get hotter than lighter-colored surfaces.
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5. Loss of Vegetation - Plants and trees provide shade and cool the air
through evapotranspiration. But areas that are dominated by paved
surfaces have little room for green space. Forests are wiped out on a
massive scale to meet the demand of various urban facilities. Lesser trees
mean less cooling efficiency.

(Geography Model Answer) UPSC Mains - English Medium / Indian Geography

Theme : Climate
 6. Wind Blocking - Due to the presence of densely situated buildings, the
velocity of wind is reduced, and it lessens the cooling effect by convection.
So, the trapped heat intensifies the effect.

7. Climate Change - The more extreme heatwaves in urban areas are a factor
that contributes to urban heat island formation. Urban heat islands also

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exacerbate the changes in the climate, so the problem feeds on itself.

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Formation of urban heat islands affect communities by increasing summertime
peak energy demand, air conditioning costs, air pollution and greenhouse gas
emissions, heat-related illness and mortality, and water quality. Use of

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light-colored concrete and white roofs, green roofing, planting more trees in
urban areas, creating green infrastructure might reduce the effects of this issue.
The state implementation of environmental policies such as the Clean Air Act,

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Low carbon fuel standards, uses of renewable energy, and clean car rule
standards can impressively regulate the anthropogenic inducers of urban heat
island effect. Education and outreach can also be done to ensure communities
are aware of the economic and social benefits of planting trees and eco-roofing.
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(Geography Model Answer) UPSC Mains - English Medium / Indian Geography

Theme : Climate
 Q14. What do you understand by the phenomenon of temperature
inversion in meteorology? How does it affect the weather and the
habitants of the place? 2013
(Answer in 100 words) 5 marks

Temperature inversion, is a reversal of the normal behaviour of temperature in

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the troposphere, in which a layer of cool air at the surface is overlain by a layer of

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warmer air. Under normal conditions, the temperature usually decreases with an
increase in altitude in the troposphere at a rate of 1 degree for every 165 meters.
This is called normal lapse rate, But on some occasions, the situations get

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reversed and the temperature starts increasing with height rather than
decreasing.

Effects on the weather -

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Inversions play an important role in determining cloud forms, precipitation, and
visibility. An inversion acts as a cap on the upward movement of air from the
layers below. As a result, convection produced by the heating of air from below
is limited to levels below the inversion.
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1. Visibility - Cooler air gets trapped within a layer of warmer air, and the
moisture condenses and forms clouds called smog. But since these clouds
cannot escape the level of inversion, they cause poor visibility in that
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region.

2. Rainfall - Regions where a pronounced low-level inversion is present,

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convective clouds cannot grow high enough to produce showers

3. Diurnal variations - Temperature inversion also affects the usual

fluctuations in temperature throughout the day. Typically, the sun’s
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radiation heats the ground during the day. The heat energy transfers to
the air above the ground through convection and conduction. Due to the
accumulation of cool air in temperature-inverted areas, the heat transfer is
minimal, and diurnal temperature variation is slight.
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4. Thunderstorms and tornados - Inversions also cause intense

thunderstorms and tornadoes because of the energy trapped high up in
the atmosphere.

Effects on Habitants -

(Geography Model Answer) UPSC Mains - English Medium / Indian Geography

Theme : Climate
 1. Temperature inversions stop atmospheric convection from happening in
the affected area and can lead to high concentrations of atmospheric
pollutants. Cities especially suffer from the effects of temperature
inversions because they both produce more atmospheric pollutants and
have higher thermal masses than rural areas, resulting in more frequent

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inversions with higher concentrations of pollutants
2. Hilly or mountainous areas form an additional barrier to air circulation

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thus face more pronounced effects
3. Because the clouds cannot get high enough, there is no rain. This has
adverse effects on the agriculture industry. The winter crops like wheat,

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barley, mustard, vegetables, chilies, potato, etc. are seriously damaged.
4. Low visibility due to the accumulation of dust and smoke particles and
foggy conditions increases the frequency of roads, railways, and air

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accidents. Trains and flights are often delayed.

The phenomenon of temperature inversion affects the climate of the areas as

well as has economic implications. Along with it it has severe impacts on air
pollution. The 1952 “Great London Smog” ir the 2013 “Beijing Smog”, temperature
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inversions have a profound effect on our air quality, especially in today's urban
environment. While these weather phenomena are natural, unavoidable
occurrences, understanding temperature inversions helps clarify the cause of air
pollution episodes and reveals just how closely air quality and weather are
linked.
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(Geography Model Answer) UPSC Mains - English Medium / Indian Geography

Theme : Climate
 Q15. Major hot deserts in northern hemisphere are located
between 20-30 degree north and on the western side of the
continents. Why? 2013

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A desert is a barren area of landscape where little precipitation occurs..

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As experts say, desert is an area of land that receives no more than 25
centimeters (10 inches) of precipitation a year. The amount of evaporation in a
desert often greatly exceeds the annual rainfall.
Deserts cover about one-fifth of Earth’s land area.

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The world’s deserts can be divided into five types—subtropical, coastal, rain
shadow, interior, and polar. Deserts are divided into these types according to the
causes of their dryness.
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Reasons why Deserts in northern hemisphere are located between 20-30 degree
north and on the western side of the continents -

(Geography Model Answer) UPSC Mains - English Medium / Indian Geography

Theme : Climate
 1. Circulation pattern of air masses - Hot, moist air rises into the atmosphere
near the Equator. As the air rises, it cools and drops its moisture as heavy
tropical rains. The resulting cooler, drier air mass moves away from the
Equator. As it approaches the tropics, the air descends and warms up
again. The descending air hinders the formation of clouds, so very little
rain falls on the land below.

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Ex - Subtropical deserts such as Sahara.

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2. Anti Cyclonic conditions - Presence of anti-cyclonic conditions between
20–30 degree latitudes on western margins of continents. It is the region
of descending air where air gets compressed and warm as it descends.

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This decreases its capacity to hold moisture.

3. Rain Shadow Area - The leeward slopes of mountain ranges face away

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from prevailing winds. When moisture-laden air hits a mountain range, it
is forced to rise. The air then cools and forms clouds that drop moisture on
the windward slopes. When the air moves over the mountain top and
begins to descend the leeward slopes, there is little moisture left. The
descending air warms up, making it difficult for clouds to form.
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4. Cold Ocean currents - On the western coasts, the presence of cold
currents gives rise to mists and fogs by chilling the on-coming air. This air
is later warmed by contact with the hot land, and little rain falls. The
desiccating effect of the cold Peruvian Current along the Chilean coast is
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so pronounced that the mean annual rainfall for the Atacama Desert is not
more than 1.3 cm.
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Thus, major hot deserts in the northern hemisphere such as Thar desert,
Rajasthan, Sahara desert in Africa, Great Basin desert in North America,
Arabian desert in Arabian Peninsula are all located between 20-30 degree
north and on the western side of the continents.
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(Geography Model Answer) UPSC Mains - English Medium / Indian Geography

Theme : Climate