LIT 101

INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE AND LITERARY APPRECIATION

Introduction to Literature in English

Literature is concerned with expression and communication of feelings, thought and attitude towards life. This arises
from the inborn tendency to tell stories or present ideas in scintillating manners. It is a project or visitation of life. It
can also aptly be described as oral or written works which are of artistic value. When is based on particular race or
tribe or presented in particular language, we say the imaginative composition is a literature of that race or tribe e.g.
English literatures is the literature of the English people as in Hausa literature, Yoruba literature etc. but literature in
English could be the literature of the white Hausa Yoruba Igbo etc written in English.

Genres of Literature

1. Prose

2. Poetry

3. Drama

PROSE
The term 'prose' is derived from the Latin word, 'Prorsus' which means 'straight on', 'continuous' or 'forward'.
It is, as a consequence, a piece of writing which goes straight on and continues to the very end. The prose genre
of literature is distinguished by its use of a greater amount of words and sentence structures, greater variety of
rhythm as well as its closeness to the patterns of ordinary speech. Generally, prose is made up of fictive and non-
fictive works.

Kinds of Prose: The Non-Fictive Category the Biography

Biographies refer to the non-fictive presentation of the life history of a person in which some effort is made to
interpret facts relating to the person's experience(s) in order to render a unified view regarding the character, mind,
attitude, and personality of the subject in question. Examples include Chief Sam Mbakwe: A Great Son of
Achievement and Courage (1991) by Okechukwu Okebedi and Chinua Achebe: A Biography (1991) by Ezenwa-
Ohaeto, etc.

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The Autobiography
This is also a non-fictive prose. It is the story of someone's life by the person who lived it. Because the autobiography
is written while the subject is still alive., it is not possible to cover all of the person's life. Examples are Wole
Soyinka's The Man Died (1972) orhisAke: Years of Childhood (1981) and Barack Obama's Audacity of Hope
(2006), etc.

The Memoir
Another non-fictive prose genre is the memoir. Very close to the autobiography, it is different from it in the sense
that the memoir is often the recollections of important people who have been part of a major event or have
observed it more or less as participants. An example is Olusegun Obasanjo's My Command (1980), a personal
recollection of his war-time activities as a garrison commander, and General Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu's
deputy during the Nigerian Civil war, Philip Effiong's Nigeria and Biajra: My Story (2004).
The Letter

This refers to correspondences between person; or an institution. Oftentimes, letters of this type are used in non-fiction
to reconstruct the past, access the essence of certain events and relationships such as love or hate or may be fictively,
as in the epistolary novel, to advance the plot of the story. Almost all important nineteenth century and twentieth
century European and American writers had letters which were often published after their deaths. Letters as a
medium of fiction can be found in So Long a Letter (1982) by Manama Ba, and Isore Okpeho’s Tides (1993) etc.

The Essay

The essay is a short prose composition which makes it possible for a writer (called the ‘essayist’) to express
himself/herself on a singular unified subject or issue. The most popular of literary essay is Alexander Pope's "An Essay
on Criticism" (1711) and “An Essay on man (1973)though written in verse rather man in prose. Popular essays in prose
fc The Basis of African Socialism" (1968), Alan Paton’s “Hate in the Beloved Country” (1976), etc.

The Journal

A 'journal, as it is known, today refers to an occasional publication on current research findings or news in a particular
area of study. This is usually run by university department and faculties in which writings related to what academics in
those departments and faculties have recently found out in their various research efforts are published. Examples are
Abia Journal of Humanities and Social Science published by Abia state university, Uturu or Ibadan Humanities
studies by the University of Ibadan. However, in literary studies—which is our concern here-a journal is an aspect of
autobiographical writing which differs from the letter because it is a record of a day-to-day account of person’s
activities as well as his/her impressions about them. A notable journal is the Grasmere Journals (1800-1802) of
Dorothy Wordsworth, William Wordsworth's younger sister, who kept detailed information on the development of a
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literary age known as Romanticism, one of whose initiators was her brother, William.

Criticism

This is also a non-fictive genre of prose. It is similar to the essay except that piece of criticism may evaluate and
pass judgment on literary works in an objective manner. Example is 21st Century Nigerian Literature: An
Introductory Text (2009) by Onukaogu and Onyerionwu.

Kinds of Prose: The Fictive Category

The Short Story

It is a small world of the novel. The novel will normally have many characters but short story has just few
characters whose actions centre around a single characters whose actions centre around a single event and would
still enjoy a sense of completeness. Examples are Ngugiwa Thiongo's "The Lives (l 975) and Nwachukwu-
Agbada's "The Small Di Stories (1997).

Novella

The novella is neither a full novel nor a short story but shorter than a novel.. An example is The secret Sharer (1917) by
Joseph Conrad.Us
The Letter
This refers to correspondences between persons of note and or a person and institutions. Oftei letters of this type are
used in non-fiction to reconstruct the past, access the essence of certain and relationships such as love or hate or may
be used fictively, as in the epistolary novel, to advance plot of the story. Almost ail important nineteenth century and
twentieth century European and An writers had letters which were often published after their death. Letters as a
medium of fiction found in So Long a Letter (1982) by Mariama Ba, and Isidore Okpewho's Tides (1993), etc.

The Essay
The essay is a short prose composition which makes it possible for a writer (called the 'essay express
himself/herself on a singular unified subject or issue. The most popular of literary es Alexander Pope's "An Essay
on Criticism" (1711), and "An Essay on Man" (1733), though wright verse rather than in prose. Popular essays in
prose by modem Africans include Julius Nyerere's "1 The Basis of African Socialism" (1968), Alan Paton's "Hate in
the Beloved Country" (1976), et

The Journal
A 'journal', as it is known, today refers to an occasional publication on current research findings c in a particular area of
study. This is usually run by university departments and faculties in which w related to what academics in those

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departments and faculties have recently .found out in their ^ research efforts are published. Examples are Abia
Journal of Humanities and Social Science by Abia State University, Uturu or Ibadan Humanities Studies by the
University of Ibadan. He in literary studies-which is our concern here-a journal is an aspect of autobiographical
writing differs from the letter because it is a record of a day-to-day account of a person's activities as his/her
impressions about them. A notable journal is the Grasmere Journals (1800-1802) of E Wordsworth, William
Wordsworth's younger sister, who kept detailed information on the development of a literary age known as
Romanticism, one of whose initiators was her brother, William.

Criticism
This is also a non-fictive genre of prose. It is similar to the essay except that a piece of criticism evaluate and pass
judgement on literary works in an objective manner. An example is 21st C Nigerian Literature: An Introductory
Text (2009) by Onukaogu and Onyerionwu.

KINDS OF PROSE: THE FICTION CATEGORY

The Short Story

It is a small world of the novel. The novel will normally have many characters but a short story just a few
characters whose actions centre around a single event and would still enjoy a se completeness. Examples are
Ngugiwa Thiongo's "The Return" in his short story collection, Lives(\975) and Nwachukwu-Agbada's "The Small
Dirty Pillow" found in his Love Strokes one Stories (1997).

Novella
The novella is neither a full novel nor a short story. It is longer than a short story but shorter novel. An example is
The Secret Sharer (1917) by Joseph Conrad.

Novel
The novel is a long fictive work peopled by imaginary characters in which events are artistically presented in a
continuous piece of writing as if they actually took place. Novels contain at least thirty-five thousand words.
Examples are The Stillborn (1984) by Zaynab Alkali and Femi Ademiluyi's The New Man (1994).

Fable
It is a narrative which possesses the twin attributes of straight and surface meaning (denotation) and deeper and
metaphorical meaning (connotation). It is keen to point out a moral truth in a civilized, inoffensive manner.
Characters hi fables are usually animals which are meant to talk and dialogue among themselves as if they were
human beings. Examples are George Orwell's Animal Farm (1945) and Tess Onwueme's The Desert Encroaches
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(1985), etc.

Allegory
An allegory and a fable share a common border except that while a fable is often peopled by animal characters, the
allegory is filled with figures which represent such ideas as malice, faithfulness, cruelty, envy, despair., contentment,
pride, love, etc. An easy example is Pilgrim's Progress (1678) by John Bunyan. Allegory is also a convention of
prose fiction. The characters and the events depicted in the work represent certain qualities or ideas related to
different spheres of human activity like politics, religion and morality.

Romance
'Romance' in literature has no real connection with the modern-day use of the word to depict a love or amorous
relationship between a man and woman. The term in literature refers to a fanciful tale whose setting, characters,
incidents, etc, are out of this world, as it is said in popular parlance. Characters perform actions which are
ordinarily impossible to achieve by human beings. A typical romance shocks or delights its readers for purposes
largely of entertainment. An example of romance is Sir Gawain and the Green Knight published in the 14th century
by King Arthur. Those who question Amos Tutuola's The Palm-wine Drunkard (1952) as a novel claim that its
features accord well with the romance tradition of writing.

Parable
Quite close to a fable except that it is shorter. A parable is meant to be used to depict a moral truth or lesson. The
Christian Bible has many examples of parables. Examples include "The Good Samaritan", "The Sower", "The
Prodigal Son", etc. Modern parables include the African short stories, "Parable of the Eagle" (1929) by James
E.K. Aggrey and "The Man Who Shared His Hut" (1962) by Jomo Kenyatta.

Faction
This is a rather curious and emerging prose genre in which both 'fact' and 'fiction' reside in the same story.
Examples are Kole Omotoso's Just Before Dawn (1988) and John Munonye's A Kind of Fool (1999). In other
words, a piece of 'faction' is neither entirely fiction nor entirely factual.
Bildungsroman

It is a novel that dwells on the growth and development from childhood to maturity or from innocence to experience.
Chimamanda Adichie’s Purple Hibiscus is a good example

Historical Novel

This is a novel that makes use of real historical events(s) in its plot development. In this novel, real historical

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 personages in such events are retained or replace by fictional characters. The spatial and temporal settings may also
be retained or partially or fully fictionalized. An example is Charles Dicken’s A Tale of Two Cities.

Gothic Novel
This is a novel dominated by elements of terror, horror and the supernatural, which engenders fears in all, age
notwithstanding. The horror film is a good example of its electronic form.

Meta-Fiction

It is a fiction or novel that explores the processes of novel writing itself, a fiction about fiction. A recent example is
Barbara Adair's End.

ELEMENTS OF PROSE FICTION STORY/SUBJECT MATTER

Every work of art, which is classified as prose, must have a story that tells or a subject matter that it revolves around,
which is the kernel of the work that is presented to the reader to interpret or decipher. The story consists of those major
events/or incident in the work which help in facilitating a concise summary of the work of art.

Plot

The plot of a work of prose refers to the way and manner in which the event or incident narrated in the work are
arranged. There are two types of plot structure which a writer can use in the presentation of the story. The first type
of plot structure is called the linear or chronological or organic plot structure. Thus the plot of a story is the 'what' of
the story. It is the story line; the rendering of event in a story from beginning to end. A writer can choose to
maximize the ordering of his storyline to achieve some special emotional or historical effect as the case may be. The
plot consists basically of action/stimulus action, the conflict, climax, and then the resolution. In common parlance, we
will say that the story has beginning, middle and an ending.

Linear/Chronological/Organic Plot

In a narration with a linear, chronological or organic beginning and there is a gradual movement in chronological or
organic plot structure, the story commence from the beginning and there is gradual movement in chronological order at the end
of the story being narrated. Thus, every work of art with a linear plot structure will have the beginning, a middle and end,
which give it form. At the beginning, the reader gets to know some of the principal characters and the problem which need
to be resolved. In the middle, the storyline an attempt is made to sustain the reader’s interest with only the relevant fact
while the ending provides the resolution of the problem. The ending may not satisfy the reader. However, it would be such

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that would be able to make the reader ruminate about life in its different facets.

Inorganic or Episodic Plot

In writing a work of art, the writer may decide to write in a non-chronological order. For instance in many detective
novels, or short stories, the narration often starts when a crime has been committed, which thereafter necessitates the
involvement of a detective to solve. In such novels, the order of narration does not follow a chronological order or
pattern. An illustration of what we mean by a c or non-chronological order of narration is 'appropriate' at this stage.
A story could revolved young man doing his National Youth Service in Abeokuta, Ogun State. One fateful day, hi; a
driver from Ibadan to pick him up from Abeokuta. Instead of taking the normal Abe route that culminates in an
entrance into Ibadan at Omi-Adio, the young man persuades join the Lagos-Ibadan expressway from the wrong side
and about forty-five minutes late: themselves in Lagos. What we have above-the story line-follows the chronological
or lii of narration. However, the writer can alter the narrative sequence and begin the story of where the driver and
the young man find themselves in Lagos and then move the story the of flashback technique as one of the characters
recounts his experiences on that fateful c example of non-chronological plot structures, which are not usually tightly
knitted together of scenario, parts of the story can be removed completely and the story being recounted understood
by the reader. Plot development involves the use of conflict and characters to move it forward,
Plot Organization
Exposition: This is the introductory stage when the major characters and events are exposed or presenter to the reader.

Complication: This is the stage when the events, situations and occurrences in the work become more
complicated. New characters and incidents are introduced, which help in making the complex. It is the beginning
of rising action.

Climax: This is the stage when the greatest crisis or problem in the work occurs.

Anti-Climax: At this point in the narration of a story, the issues which have engendered a crisis are not as potent as
before and there is a lessening of the heightened action.

Resolution: This is the stage when the different issues raised in the course of the narration are resolved

Tools for Plot Development

Suspense: This entails the deliberate withholding of information by the writer in an attempt to heighten and sustain
the reader's interest in the story. Information which is germane to the r conflict is not revealed by the writer and
this helps in making the plot structure me mysterious.

Foreshadowing or Prefiguration'. Prefiguration occurs in a work of art when the write] events which predict other
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events that would occur as the story develops. Usually, the 1 minor and might not even be noticed by a reader.
However, the minor event would provide inkling as to the reasons why a more major event occurs.
Prefiguration might be through a character having a premonition of an event that would happen Ia1 might have a
dream and the dream would, in the course of the development or if the be a forewarning of a later event. There
are times when the writer will use an ominous as a means of foreshadowing an event that would occur in future.
Digression: In developing the plot of a work of art, the writer might digress from the main creating a story within a
story, which is known as digression. In such an instance, the flashback through which the characters bring to the
present events from the past, becomes very effective.

Character
Every work of prose must have a character or characters whose actions, inactions and inter in facilitating the
development of the storyline. They act out the events recounted by the characters can represent human beings,
inanimate objects, animals, etc.

Types of Characters
Hero/Heroine/Protagonist: The protagonist of the story is also the central or major character. He is the person
around whom the storyline revolves. His or her interaction with other characters help the character to have an
understanding of what the story entails.

Antihero/Antiheroine/Antagonist: This is the character whose actions are geared towards u the protagonist of the
story. The antagonist does the exact opposite of what the protagonist of the time, he or she embodies evil qualities.

Eponymous Character: This is a major character whose name is also the source of the title of the narrative,
e.g. Tess of the D' Universities by Thomas Hardy or Efuru by Flora Nwapa.

Flat Character: The fiat character is unreceptive to radical personality change and it is relatively for the reader to
predict his or her action.

Round Character: The round character, who is also called the dynamic character, possesses the quality of
unpredictability or an ability to change, to turn from evil to good and vice-versa. The description of a round character
is usually very detailed and in-depth in an attempt by the writer to present a full picture his or her personality.

Characterization
In creating characters, writers are expected to have an in-depth knowledge of their creation. Some authorities in
the literary sphere have described the creative writer as a god who possesses to kill, maim or bestow happiness,
wealth and long life on the characters, provided he or she is logical in the way this is done. When a writer has

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created a character, there are different methods through which the writer has presented the characters and which
assist the reader to have a good und of the personality of each figure. One of the methods of making characters
come to life in the mind of the reader is through the provision of a physical description of the character. A writer
may also provide information about the character through his or her way of speaking, mannerism and walking
mannerism and how the interacts with people. With this dramatic method of providing information, the reader
decides the kind of personality the character has. A writer can also use one character to provide information about
another character. Therefore, characterization can be defined as the reader's understanding of the personality of each
character as gleaned from the character's physical description and actions from comments provided by other characters
and by the narrator of the events begin recounted.

Techniques of Characterization
There are different techniques which can be employed by the writer to facilitate the process of
characterization. The three basic approaches are naming, showing or telling.
Naming: This is a simple method by which the name of the character gives the reader an inkling of his or her
personality, physique, qualities, etc. The name, which might be allegorical or descriptive serve as a basis for a graphic
re-creation of who the character is in the mind of the reader. The name can also be allusions to names of prominent
historical personalities, through whom the reader is expected to have an 'idea' of the personality of the character.

Showing; this technique of characterization involves the use of action. It is dramatic and through the things that
the character talks about or the way he or she talks, walks or acts, the reader is able to decipher his or her personality.

Telling: This method comes to the fore when the author, narrator or a character, provide information about a
particular character. Most often, this information mat is provided through this me as a concise account or summary
of the personality of the character and what he or she can embodies. Information can also be provided by the third
person or omniscient narrator on a character portrayal of the character's thoughts and the things which go through
his or her mind.

Point of View
This refers to the position or perspective from which the story being narrated is presented to the reader. There are two
major methods of doing this. They are the First Person narrative technique and the Omniscient narrative
technique. It should be noted that there is also a Third Person Objectives point of view.

First Person Narrative Technique

This technique is employed when the story is narrated through one of the characters. This character narrates the
story through the first person point of view and he goes by the designation ‘I’ the narrator disappears. The reader,

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because he believes that the narrator is telling a story of which he already has an in-depth knowledge, sees the
narrator as credible. There is also an element of intimacy associated with a first person narration.

Third Person or Omniscient Point of View

The narrator in a narrative where the third person or omniscient point of view is used is an outsider as he is not a
character in the story being narrated. However, the narrator possesses the ability to know everything that happens
in the story. He can even present the thoughts of a character to the reader. He passes comments on the characters
for the benefit of the reader. It also allows room for authorial intrusion.

Third Person Objective Point of View

With this narrative technique, the narrator's or authors personal comments about event, situation and personality
are deliberately excluded. The narrator does not present information or material sourced from the thought or
mind of the character. The reader has the opportunity to form his independent opinion about each character. It often
involves a lot of dialogue and it is difficult for the reader to know the thoughts of the character since the reader is
only limited to external information from one character’s interaction with other characters information
character's interaction with other characters.

Setting
Setting can be denned as the physical or social environment within which the character in a work of prose
operates. There are different methods which a writer can use to provide information a setting of a story. The first
method is through pictorial representation. This entails an almost lifelike of description of events, situations and
characters in a way that enables the reader to have a graphic idea of the spectacle being described Another
approach is called the impressionistic approach. Here, the writer attempts to evoke feelings in the reader about the
setting or character being described to pass a message across. At times, with this kind of approach, figures of
speech, otherwise called figurative or metaphorical language, become very useful. In analyzing the setting of a
story there are many things which the reader as the interpreter of the text has to put into consideration include
the physical environment of the story, the social environment and the period within which story lasts. The physical
setting or environment of the story encompasses the town, neighbor geographical location within which or around
which the story is situated. In respect of social s this revolves around the language, culture and the social conditions
within which the characters c and how they interact with one another. Setting is. Important in the creation of a work
of art b of the interrelationship which exists between it and the writer's thematic preoccupations as well characters
whose actions give life to the writer's ideas or fancies.
Theme
A theme can be described as an issue of life, which a writer discusses or highlights in a work of art. In a prose

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work, it is possible to have several issues of life which form the bedrock of the writer's focus. These issues of
life might revolve around corruption, power, love, death, etc.
The theme of a story is the 'why' of the story. When any writer picks up his pen to write, he has a message in
his mind he intends to pass across. That very message is the theme of the story. It is referred to as the moral of
the story. We must state, however, that mere could also be underlying themes beyond the writer's intention. While
the author sets out to pass across a particular message, some c times he does not successfully pass that message
across. Some other time he does not successfully pass that message across. On the contrary, he implicitly pass
another message across that he is not aware of at the point of writing. Now this is not in the jurisdiction of lay
reader to determine what the author’s original intention is. An in-depth analysis of the work by a literary critic or
specialist may, however, help identify the original intention of the author and also tell whether he succeeded in
passing the message across effectively or not.
Diction
In passing across his or her messages in a work of art, the writer makes use of diction, which encompasses the words,
phrases and sentences that are strung together to make a cohesive and understandable who Diction in a work of art
may possess the quality of being formal, informal, figurative or allusive. There are times when in the course of
narration, the writer uses diction to establish differences between characters to highlight their social or economic
status, their level of literacy as well as their personalities.
Symbol
A symbol is a narrative technique used by a writer to pass information to readers at different stages of the
narration. A symbol can represent itself and something. For example, red and black denotatively represent
these colours, while at the symbolic level; they represent love/danger or death. Writers usually take place symbols
in strategic locations in the narration, including the title. In prose literature, many writers make use of traditional
or archetypal symbols to enhance the quality of their work. Traditional symbol; are symbols to which particular
meanings have been associated over time such as the color 'white' representing peace and purity and the rose
flower symbolizing love. Archetypal symbols are derived from myths, legends, folk tales and religion. For
example, a description or a passage the river in a work of prose fiction can symbolize an impending transition of
the character from realm into the supersensible realm.
Satire
It is a literary convention in prose literature through, which a writer, critical of certain aspect of society, highlights
issues through the depiction of the flaws, faults and mistakes of the character. A work of prose fiction that is
satirical makes use of humour, which is intended to make the reader laugh at the mistakes of the character but
at the same time think of constructive methods that can be employed to correct such mistakes. In highlighting
such mistakes, the writer makes use of exaggeration. The exaggerated portrayal of the weaknesses of the

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characters helps to foreground the message of the writer.

POETRY
Poetry refers in totality to the deployment of certain devices such as figures of speech, feeling (emotion), rhyme and
rhythm, stanza divisions, metre, subject matter in a body of words in order to express an idea or one's impression in a
way that what it says attracts attention to itself because no one may have said it in that manner before. Oftentimes, the
ideas are juggled, words change their usual habitats and meaning is largely derived in a suggestive way.
1.3.1 Kinds of Poems
Lyric
This is a short poem in which a speaker expresses some intense personal feeling. It times, In medieval times, a
lyric poem was sung to the accompaniment of the lyre, an ancient musical instrument. Today, a lyric is a short,
musical or rhythmic poem, which expresses a poet's thoughts and emotions on any matter that interests him or
her. John Keats' "Ode to Autumn", Kofi Awoonor’s "Song of Sorrow", etc. are lyrics.

Song or Song-Lyrics
These are poems which have been set to music. William Blake (1757-1827) wrote Songs of Innocence" and
"Songs of Experience." A modern Nigerian poet who strives to write song/lyrics is Niyi Osundare, particularly his
adolescent poems meant for those in the primary and secondary schools. There are also The Song of Lawino
(1969) and Song of Ocol Okotp' Bitek.

Narrative Poem
It is a poem that tells a tale. Examples are John Milton '$ Paradise Lost (1667) and S.T. Coleridge’s The Rime of the
Ancient Mariner (1816), etc.

Ode
It is a meditative poem which addresses itself to a person or thing in which the good qualities of such a person or
object are highlighted and commended. Examples are William Won "Ode to Duty", John Keats' "Ode on a Grecian
Urn", etc.

Pastoral Poem
It is a poem which describes the simple life of rural people, especially of shepherd, around whom are beauty,
love, music and values which remain forever green in the mind. This is opposed to city life with its hustle and
bustle, as well as artificial lifestyle in which ancient values are no longer respected. A pastoral poem may also be
called an eclogue, a bucolic or an idyll

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example is W.B. Yeats' "Lake Isle of Innisfree" (1892).

Pastoral Elegy
A pastoral elegy laments the fate of the shepherd who may not necessarily herd sheep. An example is John
Milton's "Lycidas" (1637) written about his friend, Edward King (I who chose to become a priest and as such is a
shepherd of a kind. Another example is Thomas Gray's "Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard" (1751).

Ballad
This is an anonymous narrative in verse passed on from generation to generation by word of mouth and meant to
be sung and danced to before a crowd. Its subject often centres centers on tragic events such as sudden death by
accident, treachery against a friend in love or war or during hunting expeditions. The stanzas of a ballad are
often short and concise. Examples William Wordsworth's "The Idiot Boy" and A.E. Housman's "Hell Gate."
Sonnet
A sonnet is a fourteen-line poem whose rhythmic pattern is iambic pentameter. That is each line of fourteen lines
bears five alternating beats of an unstressed syllable followed immediately by a stressed one. Shakespeare wrote
154 sonnets, among which is "Shall I Compare Thee to a summer’s Day?" (1609) in more recent times, Wilfred
Owen wrote "Futility" (1920) while in 2005, Nwachukwu-Agbada published "Lot's Lot."

Epic
It is a long narrative poem that celebrates real historical events, heroic achievements, heroic figures, civilization,
quasi-divine figures and such other subjects. It is usually written in elevated language and style. The epic may be oral
(primary epic) or written (secondary epic). It is usually conceived on a grand scale and its setting quite vast in scope.
Sometimes, it features supernatural characters. Examples are Homer's Iliad and Milton's Paradise Lost

Limerick
It is an unserious short poem of five lines with the rhyme scheme aabba. Its language is usually indecent but
characterized by wit. It is also referred to as nonsense verse because of its preoccupation with rude words and
indecent humour. As a result, limericks hardly have authors.

Lullaby
A poem composed to be sung to children with a view to making them sleep. Many lullabies for rocking babies exist
in traditional African societies.

Panegyric
This is a poem meant to eulogize the heroic deeds or attributes of an individual or a group. It is a type of traditional
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African poetry. It may even be in praise of animals or any other entity with outstanding attributes, whether positive
or negative.

Blank Verse/Free Verse

This refers to a poem whose lines do not rhyme. It may have rhythm, yet lack a regular rhyme scheme. It was
originally composed in iambic pentameter.

Dirge
It is a poem used to express grief on the occasion of someone's death e.g. Kofi Awoonor's "Song of Sorrow."

Traditional Poem
This is a term used in referring to any poem that is indigenous in form to the traditional African society. It may be in
form of praise, chant, and dirge and so on. Poems in this category are usually composed in form of song. Most
professional guilds in traditional African society have their own forms.
FEATURES OF POETRY
Atmosphere

This refers to the pervading psychological background of a literary work. It influence the reader's expectation as to
the course of events in the work, whether pleasant or not. Atmosphere may be tense or relaxed, ominous or gay and so
on.

Canto

This refers to a structural division of a poem, which is longer than a stanza, in every long poems, a cant may consist of
a number of stanza, as in chapter of a book.

Couplet

It refers to two successive rhyming lines of a poem.

Enjambment/Enjambment
Also known as run-on, it refers to the spilling of an idea being expressed in line of poetry to the next or subsequent
lines.
An example is given below:
Except that like some fish
Doped out of the deep
I have bobbed up belly wise
From the stream of sleep - J.P. Clark
14
Imagery

This refers to the selective and effective use of words to create pictorial impression in the imagination of the
reader or audience, or to appeal to his senses of smell, taste, touch and hearing.

Meter

It is the formal sequence of stressed and unstressed syllables in poetry. It is a meter that determines the rhythm
of a poem.

Mood

This is the underlying attitude which runs through a poem. The mood may be meditative, reflective,
melancholic, and convivial and so on.

Quatrain
It means a group of four successive lines in poetry in poetry rhyme with another.
Rhyme

This refers to the sameness of sounds between words in poetry. The most common form is the one between words
ending different lines of a poem. Lines 1 and 2 and another between Lines 3 and 4 extract below. This is called terminal
rhyme or end rhyme.

And I have raised my three finders

Meter
It is the formal sequence of stressed and unstressed syllables in poetry. It is this mete: determines the rhythm of
a poem.

Mood
This is the underlying attitude which runs through a poem. The mood may be meditative reflective,
melancholic, convivial and so on.

Quatrain
It means a group of four successive lines in poetry which rhyme with one another.

Rhyme
This refers to the sameness of sounds between words in poetry. The most common form in one between words
ending different lines of a poem. For example, there is a rhyme between Lines 1 and 2 and another between Lines 3
and 4 of the extract below. This is also called tern rhyme or end rhyme.
15
And I have raised my three fingers to the moon
Towards the full moon, the full naked moon
Beyond the seas and further still

Beyond the seas and further, further still

However, there are other kinds of rhyme, like half rhyme and eye rhyme.

Rhyme Scheme
This refers to the sequence in which rhyme occurs at the end of a poem. It is usually represented or identified by a
lower case letter, with same sounds bearing the same letter. For instance, the rhyme scheme of the poetry extract
below is abab.
"Whenever Richard Cory went down town, a
We people on the pavement look at him, b
He was a gentleman from sole to crown, a
Clean favoured, and imperially slim, b

Rhythm
It is the measured flow of words and phrases in poetry. It can also be described as the movement of thought to
facilitate mood and meaning in poetry.

Refrain
It refers to a word, phrase or any expression that is repeated at regular intervals in a poem, often after a group of
lines. It is comparable to the chorus which sometimes follows a song track or church hymn.

Stanza
This is a group of lines or collection of verses to form a division or section of a poem. It can be described as the
equivalent of a paragraph in prose writing.

Subject Matter
This refers to the surface or direct meaning of a poem. It is what can be likened to the topic or summary of a
prose work. For instance, the subject matter of Gabriel Okara's "Piano and Drums" is a description of feelings
evoked in the poet by the musical instruments referred to.

Theme
It refers to the meaning or interpretation given to the subject matter treated by the writer of a work. For
16
instance, the main theme of Okara's "Piano and Drums" is conflict between two different cultures.

Tone
It is the attitude of the poet towards the subject matter. It could be mocking, ironic, sarcastic, humorous, serious and
so on. Tone is linked with mood in that it dictates the mood.

Triplet/Tercet
It is a group of three successive lines in poetry, rhyming with one another.

DRAMA
Drama is a genre of literature which creates or recreates human experience through 'acting'; it is the representation
of human action. It can occur on a built stage, motor-park, and village square or on village pathway in the case of
communal celebrations and displays. The basic elements of drama are plot, characters, action, acts/scenes, and
setting while dialogue serves as its distinguishing style. Characters are the persons that the playwright has created in
the play and they are referred to as dramatis personae. Drama is all about persons in action, so we cannot have drama
without characters. In the Stoops to Conquer, we have such characters as Charles Marlow, a well-educated man in
love with the young attractive Kate Hardcastle; George Hastings, close friend of Charles Marlow and an admirer of
Miss Constance Neville; Tony Lumpkin, a mischievous, uneducated playboy. These are all characters created to
express opinions on issues raised in the play. The exchange of these opinions is referred to as dialogue.

1.4.1 Forms of Drama

Comedy
This is a light-hearted play that ridicules or satirizes the follies of the characters which instigates laughter while the
events lead to a happy ending. The main feature of comedy is humour; the main forms are farce, burlesque and
satire. Examples include Soyinka's The Lion and the Jewel, Kobina Sekyi's The Hnkards and Oliver Goldsmith's She
Stoops to Conquer.

Tragedy
This form of drama is usually regarded as the opposite of comedy because it is a drama whose atmosphere is often
serious and tensed with an unhappy ending often involving death. In tragedy, the protagonist, who is often a highly
placed personality, is entangled in a struggle or conflict which leads to his ruin or disappointment. We are,
however, sad that he is ruined in the end because of his/her heroic qualities (king, queen, prince, admirable fellows,

17
etc. Tragedy often teaches a moral. The most important feature of tragedy is the sadness, pathos or depth of feeling
which the play is able to evoke and purge us of our emotions. In other words, after watching tragedy, we should
become sober and reflect on our lives, knowing that the fate of the character could have been ours. Examples are
Macbeth by William Shakespeare, King Emene by Zulu Sofola and Kunmmi by Ola Rotimi, etc.

Domestic Tragedy
Domestic tragedy is another form of tragedy. It retains all the basic elements of tragedy but differs in its setting and
characterization. In this form of tragedy, the main characters are middle-class people and their downfall takes place
within a family relationship. In the classical form of tragedy discussed earlier, the characters are great personalities
like kings, generals and princes whereas in a domestic tragedy, the characters are ordinary folk.

Tragi-comedy
It is a play that combines elements of tragedy and comedy; it has a serious tone and series of tense moments but
events in the play end on a note of relief. A good example is The Merchant of Venice by William Shakespeare.

Farce
This is a type of drama characterized by broad visual effects, fast-moving action, and funny little things. It has stock
characters whose actions (escapades) lead them to the brink of disaster, but they never really get into disaster. These
stock characters are regular characters whose roles may actually be described by the names they bear. In a farce,
believability is sacrificed while laughter and hilarity enjoy more prominence. Like comedy, this is also a light-hearted
play which ends on a happy note for everybody. However, unlike in comedy, the credibility of the events presented
in farce is mostly sacrificed in the process of achieving excess laughter. Examples of farce are The Comedy of
Errors by William Shakespeare, The Wizard of Law by Zulu Sofola and Holding Talks by Ola Rotimi.

Melodrama
This is another light-hearted comic play in which credibility is challenged by the nature of the action. It highlights
suspense and romantic sentiment, with characters who are usually either clearly good or clearly bad. In order to
create excitement, sensation and shock hi the audience, belief is downplayed.
As its name implies, this form of drama often uses a musical background to underscore or heighten the emotional
tone of a scene. Often when the credibility of tragedy is stretched, the result is melodrama. Bernard Shaw's Arms
and the Man and Christopher Marlow's The Jew of Malta are good examples.

History Play
It is a play based on historical records. It is also known as Chronicle play. Ola Rotimi's Kiriji War, and
Ovoranmwen Nogbaisi and Shakespeare's Julius Caesar are useful examples to cite.
18
Closet Drama

This term refers to a literary composition which takes the form of a play, but is not meant to be performed on stage. A
closet drama is meant to be studied privately in a ‘closet’

Mime/Pantomime/Dumb Show
This is a form of dramatic performance with scene played by body movement or gestures without words. It is not
an easy literary pieces to judge or evaluate since it has no scripted format.

Realistic Drama

This is a play which attempts - in content and presentation to retain, present and maintain a notion of an actual,
everyday existence. An example is Ahmed Yerima’s Hard Ground (2005)

Thesis or Problem Play

It is a type of drama that developed in the 19 th century to deal with controversial social issues in a realistic manner,
expose social ills, and stimulate thoughts and discussion. A characteristic feature of the problematic social issues
through debates between the characters on stage, who typically represent conflicting point of view within a realistic
social context. It is exemplified by the work of Henrik Ibsen, who exposed hypocrisy, greed, and hidden corruption of
society in a number of masterly plays. His influence encouraged others to use the form. George Bernard Sha1 and their
long, witty prefaces.

Features of Drama

Characters/Figures

These are the persons through whom the playwright communicates to us (reader/audience) ideas. The personality
and image of a charact what other characters say and does about him. Character which a person has. Is he kind? Is he
wicked? Is he or she treacherous? Generally, there are major and minor characters. A major character is the main
character is the main person or persons in a play. In She stoops to Conquer, Charles Marlow, George Hastings,
Tony Lumpkin, Mr. Hardcastle, Mrs. Hardcastle, Miss Kate Hardcastle and Miss Constance Neville are major
characters while Sir Charles Marlow is the minor character. Major character undergo developmental changes or
transformation as the plot of the play unfloods, while minor one is generally static.

Characterization

Characterization is the process of creating characters and adoring/giving them certain attribute or vices. These can be
physical or attitudinal. It is these qualities that position the personalities of the character. If a character is a major

19
character, he must play a dynamic role. Any changes a character undergoes must be logical for the sort of person the
writer has drawn. There must be depth of characterization because when only one or two trait are emphasized we
have a caricature rather than a character. Whatever chai enough and there should be a natural development of the
character.
Closet Drama
This term refers to a literary composition which takes the form of a play, but is performed on stage. A closet drama is
meant to be studied privately in a 'closet

Mime/Pantomime/Dumb Show
This is a form of dramatic performance with scenes played by body movement or gesture without words. It is not
an easy literary piece to judge or evaluate since it has no scripted format.

Realistic Drama
This is a play which attempts - in content and presentation - to retain, present and maintain a notion of an actual,
everyday existence. An example is Ahmed Yerima's Hard Ground (2005)

Thesis or Problem Play

It is a type of drama that developed in the 19th century to deal with controversial social issues in a realistic manner,
expose social ills, and stimulate thought and discussion, A characteristic feature of the problem play is that it
deals with problematic social issues through debates between the characters on stage, who typically represent
conflicting points of view within a realistic social context. It is exemplified by the works of Henrik Ibsen, who
exposed hypocrisy greed, and hidden corruption of society in a number of masterly plays. His influx others to use the
form. George Bernard Shaw brought it to an intellectual peak with his plays and their long, witty prefaces.

Features of Drama
Characters/Figures
These are the persons through whom the playwright communicates to us (read/audience) his ideas. The personality
and image of a character is assessed through what he says and does and what other characters say about him.
Character is the combination of the different qualities which a person has. Is he kind? Is he wicked? Is he or she
treacherous? Generally, there are major and minor characters. A major character is the main person or persons in a
play. In she Stoops to Conquer, Charles Marlow, George Hastings, Tony Lumpkin, Mrs. Hardcastle, Miss Kate
Hardcastle and Miss Constance Neville are major characters while Sir Charles Marlow is a minor character. Major
characters undergo-developmental transformation as the plot of the play unfolds, while minor ones are generally
20
static.

Characterization
Characterization is the process of creating characters and adorning/giving them certain attributes or vices. These can be
physical or attitudinal. It is these qualities that position the personalities of the character. If a character is a major
character, he must play a dynamic role. Any changes a character undergoes must be logical for the sort of person
the writer has drawn. There must be depth of characterization because when only one or two traits are emphasized
we have a caricature rather than a character. Whatever character a writer is drawing, it must be convincing enough
and there should be a natural development of the character.

Dialogue
It refers to the exchange of ideas and opinion in a play between two or more characters. It is one of the elements of
drama and is a verbal element.

Monologue
It is a long speech by one actor, when a character speaks all by himself and some of his words are actually
addressed to some absent fellow characters. Such a scene is actually a mini drama. This is because the actor will be
enacting the presence and even participation of other people.

Plot
This is the sequential arrangement of events in a creative work. Playwrights often focus on the development of their
plots from a beginning through the middle, to the end. Plots have high points which build up to a climax and end
with a resolution.

Action
This is an important feature of drama because drama is all about 'doing'. What stimulates action in a play is conflict.
Conflict refers to a disagreement between two people or two groups. When two persons hold two different opinions, it
leads to a disagreement. As the characters try to argue their points, drama is created. Without conflict, there may not
be credible dramatic actions.
Dramatis Personae
This is the sum total of all the participants in a drama; all the members involved in performing a • play on stage.
Every play tries to do this on its preliminary page(s).

Cast
21
It is a list of selected participants for performance with specific roles to play. It is the complete list of all actors
scheduled to appear in the performance of a play.

Playwright
It is the writer of a piece of drama or play.

Conflict
This term refers to the bone of contention, the point of difference and so the basis of action, between characters in a
play. It involves the protagonist and the antagonist in their rivalry and struggle for assertion of influence or
relevance. A play may contain several levels of conflict, including intra-personal conflict.

Protagonist
Also called the hero or heroine of a play, the protagonist is the character that plays the most prominent role in a
play. It is around him/her that the playwright builds the essential conflicts of his drama.

Antagonist
Seen as the opposite of protagonist, the antagonist in a play is the character who opposes the protagonist rightly or
wrongly. In the Greek understanding, it means a 'rival' who opposes the main character or hero as their paths
crisscross in the course of the events in the play.

Denouement or Resolution

This is the resolution or revelation of the dramatic conflict immediately after the climax in a play. Known also as the
unknotting or unknotting or untying of events, it is that moment when contending issue dissolves into comedy or
tragedy, as the case may be, to have an appropriate end.

Catharsis

Catharsis is the emotional cleansing of the cleansing of the audience and/or characters in a play. It is an extreme change
in emotion resulting from strong feelings of sorrow, fear, pity, or laughter; this result has been described as a
purification or a purging of such emotions (whether those of the characters in the play or of the
audience/spectators). Using the term ‘catharasis’ to refer to the ‘emotions’ was first done by the Greek philosopher
Aristotle in his work Poetics. It refers to the sensation, or literary effect, that would ideally overcome upon finishing
watching a tragedy (a release of pent-up emotion or energy). Tragedy is then a corrective tool; through watching
tragedy the audience learns how to feel these emotions at the proper levels.
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Tragic Flaw

Also known as Hamartia, it is a term that simply refers to as dramaturgy, hamartia is the tragic flaw or error. In Greek
dramaturgy, hamartia is the tragic flaw of the protagonist in a given tragedy. The word hamartia is rooted in the
notion of missing the mark (hamartenein) and covers a broad spectrum that includes accident and mistake, as
well as well as wrongdoing three kinds of injuries that a person can com the humanly unavoidable attribute in the frag
The flaw is invariably a human failing which and pity in the audience. This flaw could be anger, pride or reckleness
etc.

Dramatic Irony

It means that the reader/watcher/listener knows something that one or more of the characters in a piece of dramas are
not aware of. It is a device of giving the spectator an item of information that at least one of the characters in the drama is
unaware of (at least consciously), thus, placing the spectator a step ahead of at least one of the character. Dramatic
irony has three stages; the installation, exploitation and resolution (often called preparation, suspension, and
resolution) producing dramatic conflict in what one character relies or appears to rely upon, the contrary of which is
known by observers (especially the audience; sometimes to other characters within the drama) to be true. In other
words, the reader-audience; sometimes to other characters have a crucial piece of information or knowledge about
ongoing action of which the affecter character (s) are denied such knowledge. The device is more useful in comedy
and for creating humor. But the situation can lead to tragedy and so tragic plays often contain dramatic irony. For
example, in Rotimi’s The Gods are Not to Blame, Odewale vow to catch his father’s killer. The audience knows that
he is the killer, though Odewale is yet to find out.

Suspense

It is the state of anxiety and expectation in the reader/audience of a play or novel as to how an event is likely to
unfold. It raises a reader’s interest and keeps him/her guessing as to what will happen next. The use of suspense in
drama is as old as drama itself. How will the conflict end? Suspense keeps the reader interested, and is usually
achieved by withholding the resolution until the end of the play.

Chorus
This refers to a group of actors in a play whose members act in unison and share the same opinion. The term and
practice originated from Ancient Greek theatre practice in which the chorus was portrayed as an omniscient
commentator on the unfolding events. It serves to prepare the audience for what is yet to happen.

Genre

23
This term means 'type' of literature which could be poetry, prose, drama, travelogue, non-fiction, biography, etc.

Aside
This term refers to a speech by the character directed to the audience to the exclusion of fellow characters or actors
in drama. Even when an aside is uttered in the presence of other characters it is not intended for their hearing and so
must be differentiated from monologue and soliloquy. An aside is a variant of soliloquy, because only the audience
and not the other characters benefit from such a remark.

Climax
This refers to a point in dramatic presentation when the progression of events reaches a moment of consummation. It
is marked by the peak of mounting tension in the unfolding action. For example, the moment of Caesar's murder
in Julius Caesar by the conspirators led by Cassius.

Audition
This refers to a theatre practice in which actors of a play are selected to play specific assigned roles in the
performance.

Producer
This is a professional name for the person who specializes in financing and organizing the performance of plays.

Prompter
This refers to 'the-actor-off-the-stage' whose role is to assist the actual actors in carrying out their assigned
performance roles. He reminds the actors/actresses their lines, guides them when they stray off and generally assists
them to make the performance a success.

Flashback
It is a dramatic or literary technique which entails a recall of what had happened before. It is a device employed by
playwrights by which the here-and-now of the play's events are interrupted also to follow the memory of a character
between Odewale and King Adetusain example.

Projection

It is the opposite of flashback. It refers to the technique whereby the playwright goes into the future in order to
make us see the consequences of current action

Prologue

24
It is the formal introduction to a play written in prose or verse whose content is relevant to the unfolding events in the
play. In the prologue, the playwright may try to establish event which took place before the events described in the
play. It often contains the playwright’s intervening voice voice which offers a way of interpreting the play for the
reader-audience. This is use in R.B. Sheridan's The-Rivals, Robert Bolt's .4 Me, to Blame. It is like an introduction
given before the actual performance begins.

Epilogue

Epilogue is given at the end of the play. It is a closing comment in a play which justifies an earlier course of action
or fills an untreated gap in a play. Often, the epilogue is the playwright’s intervening voice offering a perspective from
which a reading of the play can be made. This is also used in The Rivals,

Stage Directions

They are a playwright's written instruction and how the director, crew, actor and readers are to stage, perform, or
imagine the play. Stage directions are often printed in italic and not spoken aloud and may appear at the beginning of a
play, before any scene or attached to a line of spoken aloud and may appear at the beginning of a play, before any scene, or
attached to a line of dialogue. They are used to describe sets, lighting, sound effect and the appearance, personalities, and
movement of characters as well as what facial expression they should assume and so on.

Deus ex machina
This term refers to any unexpected and improbable contrivance in a play which is convincing and which is
unconvincing and which is to provide the missing link or badly needed solution to a problem in the play. The term is
derived from the Greek words meaning ‘god from machine’
Peripeteia

It is a sudden reversal of fortune or change in circumstance of a major character and the beginning of such a
character's tragic fall. It is derived from the Greek-derived word. An example is Odewale’s discovery of who is his
wife as well as the identity of the man he had earlier killed The God’s are not to Blame by Ola Rotimi).

Poetic Drama
This term refers to a play wholly written in verse which can be performed or simply read as in closet drama, e.g. T.S.
Eliot’s Murder in the Cathedral

Projection
It is the opposite of flashback. It refers to the technique whereby the playwright g future in order to make us
see the consequences of current actions.

25
Proscenium Arch
This term refers to the structure or space which separates the actual acting space from the auditorium where the
audience sits in the Western theatre of the 20th and 21st centuries. The dramatic action area is separated with a
curtain which opens at the commencement of the play.

Anti-hero
It is a central character in a play who lacks the qualities expected of the hero of the regular Aristotelian drama. An
example is Willy Loman, Arthur Miller's major character in his Death of a Salesman.

Tragic Hero
A good man, though not without stain. In Greek drama, he is an elevated figure, a 'big' man as it were whose fall
from grace causes others sorrow. His tragic decline may be traced to his own fault (flaw), even if not out of any guilt.
His situation attracts people's pity and sorrow because he is morally better than us and the misfortune that befalls
him is undeserved. Examples in literature are Shakespeare's Macbeth and Robert Bolt's Thomas More.

Portmanteau Word
A portmanteau word is the fusion of two meanings packed into one word, as in Lewis Carroll's poem
"Jabberwocky", where "slithy" is the combination of "lithe" and "slimy."

Motivation
One requirement of good literature is that a character's motivation — that is, the reasons for his actions — must be
consistent with his moral nature and personality. The character may remain the same "or the character may go
through a complete metamorphosis, but no character should ever break off from the personality we expect of him
and suddenly act in a manner that is not a part of his temperament. If the character is real and lifelike, the work is
enhanced.

Figures of Speech

Allegory
An allegory is a figurative work in which a surface narrative carries a secondary, symbolic or metaphorical meaning. In
allegories, characters, events, objects and, ideas have secondary or symbolic meanings. George Orwell's Animal
Farm is one such popular allegory written in the last century about animals in a modern farm struggling for power.
On the surface, it is an entertaining tale which even children may enjoy without bothering themselves on its other
implied meaning. However, beneath the surface meaning, Animal Farm is a sarcastic treatment of the Bolshevik
Revolution in Russia which took place in October 1917. Before the 20th century, there had been Edmund Spenser's
The Faerie Queen (1590-96) and John Bunyan's The Pilgrim's Progress (1678).
26
 Alliteration
It is the repetition of consonant sounds in a sequence of words in a poetry line or nearby lines. It refers to the
repetition of the same sound at the beginning of a word, such as the repetition of the s, fh and w consonants in
Shakespeare's Sonnet 30:

i. When to the sessions of sweet silent thought

I summon up remembrance of dungs past,

I sigh the lack of many a thing I sought

And with old woes new wail my dear time's waste...

The fair breeze Mew, the white foam flew

The furrow followed free

We were the first that ever burst

Into that silent sea (from "Rhyme of the Ancient

Mariner" by S.T. Coleridge)
Allusion
It is a brief reference to an important person, what he/she said, did or stood for; and a place, a or popular phrase or
line, say from the Bible, inserted into a piece of writing. The writer almost assumes that the reader will recognize that
is being referred to in the written passage. For ii these days, a reference to Kelson Mandela recalls freedom struggle,
apartheid in South. A qualitative African leadership as the case may be.
To recognize allusions calls for a fond of knowledge which is shared between the author and his or her readers.
Oftentimes allusions are recognizable by one's readers, but in special cases they drawn from an author's private
reading or experiences. In that case, a reader may have to de scholarly explicators to suggest the appropriate sources
or meanings,
i. When I refused, she gave me some money; perhaps she thought I was a Judas. (This is an to Judas Iscariot's
acceptance of money in order to betray Christ.)
ii. I came; I saw but was rather conquered. (This is an allusion to the popular statement to General
Napoleon Bonaparte of France. His remark went this way: 'I came, I see conquered'.)

Ambiguity
Ambiguity refers to (1) a statement whose meaning is not so clear; (2) a statement which hi more possible
meanings. In scientific prose, it is considered to be a fault, but in literature a may result in humour, reflect the
writer's perception of life's complexity or in fact enrich mi indicate the difficulty of determining the truth.
i. In Shakespeare's Hamlet, Hamlet asks a gravedigger making a fresh grave, "Whose grave is this?" The
27
 gravedigger responds, "Mine, sir." Hamlet returns, slightly angry, "I think be thine indeed, for thou liest
in't'."
ii. In E.A. Robinson's "How Annandale Went Out", the narrator remarks: "Now view yourself as I was, on the
spot." By "on the spot", he means that he was at the scene of the event, but 1 also the slang notion of the phrase
meaning being compelled to make a decision. Two in contest there - the demands of his professional code
versus the appeal to his human sympathies
(e) Anti-thesis
This term refers to the presentation of two opposite phrases or clauses in a sentence to indicate balanced view.
It is the placement of contrasting or opposing words, phrases, clauses, or sentence side by side which more often
than not results in parallelism - that is, a similar word order and structure in their syntax.
i. "Willing to wound, and yet afraid to strike." (Alexander Pope)
ii. "Marriage has many pains, but celibacy has no pleasures." (Samuel Johnson)
iii. Man proposes, God disposes.

Apostrophe
This term refers to an instance in which a writer makes a direct address to a thing or an i present or absent, or
addresses an absent person or entity,
i. Frailty, thy name is woman. (Here, 'frailty' is being addressed.)
ii. "Death, be not proud, though some have called thee/Mighty and dreadful, for thou art not so; (John
Donne)
iii. Milton, thou shouldst be living at this hour;/England hath need of thee. . ." (Wordsworth)

Assonance
This figure of speech refers to repetition of identical or similar vowel sounds in stressed syllables in a line or nearby
lines of a poem. This is normally done by a poet, dramatist or novelist just to create some musical effect.
i. With thoughts of path back, how rough it was (/oo/and/aa/sounds)
ii. Let not ambition mock their useful toil (/oo/sound)
iii. Thou still unravished bride of quietness. (/i:/and/i/sounds)

Bathos
It is the unintentional descent in literature when a writer strains to sound pathetic, passionate or elevated and in the
process overshoots the mark and drops into the trivial or ridiculous.
i. Ye God's! annihilate but Space and Time
28
 And makes two lovers happy. (Alexander Pope)
ii. "For God, for Country, and for Yale" (an unintended descent in its reference by the authorities of Yale
University).
Bildungsroman
This is a German term referring to the novel of growth or formation. It often centres on the development of the mind
and character of the protagonist as he/she passes from childhood through varied experiences - and often through
spiritual crisis - with maturity. Examples are Charlotte Bronte'’s Jane Eyre (1847). Charles Dickens' Great Expectations
(1861), Somerset Maugham's Of Human Bondage (l9l5),Thomas Mann's The Magic Mountain (1924), The African
Child (1954) by Camara Laye, Cheikh Hamidou Kane's Ambiguous Adventure (1961), Ken Saro-Wiwa's Sozaboy
(1985), etc.
Diction
The term refers to word choice. Good diction means that effective and appropriate words have been chosen by a writer
to suit his/her discourse. A writer's diction may be simple, complex, technical or merely plain; it could be formal or
colloquial, abstract or concrete, literal or figurative, etc.
Euphemism
It is the substitution of a mild or less negative word or phrase for a harsh or blunt one. A euphemistic term is used to
cocoon something terrifying or disagreeable so that it appears less offensive, somewhat mild or pleasant. After all the
life's struggles, the millionaire quietly passed away last night (i.e. died) that beautiful lady that has just passed us is
everyman's wife, (loose/immoral woman).

Hyperbole/Exaggeration
The above term refers to a deliberate use of excessive notion or overstatement by a writer for the purpose of
creating an impression, laughter or humour.
i. Even ten thousand oceans cannot wash away my guilt.
ii. Such was her beauty that it made men crazy.
(m) Invective
This term refers to a speech or writing which abuses, denounces or attacks in a rather is an element of satire which may
be directed against a person, cause, idea or system. It a heavy use of negative emotive language.
i. I conclude that the bulk of your natives constitute the most pernicious race of little which nature ever
suffered to cast upon the surface of the earth.
ii. Your state is mean, quarrelsome and always antagonistic; it is an atomistic society, conflict with itself.

Irony
Irony is a mode of expression through words (verbal irony) or events (irony of situation) conveying a reality

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different from, and usually opposite to appearance or expectation. Some describe irony as saying one thing and
meaning another. A writer may say the opposite of what he means, create a reversal between expectation and its
fulfillment or give the audience a piece of knowledge that a character making the character's words yield a meaning to
the audience contrary to what such word character mean to the character in question,
i. "Zita won't fail her examinations; she doesn't need to read her books before passing (In effect, the
speaker means that Zita will fail her examinations because she does not read her books).
ii. "I wish I had your type of teeth" (when the speaker is mocking the addressed because of the latter’s
poor dentition).

Litotes (understatement)
It is a figure of speech which purposely represents something as being less in importance than it really is. The effect
achieved is often ironic and laconic.
i. A soldier arrests a poem's protagonist for "carrying a dangerous weapon" even though “all I had on me as/A
pen” (Femi Fatoba, "Signs and Times"),
ii. In Beowulf's composer's remark namely, "That was a bitter spilling of beer," a litotes is created when a
bitter fight between Grandel and the hero (Beowulf) which nearly pulled down Herot, the massive hall, is
recorded as "spilling of beer."

Metaphor
A metaphor canvasses the similarity between two things by insisting that one thing is another thing. Note that while the
comparison in a simile is direct and open, that in a metaphor is usually indirect and implied.
1. Nigeria is an abiku nation, always dying and resurrecting on a daily basis.
2. Funnai is boiling with fury.
3. Talent is a cistern; genius is a fountain.
4. The sunshine of her smile kept me wondering for days.

Metonymy
This figure of speech refers to the substitution of one word or phrase to stand for a word or phrase similar in
meaning. In other words, it is a statement in which reference to something is c another thing associated with it.
i. Aso Rock has been criticized for its plans to retain corrupt ministers in its cabinet (Nigeria's biggest seat of
power in Abuja).
ii. I am yet to read one Shakespeare to its very end (Shakespeare here stands for one of his plays).
iii. The crown has refused to recognize the newly elected Prime Minister. ('The crown' stands for the Royal
Family, say of Britain.)

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Onomatopoeia
This is the deployment of words in a way that such words suggest or echo their meaning or sense of use. Words in the
English language which easily suggest their meanings from their sounds include, bang, boom, tinkle, burp, zoom,
crunch, crush, squelch, honk, zip, buzz, crackle, cackle, twitter, thud, hiss, hoot, creak, squeak, etc.
i. Fountains and you that warble, as yee flow melodious murmurs, warbling tune his praise (John Milton),
ii. The moan of doves in immemorial elms
And murmuring innumerable bees.

Oxymoron
This is a figure of speech that combines contradictory words to reveal a truth. It places side by side two words that
are self-contradictory. Oxymoron is similar to paradox except that while in paradox the ideas contradict each other, in
oxymoron the words side by side contradict each other,
i. "Parting is such sweet sorrow" ('sweet' and 'sorrow' side by side when the two words are virtual opposites).
ii. "Events are better observed from the dangerous safety of a tower" (Note 'dangerous' and 'safety').
iii. "The immigrant said that since arriving America his experience had been bitter sweet" ('bitter' and
'sweet').

Parable
This term refers to a work of art, or story involving human beings, which communicates a moral lesson. It is a
brief and often simple narrative that illustrates a moral or religious lesson. The Christian Bible has many examples of
parables. Examples include, "The Good Samaritan", "The Sower", "The Prodigal Son", etc. Modern parables
include the African short stories, "Parable of the Eagle" (1929), by James E.K. Aggrey and "The Man who shared
His Hut" (1962) by Jomo Kenyata.

Paradox
This is term refers to a statement which seems on its face to be self-contradictory or absurd, yet turns out to make
a good sense or be true. Paradox is similar to oxymoron in that both figures of speech use contradictions to state
a truth. However, paradox does not place opposing words side by side, as oxymoron does; rather it is the ideas that
contradict each other.
'Cowards die many times before their death.'
ii. 'They called him a lion. However, in that boxing match he turned a lamb.' iii. 'Those
who crave for peace must first prepare for war.'
iv. Tor slaves, Jife was death and death was life.'

Personification
It is a figure of speech which gives the features of human beings to inanimate objects.
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 i. Death, be not proud.
ii. The trees groaned as they fell,
Pun
Usually referred to as a 'play on words', it is the use of words or phrases which although may have similar sounds,
possess different meanings.
i. "The pastor preyed on the lady until she became poor" (note the use of 'prey' rather than ‘pray’ for which
pastors are known).
ii. "Seven days on empty stomach make one weak" (for 'one week')
iii. "Lady, a mender of soles that I am, I can as well mend your troubled soul" (see the use of ‘soles’ and 'soul').

Repetition
Repetition is a figure of speech in which a word, phrase or idea is expressed more than once in a piece of poetry, a
drama passage or a prose for the purposes of musicality or emphasis.
i. 'So be beginning, be beginning to despair. O there's none, no, no, no there's none' (Hopkins)
ii. 'The woods decay, the words decay and fall' (Tennyson)
iii. 'And she forgot the stars, the moon and the sun
And she forgot the blue above the trees
And she forgot the dells where waters run
And she forgot the chilly autumn breeze' (John Keats, "Isabella")

Rhetorical Question
It is a question asked as a way of making a statement, not really because an answer is expected
i. Should we continue in sin so that grace may abound?
ii. He had no shoes, but who knew he would one day turn out to be the president of his country.
iii. I may have joined the company by the backdoor, but in ten years here, have I not given a good account of
myself?
Sarcasm
It is a form of verbal irony that insults a person with an insincere praise. It is a form of sneering criticism in which
disapproval is often expressed as ironic praise. Often applied with scorn and c its victim, it is an undisguised
expression of anger, an unkind joke as it were, whose sole purpose is to hurt so as to punish,
i. In an international football engagement, the national team is about to score, and while the nation is glued to
TV sets, light goes off. A sarcastic voice rings out, Nigeria, we hail thee
ii. If you are showing off your new wrist watch a friend of yours might remark: "I'm sure we have seen enough
of your beautiful gold wrist watch."
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 Simile
This is a figure of speech which involves a direct comparison between two unlike things, usually with the words
such as like, as, though, as if, as...as, etc.
i. 'I shall float like a butterfly and sting like a bee' (Muhammed Ali),
ii. Beyoncé was as tender as the morning rose flower.
iii. 'As usual a lot of shaking was required to get him awake. Gwatkin always slept as if under
anaesthetic.
Synecdoche
This figure of speech refers to the substitution of a part to stand for the whole, or the whole to stand a part. In other
words, a smaller or larger part of something is made to represent the whole thing.
i. In the African culture, grey hair is very much respected ('grey hair' is a part of an aged person)
ii. At the refugee camp, several hands stretched out for a free meal (several hands for persons).

Synesthesia
This is the description of one kind of sensation in terms of the quality associated with another, say the sensation of
colour being attributed to another sensation, like that of sound or odour, etc.
i. As soon as the evening light creaked, we knew it was time to return to where we came from
(Light does not make a creaking sound, whether in the morning or evening.)
ii. I'm always merry when I hear sweet music.
(Music is sound and cannot be sweet.)
iii. 'I dreamt that my hands were covered with the yellow blood of a stranger'
(Ben Okri). Blood is never yellow in colour.

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