Chapter 5

Position, Motion, and Force Sensors

1
2
3
Introduction

4
5
Position and displacement measurement
Sensing methods

6
7
8
9
Loading error: 10
 aRp
E NL  Es EL  Eout a  [0,1]
Rp

Chia tử và mẫu cho RL, rút gọn chia RpRL

với

11
 proton mang điện tích +1e Một Culông tương ứng với
lượng điện tích chạy qua tiết
diện dây dẫn có cường độ dòng
điện 1 ampe trong 1 giây.

0.999648
Coulomb’s Law (6.24*10^18)*(1.602*10^(-19))=0.9996C

Êlectron có điện tích âm −1.602 × 10−19 coulomb

Q
I
t
1 Q
E
4 d 2 One volt will drive one
coulomb (6.24 x 1018)
charge carriers, such as
electrons, through a
resistance of one ohm in
one second.

6-12
 Magnetic field due to an electric current

Right Hand Grip Rule

permanent magnet

screw rule

stronger magnetic field

Magnetic Properties in Free Space

Lorentz Force Law

("four-pole") magnetic field

6-13
6-14
 F  ILB

F  qvB

Lenz's Law

Electromotive force emf  vBL 15

 Linear variable differential transducer
(LVDT)
• The linear variable differential transducer (LVDT) is a
type of electrical transformer used for measuring
linear displacement.
• The transformer has three solenoidal coils placed
end-to-end around a tube.
• The center coil is the primary, and the two outer
coils are the secondary.
• A cylindrical ferromagnetic core, attached to the
object whose position is to be measured, slides along
the axis of the tube.
16
LVDT – Linear Variable Differential Transformer

17
• As the core moves, these mutual inductances
change, causing the voltages induced in the
secondaries to change.
• The coils are connected in reverse series, so that the
output voltage is the difference (hence "differential")
between the two secondary voltages.
• When the core is in its central position, equidistant
between the two secondaries, equal but opposite
voltages are induced in these two coils, so the output
voltage is zero.

18
CONSTRUCTION

19
• When the core is displaced in one direction, the voltage in
one coil increases as the other decreases, causing the output
voltage to increase from zero to a maximum.
• This voltage is in phase with the primary voltage.
• When the core moves in the other direction, the output
voltage also increases from zero to a maximum, but its phase
is opposite to that of the primary.
• The magnitude of the output voltage is proportional to the
distance moved by the core (up to its limit of travel), which is
why the device is described as "linear".
• The phase of the voltage indicates the direction of the
displacement.

20
21
 Light Sensors
Light Sensors are photoelectric devices that convert light energy
(photons) whether visible or infra-red light into an electrical
(electrons) signal

The Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)

22
LDR Switch

Light Level Sensing Circuit

23
The Photodiode.

24
The Phototransistor

Photodarlington transistors

25
Photovoltaic cells (photocell)

26
27
Optical Encoder Components

28
 Encoder Disks
Incremental Disk Absolute Disks

Gray Code
Binary

29
Incremental Disk

30
31
 Quadrature
• Two tracks (A & B) at 90
degrees offset.
• Provide direction
information.
• Provides up to 4 times
resolution.

32
33
Limit Switches

34
Proximity sensors

Proximity sensing is the technique of detecting the

presence or absence of an object with an electronic non-
contact sensor. There are three types of proximity sensors:

1. Inductive,
2. Capacitive,
3. Magnetic.

35
 Proximity Sensors
• Mechanical limit switches are the first devices
to detect objects in industrial applications.

• Inductive proximity sensors are used in

place of limit switches for non-contact sensing
of metallic objects.

• Capacitive proximity switches can also

detect non-metallic objects.

• Both inductive and capacitive sensors are limit

switches with ranges up to 100mm. 36
 Inductive Proximity Sensors

• Inductive sensors are used to detect the

presence of metallic objects.

• These sensors require DC or AC voltage

for the power to drive circuitry to
generate the fields and to produce
output signal.
37
 Inductive Proximity Sensors
• An inductive proximity sensor consists of four
basic elements:
1. Sensor coil and ferrite
core
2. Oscillator circuit
3. Trigger/Detector circuit
4. Solid-state output circuit
Sine wave

Square wave

Sawtooth wave
38
 Inductive Proximity Sensor
working principle
• The oscillator circuit generates a radio-frequency electromagnetic field that
radiates from the ferrite core and coil assembly
• The field is centered around the axis of the ferrite core, which shapes the field
and directs it at the sensor face.
• When a metal target approaches and enters the field, eddy current are
induced into the surfaces of the target.
• This results in a loading effect, or “damping” that causes a reduction in
amplitude of the oscillator signal.
• The detector circuit detects the change in oscillator amplitude. The detector
will switch ON at specific operate amplitude.
• This ON signal generates a signal to turn ON the solid state output. This is
often referred to as the damped condition.
• As the target leaves the sensing field, the oscillator responds with an increase in
amplitude.
• As the amplitude increases above a specific value, it is detected by the detector
circuit, which switches OFF, causing the output signal to return to the normal or
OFF(undamped) state.

39
 Inductive Proximity Sensor

• Typical applications of inductive proximity sensors in control

systems:

• Motion position detection

• Motion control
• Conveyor system control
• Process control
• Machine control
• Verification and counting

40
Capacitive Proximity Sensors

41
 Capacitive Proximity Sensors
• Capacitive sensing is based on dielectric
capacitance
• Capacitance is the property of insulators to store an
electric charge
• A capacitor consists of two plates separated by an
insulator, usually called a dielectric
• When the switch is closed a charge is stored on the
two plates
• The distance between the plates determine the
ability of a capacitor to store a charge and can be
calibrated as a function of stored charge to
determine discrete ON and OFF switching status
42
 Capacitive Proximity Sensors
The capacitive proximity sensor has the same four basic elements as
an inductive sensor:
1.Sensor (the dielectric plate)
2.Oscillator circuit
3.Detector circuit
4.Solid-state output circuit

43
 Capacitive Proximity Sensors
• The oscillator circuit includes feedback capacitance
from the external target plate and the internal plate.
• In a capacitive switch, the oscillator starts oscillating
when sufficient feedback capacitance is detected.
• The oscillation begin with an approaching target until
the value of capacitance reaches a threshold.
• At threshold point the trigger circuit will turn on the
output switching device.
• Thus the output modules function as normally open,
normally closed, or changeover switches.

44
 Capacitive Proximity Sensors
• The oscillator circuit includes feedback capacitance
from the external target plate and the internal plate.
• In a capacitive switch, the oscillator starts oscillating
when sufficient feedback capacitance is detected.
• The oscillation begin with an approaching target until
the value of capacitance reaches a threshold.
• At threshold point the trigger circuit will turn on the
output switching device.
• Thus the output modules function as normally open,
normally closed, or changeover switches.

45
 Capacitive Proximity Sensors

• They can detect non-metallic targets

• They can detect lightweight or small objects that
cannot be detected by mechanical limit switches
• They provide a high switching rate for rapid
response in object counting applications.
• They can detect liquid targets through non-
metallic barriers, (glass, plastic, etc)
• They have long operational life with a virtually
unlimited number of operating cycles.
• The solid-state output provides a bounce-free
contact signal
46
 Capacitive Proximity Sensors
Typical applications of capacitive proximity sensors
in control systems:

•Liquid level detection

•Bulk material level control
•Process control

47
Hall effect sensor
The Hall effect is the production of a voltage difference (the Hall voltage)
across an electrical conductor, transverse to an electric current in the
conductor and to an applied magnetic field perpendicular to the current. It
was discovered by Edwin Hall in 1879

48
Typical applications of Hall-effect sensors
A Hall-effect sensor is a device that detects the presence of a magnetic field.

49
DC Tachometers (Electric Motors)
Tachometers are used as
velocity feedback sensors on
speed-control systems. These
devices generate an electrical
signal which is proportional to
the angular velocity of the
motor shaft.

50
Optical Tachometer
Optical Tachometer Measure RPM via Non-Contact Method

51
Toothed-Rotor Tachometers

A toothed-rotor sensor has 20 teeth. Find the

revolutions per minutes (rpm) if the sensor
outputs pulses at 120 Hz.

Each time an iron tooth passes near the magnet, the magnetic field
within the mag-net increases, inducing a small voltage in the coil of
wire. 52
Principle of the Accelerometer
Sensors that detect acceleration are called accelerometers,

53
Measurement of force

F  kx
F Force Applied

k Spring Const.

x Spring
Elongation

F  f (x)

F 54
How to get this force in terms of electrical
Signal / voltage ???

Voltage  f (Force)

55
Tension
Strain Gauge Compression

l
R => Rl l
A

l
R  Resistance R
  Property of material
R l  Length of wire
A  Effective cross sectional area of wire 56
Wheatstone Bridge

 R4 R2 
Vout    Vin
 R3  R4 R1  R2 

57
 Wheatstone Bridge
say,
Vin  5.00volts
(3) (3)

 R4 R2 
Vout    Vin
 R3  R4 R1  R2 
 3 3 
Vout   5.0
3 3 3 3
(3) (3) Vout 0

58
 Wheatstone Bridge
say,
Vin  5.00volts
(4) (2)

 R4 R2 
Vout 
  Vin
 R3  R4 R1  R2 
 4 2 
Vout   5.0
2 4 4 2
4 2
(2) (4) Vout    5.0
6 6
Vout  1.667volts
59
60
We can simplify the analysis by specifying that all the resistors
in the bridge (including RG and RD) have the same value (R)
when it is balanced. Then, when the gauge is stretched, RG will
increase a little to become R + ΔR

([ R  R ]R )  RR RR R
V   
( R  [ R  R ])( R  R ) (2 R  R )(2 R ) (4 R  2R)

In all realistic situations 4R >>> 2R

61
The precise relationship between elongation and resistance can
be computed using Equation

Stress and strain are related by a constant called Young’s

modulus (also called modulus of elasticity), as shown in
Equation

62
63
The total tension force in the bar is
3000lb/in2*2in2=6000 lb.
64
Because this bar has a cross-sectional area of 13 cm2, the
total tension force in the bar is 26,910 N.
65
Low-Force Sensors

66
SOLUTION

67
 PRESSURE SENSORS
Bourdon Tubes
• A Bourdon tube is a short bent
tube, closed at one end. When the
tube is pressurized, it tends to
straighten out. This motion is
proportional to the applied
pressure.
• Notice that the displacement can
be either linear or angular. A
position sensor such as a pot or
LVDT can convert the displacement
into an electrical signal.
• Bourdon-tube sensors are available
in pressure ranges from 30 to
100,000 psi. 68
Bellows

As the pressure inside increases, the bellows expand against the

resistance of a spring (the spring is often the bellows itself). This
motion is detected with a position sensor such as a pot.

Differential pressure sensor, here, the pressure from outside the

bellows (pressure 2) tends to make the bellows compress,
whereas pressure 1 tends to make the bellows expand. The
position of the shaft is a function of the difference in pressure
inside and outside the bellows. 69
TEMPERATURE SENSORS
Temperature sensors give an output proportional to temperature.
Most temperature sensors have a positive temperature coefficient
(desirable), which means that the sensor output goes up as the
temperature goes up, but some sensors have a negative
temperature coefficient, which means that the output goes down
as the temperature goes up.

70
Bimetallic Temperature Sensors

The bimetallic temperature sensor consists of a bimetallic strip

wound into a spiral. The bimetallic strip is a laminate of two
metals with different coefficients of thermal expansion. As the
temperature rises, the metal on the inside expands more than
the metal on the outside, and the spiral tends to straighten out.
When the temperature increases, the tube containing liquid
mercury rotates clockwise. When the tube rotates past the
horizontal, the mercury runs down to the right and completes
the electrical connection between the electrodes.
71
 Resistance Temperature Detectors
The resistance temperature
detector (RTD) is a temperature
sensor based on the fact that
metals increase in resistance as
temperature rises.
A wire, such as platinum, is wrapped around a ceramic or glass rod
(sometimes the wire coil is supported between two ceramic rods).

Platinum wire has a temperature coefficient of 0.0039 Ω/Ω/°C, which

means that the resistance goes up 0.0039 Ω for each ohm of wire for each Celsius degree of temperature rise.

RTDs are available in different resistances, a common value being

100 Ω. Thus, a 100-Ω platinum RTD has a resistance of 100 Ω at
0°C, and it has a positive temperature coefficient of 0.39 Ω/°C.

72
73
 Thermistors
• A thermistor is a two-terminal
device that changes resistance
with temperature.
• Thermistors are nonlinear;
therefore, they are not usually
used to get an accurate
temperature reading but to
indicate temperature changes, for
example, overheating.

The resistor (R) value selected should be close

to the nominal value of the thermistor.

• Most thermistors have a negative temperature coefficient, which

means the resistance decreases as temperature increases
• A relatively small change in temperature can produce a large
change in resistance 74
Integrated-Circuit Temperature Sensors
• Integrated-circuit temperature sensors come in various
configurations. A common example is the LM34 and LM35
series.
• The LM34 produces an output voltage that is proportional to
Fahrenheit temperature,
• and the LM35 produces an output that is proportional to
Celsius temperature.
• It has three active terminals: supply voltage (Vs), ground, and
Vout.
• The output voltage of the LM35 is directly proportional to °C,
that is,

75
• If only positive temperatures need to be measured, then the
simple circuit (middle of Figure) can be used.
• If positive and negative temperatures must be measured, then
the circuit on the right can be used, which requires a positive-
and negative-supply voltage.
76
77
FLOW SENSORS
Flow sensors measure the quantity of fluid material passing by a
point in a certain time. The Venturi effect is the reduction
Pressure-Based Flow Sensors in fluid pressure that results when a
fluid flows through a constricted section
(or choke) of a pipe.
This group of flow sensors is
based on the fact that
pressure in a moving fluid is
proportional to the flow.

The pressure is detected with a

pressure sensor; based on the
physical dimensions of the
system, the flow can be
calculated.
The static pressure in the first measuring tube
(1) is higher than at the second (2), and
the fluid speed at "1" is lower than at "2",
because the cross-sectional area at "1" is
greater than at "2".
78
The flow is proportional to the pressure difference between
these ports and is calculated as follows:

orifice plate 79
80
Venturi flow sensor

• A venturi is a gradual restriction in the pipe that causes the fluid

velocity to increase in the restricted area. This area of higher
velocity has a lower pressure.
• The flow is proportional to the difference in pressure between
P2 and P1.
• The venturi flow sensor tends to keep the flow more laminar
(smooth), but both the orifice plate and the venturi cause
pressure drops in the pipe, which may be objectionable.

81
 The pitot tube is a pressure-based flow sensor that
Pitot tube causes minimum restriction.
The pitot tube is a small open tube
that faces into the flow.
The probe actually consists of two
tubes:
One faces into the flow and reports
the impact pressure (often called
the velocity head),
and one opens perpendicularly to
the flow and reports the static
pressure.
The impact pressure is always greater than the static pressure,
and the difference between these two pressures is proportional
to velocity and hence to flow.
Common uses for the pitot tube are for aircraft and marine speed
indicators. 82
Turbine Flow Sensors
Turbine, or spin-type, flow sensors (also called flowmeters),
employ a paddle wheel or propeller placed in the line of flow.
The rotational velocity of the wheel is directly proportional to
flow velocity.
A small magnet is attached to one of the blades, and a Hall-effect
sensor is mounted in the housing. The Hall sensor gives a pulse
for each revolution of the blades.

83
Magnetic Flowmeters If a liquid is even slightly
conductive (and many are), a
magnetic flowmeter can be used.

A nonconducting section of
pipe is placed in a magnetic
field.
The moving fluid in the pipe is
like the moving conductor in
a generator—it produces
a voltage. The voltage, which
is proportional to the fluid
velocity, is detected from
electrodes placed in the sides
of the pipe.

84
LIQUID-LEVEL SENSORS

Liquid-level sensors, which measure the height of a liquid in a

container, have two classifications:
discrete and continuous.
Discrete-level detectors can only detect whether the liquid is at
a certain level.
The continuous-level detector provides an analog signal that is
proportional to the liquid level.

85
Discrete-Level Detectors
• The simplest type of level detector uses a float and a limit
switch. There are many possible configurations of a float-
based level detector—one is illustrated in Figure (a). The
activation level can be adjusted by relocating either the cam
or the switch.
• Another type of level detector is based on a photocell [Figure
(b)]. When the liquid level submerges the light path, the
photodetector signal changes, thus indicating the presence of
the liquid.
• Many liquids—such as tap water, weak acids, beer, and coffee
(to name a few)— are slightly conductive, which offers
another means of detection. As illustrated in Figure (c), an
electric probe is suspended over the liquid. When the liquid
reaches the probe, the resistance in the circuit abruptly
decreases.
86
87
Continuous-Level Detectors
Continuous-level detectors provide a signal that is proportional
to the liquid level.
• One of the most direct methods(used in the gas tank of your
car) is a float connected to a position sensor [Figure (a)]
• Another way to measure liquid level is to measure the
pressure at the bottom of the container [Figure (b)]. This
method is based on the fact that the pressure at the bottom of
the tank (called the head) is directly proportional to the level,
as expressed in Equation:

88
89
• Monitoring the weight of the liquid with load cells is another
technique that can determine liquid level [Figure (c)].

• Some devices can detect the liquid level directly. The device
shown in Figure (d) is simply two vertical electrodes mounted
inside the tank. The output of the device, which must be
amplified or otherwise processed, is either resistance or
capacitance and is proportional to the level.

• Figure 6.60(e) shows another direct level-sensing system. This

system uses an ultrasonic-range detector mounted over the
tank.

90
91