Pace Booklet - Properties of Matter

Fluid Mechanics & Properties of Matter Rg-Phy.
XII-2020-22
Properties of Matter - Solid

Elasticity
IIT-JEE Syllabus:
Hooke’s law, Young’s modulus, Bulk modulii of elasticity

Introduction
The existence of matter in three different states i.e. solid, liquid and gaseous is due to following two factors.
1. The magnitudes of the interatomic and intermolecular forces.
2. The extent of thermal motion of atoms and molecules (at given temperature).
Elasticity
The property of a body to regain its original configuration (shape, length, volume) when the external deforming
forces are removed is called Elasticity.
Terms related to Elasticity

1. Deforming force
A force applied on body which produces a change in shape or size of body (length, volume) is called deforming force.
2. Perfectly elastic body

A body which regains its original configuration (size or shape) immediately and completely after the removal of
deforming force is called a perfectly elastic body.
Example Quartz and phosphor bronze are nearly perfectly elastic body.
3. Perfectly plastic body

A body which does not regain its original configuration (size and shape) at all after the removal of deforming force is
called a perfectly plastic body.
ExamplePutty, lump of gum, mud, paraffin wax are nearly perfectly plastic body.
Note:
1. No material which in practice behaves as perfectly elastic or perfectly plastic.
2. Only the degree of elasticity or plasticity differs from body to body.
Interatomic and Intermolecular forces

Atoms and molecules of matter are held together by interatomic or intermolecular forces.
They are electrical in nature and hence can be attractive or repulsive.
The mutual potential energy (U) corresponding to this force between two U
molecules or atoms as a function of their separation(r) is shown.
The corresponding force between two molecules
r0
dU O
F  r
dr
The potential energy is a minimum at the equilibrium separation r0, at which

point the force is zero. F
As the separation (r) decreases, the attractive force first increases and then Repulsive
 
decreases to zero at r = r0. O
r
For smaller distances force is repulsive. Attractive

 
COLLEGES: ANDHERI / BORIVALI / CHEMBUR / DADAR / KALYAN / KHARGHAR / NERUL / POWAI / THANE # 53
Fluid Mechanics & Properties of Matter Rg-Phy. XII-2020-22
Classification of Matter
Solid: - Atoms and molecules are bounded by strong intermolecular forces such that there is no change in shape and
size easily.
Liquids: - The intermolecular forces are comparatively less than that in solids, so the shape can be easily changed.
But volume of a given mass of liquid is not easy to change, and hence the density.
Gases: - The intermolecular forces are very weak, due to which they cannot support compressive, tensile or shearing
forces. Density changes rapidly with temperature.
Stress ( )
When a deforming force is applied on a body, it changes the configuration (shape or size)
of body. As a result, an internal restoring force develops which tends to bring back the
body to original configuration.
This internal force per unit area of deformed body is called Stress.
Restoring Force
Stress =
Area
If no plastic deformation or permanent deformation of body takes place, then restoring
force is equal and opposite to the external deforming force.
External deforming Force
Stress =
Area
S.I unit of stress is N/m2 or Pascal denoted by Pa. CGS unit is dyn/cm2. The dimensional formula is [M 1 L1T 2 ] .
If the external force is varying in direction and magnitude on the cross-sectional area, then to generate equilibrium
internal force will be variable in direction and magnitude on the given cross-section. The stress at a point is defined as
F
Stress  Lim
A 0 A
Where,  F = internal force acting on infinitesimal area (A) .
 F has two components
1. Fn = component normal to surface
2. Ft = component tangential to surface
Types of stress
1.Normal stress or Axial stress or Longitudinal stress:
The stress due to the perpendicular or normal component of internal force is Normal stress.
Fn
F
 n  Lim n
A0 A l
Normal stress has two types:

1. Tensile stress 2. Compressive stress l
1 Tensile Stress:
If there is an increase in dimension or length of body in the direction of force applied, the
stress is called Tensile stress.
Fn
Example A solid cylinder is stretched by two equal forces applied normal to its cross-
section. Fn
2. Compressive stress:
If there is decrease in dimension or length of a body due to force applied, the stress
set-up is called compressive stress.
Example A column supporting vertical load.
Illustration1:A4.0m long steel cable has cross-section area of 0.5cm2, is hung with 500kg load. Find the stress
and its type developed in the cable.
Fn mg (500kg )(9.8m / s 2 )
Solution: Stress    ,  n  9.8  10 7 Pa
A A (0.5  104 m 2 )
Stress developed is Normal Tensile stress.
2. Shearing Stress or Tangential Stress (  )

The stress set up due to force acting tangentially to the surface of a body is called shearing stress or
tangential stress.
Shearing stress changes only shape of body by without changing its area  A
volume.
Ft Ft
  Tangential stress
A
If applied force is variable, then tangential stress is different at different

points and at a given point is
Fixed Face
Ft
  Lim
A0 A
Example A shaft resists shear stress when it is twisted by external torque.
Illustration2:A bar of cross-section A is subjected to a tensile force F. Consider a plane section of the bar whose
normal makes an angle  with axis of bar.
(a) Find the tensile stress on plane.
(b) Find the shearing stress on plane. 
(c) For what value of  is the tensile stress is maximum?
F
(d) For what value of  is the shearing stress is maximum?
Solution: (a) The resolved part of F along the normal is the tensile force
on this plane and the resolved part parallel to the plane is
the shearing force on this plane.
Force F cos  F
 Tensile Stress    cos2 
Area A sec  A
 Area of section  A sec 
Force F sin  F
(b) Shearing stress    sin 2
Area A sec 2 A
(c) Tensile stress on plane is maximum when cos 2   1 or , cos   1,   0,180o
(d) Shearing stress is maximum when sin 2  1 or 2  900 or   450
3. Volumetric Stress:
When a body is acted upon by forces such that
(i) The force at any point is normal to the surface.
(ii) The magnitude of force at any small area is proportional to the area.
The restoring force per unit area in the body is called volumetric stress.
F
v 
A
Volumetric stress is same as pressure.
Example If a block is kept completely immersed in water, hydrostatic pressure acts on all sides of block. The restoring
force and hence the pressure set up in block is volumetric stress.
Illustration 3:A wire has density of 9 g/cm3 and breaking stress 6  109 N / m 2 . What is the length of wire such
that it breaks under its own weight when suspended vertically?
Solution: Let l be length of wire required.
Weight of wire = mg  (  v) g O
 (  Al ) g
A
Tension is the restoring force developed is wire, in response to external force gravity.
Tension and hence its stress is maximum at topmost point 0.
B
T
To  mg  0  0  (l g )
A
6
0  6 109 N / m2  9 103  l  9.8  l  106 m  6.8 104 m
88.2
Strain ( ) : When a deforming force is applied on a body, there is change in shape, size of the body. The object is said
to be strained or deformed. Strain is defined as the ratio of change in dimension to the original dimension.
Changein dimension
Strain =
Original dimension
Strain being the ratio of two like quantities has no units and hence it is a dimensionless number.
Types of Strain:
1. Longitudinal strain (l )

It is the ratio of change in length (l ) to the original length (l).
l changein length
l  
l original length
2. Volume Strain (v )
It is the ratio of change in volume (v) to the original volume (v) of body.
v changein volume
v  
v original volume
3. Shear Strain ( )
It is the angle ( ) through which a face of a body originally perpendicular
to fixed face is turned.
L
Shearing strain ( ) 
L
Illustration4: A copper wire of length 5m is suspended from ceiling. When a mass

is hung from its lower end, its length increases by 2cm. Find the strain in the wire.
Solution: Original length = 5m
2
Increase in length = 2 cm = 2 10 m .
Changein length 2 10 2 m

 Longitudinal strain =   4 10 3
Original length 5m
Elastic Limit: It is the highest deforming stress under which material remains elastic.
If stress is increased beyond elastic limit, then body gets permanently deformed.
Hooke’s law: Hooke’s law states that the stress produced in the wire is directly proportional to the strain within
proportional limit.Later on it was found that Hooke’s law is applicable to all types of deformations
such as compression, bending, twisting. Within proportional limit,
stress  strain,   Or   E
Where, E is constant of proportionality and is known as modulus of Elasticity.
Modulus of Elasticity (E)

Modulus of elasticity depends on
1. Nature of material of the body.
2. Manner in which the body is deformed.
Types of Modulii of Elasticity:

There are three types of elastic modulli are defined corresponding to three types of strain.
1. Young’s modulus of elasticity (Y)
2. Bulk modulus of elasticity (K)
3. Modulus of rigidity or Shear modulus ( )
1 Young’s Modulus of Elasticity (Y)

It is defined as the ratio of normal stress to the longitudinal strain.
Normal or longitudinal stress
Y=
longitudinal strain
Derivation
Consider a metal wire AB of length l, radius r having uniform cross-section is suspended from rigid support at end A.
Let a normal force F is applied at free end B, increases its length by l ( BB ').
F F
Longitudinal stress   2
A r
l
LongitudinalStrain 
l
Normal stress F/A Fl Fl
Y     2
Longitudinalstrain l / l A( l )  r ( l )
Normal stress is constant over any area of cross-section.
Note: Fl
l 
YA
1 Extension is proportional to deforming force and length of rod i.e. greater the force larger the deformation,
longer the rod larger the extension.
2 Extension is inversely proportional to
(a) Cross-section area (A)
(b) Modulus of elasticity (Y)
i.e. a thicker rod produces less deformation and a stiffer material produces less deformation.
3 Y
Fl
or F 
YA (l ) Or,
 YA 
F    l  k ( l )
A( l ) l  l 
K is called stiffness constant
From above equation, a rod of uniform cross-section may be considered as an elastic spring of stiffness,
YA
k .
l
Illustration 5:A steel wire of length 10m and diameter 5mm is stretched by 10 kg wt. Find the increase in its
length, if the Young’s modulus of steel is 2.4  1012 dyne / cm 2 .
Solution: Here, l = 10m = 1000cm

2r = 5mm or r = 2.5 mm = 0.25cm
F = 10kg-wt = 10000g-wt = 10000  980dyne
l  ? Y  2.4 1012 dyne / cm2
F l Fl (10000  980)  1000
Y 2
  l  2 , l   0.0208cm
 r l r Y (22 / 7)  (0.25) 2  2.4  1012
Illustration 6:A solid cylindrical steel column is 4.0 m long and 9.0 cm in diameter. What will be decrease in
length when carrying a load of 80000 kg? Y  1.9  1011 Nm -2 .
Solution: Let us first calculate the cross-sectional area of column  r 2  (0.045 m)2  6.36 103 m2
F/A FL (8 10 4 )(9.8 N)  (4.0 m)

Then, from Y  we have, L   3 2 11 -2
 2.6  10 3 m  2.6 mm
L / L AY (6.36 10 m )(1.9  10 Nm )
2. Bulk Modulus of Elasticity (B or K)

It is the ratio of normal stress to volumetric strain, within proportional
limit.
Normal stress
B or K =
Volumetricstrain
Consider a spherical solid body of volume (V) and surface area (A). In
order to compress the body, suppose a pressure (P) is applied on the
body which decreases its volume by (V ) as shown. The volumetric

strain is given by
V
V  
V
Negative sign shows that volume is decreasing when pressure is applied.
Normal stress = P = Pressure applied
P PV
 B 
V / V V
B is a constant and is known as the Bulk modulus of elasticity.
S.I. unit of B is N/m2 or Pa.
The object is said to be under hydraulic compression and the pressure can be called the hydraulic stress.
Bulk modulus of solids is about 50 times to that of liquids and for gases it is 10-8 times to that of solids.
Bsolids> Bliquids> Bgases
For gases, there are two types of Bulk modulii
Isothermal Bulk modulus of elasticity of gas

Biso = P (Pressure of gas)
Adiabatic Bulk modulus of elasticity of gas

Cp
Badia   P P = Pressure of gas 
Cv
Compressibility
The reciprocal of bulk modulus of elasticity is called compressibility.
S.I. unit of compressibility is N-1m2 or pascal-1 (Pa-1).
Illustration7: Find the density of water near the ocean bed where the pressure is about 700atm. Given density of
9 2
water = 1025 kg/m3, B  2.0 10 N / m for water.
Solution At surface of ocean
P0  1atm  0  1025kg / m3
Or, 1m3 volume has mass = 1025kg
PV
B
V
PV
V  
B
P = Change in pressure = (700 – 1) atm = 699atm
V = Change in volume , V = 1m3
(699  1.01  105 N / m 2 )  (1m 3 )
 V  
2.0  109 N / m 2
V  0.0353m3
m
  ' = New density of water 
V  V
1025kg 1025kg kg
'  3 3
 3
 1062.51 3
(1.00m  0.0353m ) 0.9647m m
Water gets compressed by about 2 – 3% at the ocean bed due to very high pressure.
3. Modulus of Rigidity ( )
It is the ratio of tangential stress to shearing strain within proportional limit.
Tangential stress

Shearing strain
F/A F
 
 A
Fd

AL
It is also called shear modulus of rigidity or just Shear modulus.
Its S.I. unit is N/m2or Pascal (Pa).
Illustration8:A horizontal steel rod of diameter 5cm projects 5.0cm from wall. A 1000kg object is suspended
fromone end of rod. Neglecting mass of rod, Find
(a) Shearing stress on rod. (b) Vertical deflection of the end of rod.
10 2
Given shear modulus of steel  4 10 N / m
F Mg 1000  9.8 9.8 103
Solution: (a) Shearing stress   2    5 10 6 N / m 2
A r (22 / 7)(2.5  10 2 ) 2 19.625  104
F/A ( F / A)l 5  10 6  5  10 2
(b)   l  , l   6.25  10 6 m
l / l  4  1010
Illustration 9: A box shaped piece of gelatin dessert has a top area of 15 cm2 and a height of 3 cm. When a
shearing force of 0.50 N is applied to the upper surface, the upper surface displaces 4 mm relative
to the bottom surface. What are the shearing stress, the shearing strain, and the shear modulus for
the gelatin?
tangential force 0.50 N
Solution: Shear stress    333 Pa
area of face 15 10-4 m 2
displacement 0.4 cm stress 333 Pa

Shear strain =   0.133 Shear modulus G    2.5 kPa
height 3cm strain 0.133
IN CHAPTER EXERCISE
1 The Young’s modulus of the material of a wire of length L and radius r is Y Newton per m2. If the length of the
wire is reduced to L/2 and the radius to r/2, then its Young’s modulus will be
(a) Y/2 (b) Y (c) 2Y (d) 4Y
2 Two wires of same material and same extension l have lengths l and 3l and diameters 3d and d. What will
be the ratio of the forces applied on the two?
(a) 1/27 (b) 27 (c) 9 (d) 3
 V 
3 When a metal wire is stretched by a load, the fractional change in its volume   is
 V 
2
l  l  l
(a) (b)   (c) (d) none of these
l  l  l
4 A steel ring of radius r and cross sectional area A is fitted on to a wooden disc of radius R (R > r). If Young’s
modulus of steel be Y, then force with which the steel ring is expanded is
 Y  R  r  Yr
(a) A Y (R/r) (b) A Y (R – r)/r (c)    (d)
 A  r  AR
5 If  is the density of the material of a wire and  is the breaking stress, the greatest length of wire that can
hang freely without breaking is
  2 
(a) (b) (c) (d)
g 2g g 2g
6 A spherical ball contracts in volume by 0.01% when subjected to a normal uniform pressure of 100
atmospheres. The bulk modulus of its material in dynes/cm2 is
(a) 10  1012 (b) 100  1012 (c) 1  1012 (d) 2  1012
7 If a gas is heated at constant pressure, its isothermal compressibility

(a) remains constant (b) increases linearly
(c) decreases linearly with temperature (d) decreases inversely with temperature
Answers1 b, 2 b, 3 a, 4 b, 5 a, 6 c, 7a
Rod as a spring
stress Fl  YA 
Y  F    l  k l Y, A
strain Al  l  l K
YA
where, k  = Equivalent spring constant
l l
F F
Series Combination:
Y1 , A1 K1 k1k2
l1 K eq 
k1  k2
l1
K2
Y2 , A2
l2
l2
F F
F
 Y1 A1   Y2 A2 
  . 
k1k2  l1   l2  (Y1 A1 .Y2 A2 )
keq   
k1  k2 Y1 A1 Y2 A2 Y1 A1l2  Y2 A2l1

l1 l2
Parallel Combination:
Y2 , A 2
Y1 , A1 K2
K1 K eq
l2
l1
F F
F
Y1 A1 Y2 A2
K eq  k1  k2  
l1 l2
Composite Bars
A column made up of two different materials as shown. Y1
A1
A1 , A2 and Y1 , Y2 are corresponding cross-section and Young’s modulus of two Y2 A2
materials, respectively. The bars are having same length (l).
If  1 and  2 are stresses developed in two materials, then external force is
balanced by them as l
 1 A1   2 A2  F
Extension in two portions must be same and both have same original length, so
strains will also be same.
1 2
1  2 Y1 F Y2 F
 or, 1  , 2 
Y1 Y2 1 1  A2Y2
AY 1 1  A2Y2
AY
So, the loads on two portions will be
Y1 A1 F Y2 A2 F
F1   1 A1  , F2   2 A2 
Y1 A1  Y2 A2 Y1 A1  Y2 A2
Poisson’s Ratio ( )
It is defined as the ratio of lateral strain to longitudinal strain.
lateral strain d / d r / r
( ) Poisson ' s ratio    
longitudinal strain L / L L / L
1. Negative sign implies radius of wire decreases as the length

increases.
1
2. Theoretical value of  lies between 1&  .
2
1
3. Practical value of  lies between 0 &  .
2
Stress Strain Curve

A graph between stress and strain for the stretched metal wire is
UTS
shown.
P = Proportional limit F
E = Elastic limit E y
 P
Y = Yield point
UTS = Ultimate Tensile strength
F = Fracture or Breaking point
OP  stress – strain graph is linear and it obeys Hook’s law i.e.

stress  strain O 
OE  Material remains elastic in this region but in PE it becomes non-linear i.e. Hook’s law is not valid.
Y  slope of curve becomes zero. Material stars deforming under constant stress and behaves like a viscous liquid.
UTS is maximum stress material can withstand without failure.
F is point where material fractures or breaks.
Stress calculated is based on original cross-section but actually it is decreasing.
Elastic-after Effect
The delay in returning to the original configuration by an elastic body after removal of external load is called Elastic-
after effect.
Elastic aftereffect is negligibly small for quartz fibre and phosphor bronze. Due to this reason the suspensions made
from quartz and phosphor bronze are used in galvanometer and electrometers.
Glass has very large value of elastic aftereffect. It takes hours for glass fibre to return to its original state on removal
of deforming force.
Elastic Fatigue
The loss of strength of material due to repeated loading and unloading cycle on the material is called Elastic Fatigue.
Hysteresis Loop
In stress – strain curve the region of plastic deformation lies on the

right of elastic limit (E). A
E
When body is loaded to stress beyond elastic limit and then unloaded, P
the unloading curve does not retraces the loading curve, and returns
along different path, as shown in figure.
The area enclosed by OPEAA’ is numerically equal to the energy lost
per unit volume of body in the given cycle.
The loop OEAA’ is called the Hysteresis loop. OA’ is permanent O A' 
deformation or the plastic strain or the residual strain.
On contrary, if the body is loaded and unloaded in the elastic region, Plastic strain or permanent
it returns back by retracing the same original path. Hence no energy is deformation
lost in the loading unloading cycle. This indicates in elastic region, the internal forces acting between particles of the
body are conservative forces.
Elastic potential energy stored in a stretched wire or Rod

When a metal rod or wire is elongated under a gradually increasing load, work is done by the load.
The work done by load is partially or completely stored as elastic potential energy of strain.
If the strain is within elastic limit, the work done is completely transferred into potential energy and can be recovered
during gradual unloading.
Strain energy or potential energy stored in rod
A, Y ,l
K
l l
 
F F
1 2
Potential Energy stored in spring  U  kx
2
YA Fl
where, k x  l 
l AY
2
1  YA  Fl  1 F 2l 1
U     , U  F l
2  l  YA  2 YA 2
Rearranging the equation
1  F   l 
U  .   .   .( Al )
2  A  l 
1
U  .(stress)( strain)(volume)
2
U 1
 .( stress ).(strain)
Volume 2
U
 Elastic potential energy density
Volume
1
Energy density (u)   stress  strain
2
stress
Y or, stress  Y  strain
strain
1 2 1 ( stress ) 2
 Energy density (u)   Y  ( strain) , u  
2 2 Y
NOTE:1. The area under stress – strain curve gives the potential energy stored per unit volume of the specimen.
2. If stress applied to a specimen is not constant then, energy stored in elastic specimen is given by
1
  stressapplied , U  2 dV dV = change is volume of rod
2Y
Illustration10: A catapult has two parallel rubber strings, each of length 15cm and area of cross – section 20mm2.
When stretched by 6cm, it throws a stone of mass 100gm to a height of 30m. Find Young’s modulus
of elasticity of rubber.
Solution: Stretched catapult has stored elastic potential energy (U)
2
1 l 
U    Y     AL   2
2  L 
 
2
Yl A
U
L
This elastic potential energy is transferred to kinetic energy of stone and finally to gravitational
potential energy of stone.
100
U = mgh   9.8  30 joules
1000
Yl 2 A mghL (0.1) (9.8) (30) (0.15)
mgh  ,Y 
L Al 2 20  10 6  (6  10 2 ) 2
Y  6.125  107 N / m 2
Thermal Stress and Thermal Strain l , , Y , A

When there is increase or decrease in temperature, the body expands or
contracts.
If deformation of body is prevented, the stresses are induced in the body. A B

These stresses are called Thermal stresses or Temperature stresses.
Consider rod AB fixed between two rigid supports.
Let l = length of rod A = Area of cross-section
Y = Young’s modulus of rod
 = coefficient of thermal expansion of rod
Let temperature of rod increases by  T . The increase in length of rod is given by
l   l T
Since rod is fixed at both ends, a compressive strain will be produced in the rod. This is because natural length of rod
is l  l , but actual length is l.
l  l T
  strain  
l l
  (T )
  Y  .  Y (T )
Where,  = Thermal stress (Compressive)
Force on supports  F   A  YA (T )
F F
Forces on Rod,
F
 Compressive force 
F
When temperature of rod is increased, then compressive thermal stresses are induced in the rod and when
temperature is decreased, then tensile thermal stresses are induced in the rod.
IN CHAPTER EXERCISE
1 A uniform wire of cross sectional area A and Young’s modulus Y is stretched within elastic limit. If S is the
stress in the wire, the energy density stored in the wire in terms of the given parameters is
S 2Y S2 S2
(a) (b) 2 (c) (d)
2Y S 2Y Y
2 A steel rod of length l area of cross section A, Young’s modulus Y and linear coefficient of expansion  is
heated through ToC. The work that can be performed by the rod when heated is
1
(a)  YA t    l t  (b) YA t    l t 
2
1 1
(c) YA t    l t  (d) 2  YA t    l t 
2 2
3 The Young’s modulii for brass and steel are, respectively, 1.0  1010 N/m2 and 2  1010 N/m2. A brass wire and
steel wire, both of the same length, are extended by 1mm under the same force, the radii of the brass and
steel wires being RB and RS, respectively. Then
RB RB
(a) RS  2 RB (b) RS  (c) RS  4 RB (d) RS 
2 4
o
4 A uniform pressure P is exerted on all sides of a solid cube at temperature t C. By what amount should the
temperature of the cube be raised in order to bring its volume back to the value it had before the pressure
was applied? The coefficient of volume expansion of cube is  and the bulk modulus is K.
P P PK 2K
(a) (b) (c) (d)
K K  P
5 A steel wire is suspended vertically from a rigid support. When loaded with weight in air, it extends by la and
when the weight is immersed completely in water the extension is reduced to lW . The relative density of the
maternal of the weight is
la la lW lW
(a) (b) (c) (d)
lw (la  lW ) (la  lW ) la
6 A given quantity of an ideal gas is at pressure P and absolute temperature T. The isothermal bulk modulus of
the gas is
(a) 2P/3 (b) P (c) 3P/2 (d) 2P
7 One end of a long metallic wire of length L is tied to ceiling. The other end is tied to a massless spring of
constant K. A mass m hangs freely from the free end of the spring. The area of cross section and Young’s
modulus of wire are A and Y, respectively. If the mass is slightly pulled down and released, it will oscillate
with time period T equal to
m m(YA  KL) mYA mL
(a) 2 (b) 2 (c) 2 (d) 2
K YAK KL YA
Answer 1c, 2 b, 3b, 4a, 5 b, 6 b, 7b
PROPERTIES OF MATTER- LIQUID
Surface Tension
It is a property of liquid (at rest) by virtue of which its free surface contracts so that its exposed surface area becomes
a minimum.
Free surface behaves as if it is under tension, like a stretched elastic membrane.
Cause of surface Tension

Molecule A well inside the bulk experiences force from water molecules form Air
all sides.
B
Molecule B, at the surface interacts with air molecules from above and water
molecules from below.
This asymmetric force distribution is responsible for surface tension. A
By surface it means a layer approximately 10-15 molecular diameters.
The force between two molecules decreases as the separation between them water
increases and it becomes negligible if the separation exceeds 10-15 molecular
diameters.
Therefore, 10-15 molecular diameter deep, molecule experiences equal forces from all directions and hence there is
no surface tension.
Measurement of Surface Tension

Consider the free surface of a liquid with a line AB drawn on it.
Line AB divides the surface into two parts, surface to the right of it and left of it. B
Two parts pull each other with a force proportional to the length of the line AB.
These forces are perpendicular to the line AB and tangential to the surface.
A
Surface of the liquid behaves like a stretched rubber sheet. The rubber sheet is in state of
tension. Any part of sheet pulls the adjacent part towards itself.
Let F be common magnitude of the forces exerted on each other by the two parts of the
surface across a line of length l.
F
 Surface Tension = T  B
l
S.I. unit of T is N/m and dimensions [ M 1 L0 T 2 ]
It is a scalar quantity and depends on nature of liquid. A
It is temperature sensitive and impurity sensitive.
Alternative method to measure surface tension

B
Consider a wire frame as shown in figure, equipped with a sliding wire AB.
It is dipped in soapy water which forms a film of liquid.
A force F has to be applied to hold the wire in place. l
Since, the soap film has two surfaces attached to the wire; the total length of film in F
contact with wire is 2l.
F A
 Surface tension  T 
2l
Illustration 11. Calculate the force required to take away a flat circular plate of radius 4 cm from the surface of
water, surface tension of water being 75 dyne cm-1.
Solution: Length of the surface = circumference of the circular plate

 2r  (8) cm
Required force  T  L  75  8  1885.71 dyne.
Surface Energy
The molecules on the surface experience a net downward force. Therefore, to bring a molecule from interior of liquid
to the surface, some work is required to be done against intermolecular forces.
This work is stored as potential energy of the molecule on the surface.
The potential energy of surface molecules per unit area of the surface is called surface energy.
Its S.I unit is J/m2 and dimensions are [ M 1 L0 T 2 ]
It depends on the number of surfaces present. For example, a liquid drop has one liquid –air surface while bubble has
two liquid–air surfaces.
Measurement of surface energy

Consider a rectangular wire frame ABCD with sliding arm AB. B B'
When this frame is dipped in a soap solution, a soap film is formed in frame.
Due to surface tension (T), the film exerts a force on the frame (AB) towards l
interior of film is given by F
F  T  (2l )  2Tl ( Two surface of film)
A A'
If arm AB is displaced to new position A’B’ through distance (dx) then, work x dx
done (dW) is given by
dw  Fdx  2Tl (dx)
W   dW   2Tldx  2Tlx
W = TA
Where, A = 2lx = Area of both surfaces of film
The work done to form a film is stored as potential energy of the surface.
The amount of work done or potential energy per unit area under isothermal conditions is equal to surface
energy.
W
 Surface energy   T = Surface tension
A
Surface energy is numerically equal to surface tension.
Illustration 12. Calculate the work done in blowing a soap bubble of radius 10 cm, surface tension being 0.06 Nm-1.
What additional work will be done in further blowing it so that its radius is doubled?
Solution: In case of a soap bubble, there are two free surfaces.
 work done at blowing a soap bubble of radius R is given by.
W  2  4R 2  T , where T is the surface tension of the soap solution.
where, R  0.1 m, T  0.06 Nm-1
 W   8(0.1)2  0.06 J  1.51 102 J .
Similarly, work done is forming a bubble of radius 0.2 m is,
W  8(0.2) 2  0.06 J  6.03  102 J
 Additional work done in doubling the radius of the bubble is given by,
W  W   6.03 102 J  1.51 102 J  4.52 102 J

Excess Pressure inside a curved surface:

Plane Surface
If the surface of liquid is plane, then a molecule on the surface of liquid is attracted equally in all directions along the
surface. Hence, resultant force due to surface tension is zero. The pressures just above and below the surface of
liquid are equal.
Curved Surface
If the surface is curved, there will be net resultant force due to surface
tension towards concave side on surface. concave
Since surface is in equilibrium, there must be excess of pressure on the concave T
T convex
side, to balance the force due to surface tension.
Excess pressure (P) inside a soap bubble

Pressure on the concave face of curved surface is always greater than of the convex face and this difference is called
Excess Pressure.
T  2r 
Consider an air bubble of radius (r) in liquid. It is in equilibrium under the
action of three forces due to
Pout
1. External pressure (Pout) Pin
2. Internal Pressure (Pin)
3. Surface tension of liquid (T)
Forces due to internal and external pressure are given by Cross -section of soap bubble
Fout  Pout ( r 2 ) Fin  Pin ( r 2 )

Force due to surface tension is given by
FT  T (2 r )
In equilibrium of bubble
Pin ( r 2 )  Pout ( r 2 )  T (2 r )
2T
P  Pin  Pout  Excess Pressure 
r
For soap bubble in air, there are two surfaces, so
2T 4T
P  2  
r r
Illustration 13. If a number of little droplets of water, all of the same radius r coalesce to form a single drop of
3σ  1 1 
radius R , show that the rise in temperature of the water is given by  -  where J is the
J  r R
mechanical equivalent of heat, and  is the surface tension of water.
Solution: Let n be the number of droplets, each of radius r cm that coalesces to form a single drop of radius R
.
 Decrease in the surface area  4r 2 n  4R 2
Decrease in the surface energy  (4r 2 n  4R 2 )
4 
 Heat energy produced in the drop  (nr 2  R 2 )
J
Suppose the whole of heat energy is used to raise the temperature of the resultant drop by  ,
therefore,
4
mS   (nr 2  R 2 )
J
Where, m is the of the drop having specific heat S
4 3 0
m R  1 (density = 1 gm/cc), S  1 cal/gm C for water
3
4 3 3  nr 2 1 
  (nr 2  R 2 )      …(i)
J 4R 3 J  R3 R 
Since volume remains the same,
3
4 4 R
n r 3  R 3 or, n 
3 3 r
3  R 3 r 2 1  3  1 1 
Putting this value in (i), we have         
J  r 3 R3 R  J  r R 
3  1 1 
Thus the rise in temperature is given by,     .
J r R
Angle of contact ( )
For a solid and a liquid, it is defined as the angle between tangent to the liquid P
surface and that to the solid surface inside the liquid drawn at the point of P
contact. It ( ) is acute for glass-water interface and obtuse for glass-mercury. 

o
Case-I When   90 liquid curves up
The liquid surface and the liquid will have concave meniscus in the solid tube
This results when the force of cohesion between two liquid molecules is less
than force of adhesion between the liquid and the solid.
Example Glass and water.  I  II 
Case-II When   90o liquid curves down

The liquid surface gets curves down in contact with solid.
When liquid is poured in solid tube, convex meniscus is obtained.
Force of cohesion is greater than the force of adhesion.
Example Glass and mercury
Capillarity
It is a phenomenon by which a glass tube of very fine bore (called capillary tube) is dipped in a liquid (say water), the
liquid immediately rises up due to surface tension.
The narrower the tube, the greater is the height to which liquid rises.
When the same capillary tube is placed in mercury, then it gets depressed below the outside level.
The depression increases as the diameter of the tube decreases.
Liquids which rise in capillary are called wetting liquids and which fall are called non-wetting liquids.
Adhesive force is the attractive force between molecules of two different materials.
Cohesive force is the attractive force among molecules of same material.
T cos 
Measurement of capillary Rise:
Consider a glass capillary tube of radius (R) dipped vertically in liquid as T
R
shown. 
 r
The liquid meets the tube at angle of contact ( ). T sin 
The water meniscus in tube is along a circle of circumference 2 R which 
is in contact with glass. h
Due to surface tension, a force equal to (T) per unit length acts at all
points of the circle (Meniscus) on tube.
If ( ) is angle of contact, then this force is inwards at an angle ( ) from
the wall on tube.
From Newton’s third law tube exerts an equal and opposite force T per
unit length on the circumference of the liquid meniscus.
Resolving the force into two components
T cos   Force per unit length on liquid acting vertically upward
T sin  = Force per unit length on liquid acting horizontally outward
Considering the entire circumference (2 R) , for each horizontal component T sin  , there is equal and
diametrically opposite component and they neutralize each other.
Hence, net force in horizontal direction = 0
The vertical components being in same direction are added up and give net upward force (2 R)(T cos  )
This force supports the weight of water column
 (T cos ) (2 R)  Weight of the liquid column
 ( R 2 )(h)  g  V  g
Where, V = volume of liquid in meniscus,
If volume (V) of liquid in meniscus is negligible
2T cos 
h
R g
NOTE:
1. The small volume of liquid in meniscus (V) can be calculated as
For pure water and glass
R
  O0
So, the meniscus is hemi-spherical
R
 V = volume of cylinder of height (R) – volume of Hemisphere of
radius (R)
1  4 3  2 3 1 3
V  ( R 2 ) R   R , V   R3  R  R
2 3  3 3
For water and glass
1 2T R
(T cos 00 )(2 R)  ( R 2 h  g )   R 3  g , h 
3 R g 3
2. If angle of contact ( ) is greater than 900, the term cos  is negative and hence h is negative. The
expression gives the depression of liquid in the tube.
3. R = radius of tube
r = radius of meniscus
R R 2T cos  2T
cos   or , r   h 
r cos  R g r g
4. If the length of tube is greater than (h), the liquid rises in the tube so as to satisfy the above relation.
But if the length of tube is insufficient, then angle made by liquid surface ( ) and hence radius of meniscus
(r) changes in such a way that the force
(2 R)T cos  '  Weight to liquid rise
 (h '  g ) R 2
2T cos  ' 2T 2T
h'   Or, h'r '  = constant = hr
R g r' g g
h’r’= hr = constant
Illustration12. Water rises to a height of 10 cm in a certain capillary tube. The level of mercury in the same tube is
depressed by 3.42 cm. Compare the surface tension of water and mercury for the contacts angles
zero and 135º respectively.
r h g
Solution: Using the capillarity relation, T 
2 cos 
r  1  g  10 r  13.6  g  ( 3.42)
T1 (for water)   5 rg T2 (for mercury) = = 32.9 rg
2 cos  2 cos135º
T1 5 rg 1
   0.15
T2 32.9 rg 6.5
Viscosity 
F
Consider motion of a fluid flow between two parallel plates. 
The bottom plate is stationary while top plate is moving with constant v

velocity ( v ) . The fluid in contact with plate surface has same velocity

as that of surface so, top layer moves with velocity ( v ) and bottom
most layer is stationary. Y
The flow velocity of intermediate layers of fluid increases uniformly
X
from bottom to top.
‘Viscosity is defined as the property of fluid by virtue of which it opposes the relative motion between its
different layers’.
It is also called internal friction of fluid.
Viscous force opposes the motion of one portion of fluid relative to the other.
According to Newton, the viscous force (F) acting tangentially to the fluid layer is
1. Directly proportional to the area (A) of the layers in contact

F A
 dv 
2. Directly proportional to the velocity gradient   between the layers.
 dy 
dv
F
dy
dv dv
Or, F A , F   A
dy dy
 (eta) is constant of proportionally and is called coefficient of viscosity.
 depends on nature of fluid.
Negative sign implies that the direction of viscous force is opposite to the direction of relative velocity of layers.
S.I. unit of  is N-s/m2. It is also called pascal second (Pa-s) or decapoise.
1 decapoise = 1N-s/m2 = 1 Pa-s = 10 poise

Dimensions of  are [M 1 L1T 1 ]
1
Viscosity of liquid decreases with increase in temperature  
T
CGS unit of  is poise.
Illustration 13. A metal plate 100 cm2 in area rests on a layer of castor oil ( η = 15.5 poise) 0.2 cm thick. Calculate
the horizontal force required to move the plate with a speed of 3 cm/s.
dv
Solution: F  A Where,   15.5 poise A  100 cm2
dx
dv 3
  15s 1 F  15.5  100  15  23250 Dyne =- 0.233 N So, force required = 0.233 N
dx 0.2
Poiseuille’s Equation
The flow velocity profile for laminar flow of a viscous fluid in a long v0
cylindrical pipe is shown.
The velocity of fluid layers is greatest along the axis and zero at the pipe R
walls. vmax
Consider the equilibrium of cylindrical fluid element of radius (r) and
thickness (dr).
Net pressure force on cylindrical element is due to Pressure difference
(P) across its ends = shear force on its periphery due to cylindrical l
lamina over it.
v R
dv P
 P( r 2 )   (2 rl )   dv   2l r
rdr
dr 0
P 2
 v (R  r 2 )
4 l
Where, P  P1  P2 = Pressure difference between two ends
The flow is always in direction of decreasing pressure.

v – r graph is parabolic.
At r = R, v = 0 (along the walls)
( P1  P2 ) R 2
r = 0, v   vmax (along the axis)
4 l
Volume flow rate (Q),
d
Q V
dt Where, V = volume of fluid
Consider a ring of radius (r) and thickness (dr)
Cross-section of ring = dA  2 rdr
 Volume flow rate through this element is = vdA , v=velocity of fluid
rR R
 P1  P2  2 2
Q  vdA    ( R  r )(2 rdr )
r 0 0
4l 
d   R 4   P1  P2 
Q (V )   
dt 8     l 
 ( P1  P2 ) R 4
Q
8 l
This relation was first derived by Poiseuille and is called Poiseuille’s equation.
P1  P2 8 l
Q Where, Rt 
Rt  R4
Rt is known as fluid resistance
Capillaries in Series and Parallel

Capillaries in Series:
When two capillaries are connected in series across contact pressure difference  P then,
8 l1 8 l2
Rs  R1  R2  
 R14  R24
RS = Total fluid resistance (in series)
Volume of fluid flowing per second through both the tubes is same i.e.
P
Q1  Q2 
R1  R2
Where, P  P1  P2
P1 , P2 are pressure differences across individual capillaries respectively.
Capillaries in Parallel
When two capillaries are connected in parallel across constant pressure difference (P), then
1 1 1 R1 R2
  Or RP 
RP R1 R2 R1  R2
RP = Resistance in parallel combination
Volume flow rates through capillaries is given by
P P
V1  , V2 
R1 R2
Total volume flow rate = V1 + V2
1 1  P ( P )( R1  R2 )
 P     
 R1 R2  R1R2 R1 R2
( R1  R2 )
Reynolds Number
The stability of laminar flow (or streamline flow) is maintained by viscous forces.
At high flow rates, irregular, unsteady flow sets in and flow no longer remains laminar and is called Turbulent flow.
Reynolds Number (Re) is a dimensionless number whose value gives an approximate idea whether the flow rate
would be turbulent or laminar.
Vd
Re 

 = density of fluid  = viscosity of fluid V = velocity of fluid
d = dimension of boundary to fluid flow
Laminar flow occurs at low Reynold numbers where viscous forces are dominant.
Turbulent flow occurs at high Reynold number where inertial forces are dominant (Re> 5000).
Illustration 14. The diameter of the tap is 1.25 cm and the flow rate through it is 5 × 10 -5 m 3 s -1 . Is the flow
turbulent? Given coefficient of viscosity of water is 10 -3 poise.
d 2 4Q
Solution: Volume of water flowing out per second is Q  v   v
4 d 2
Reynolds number Re  4Q / d   5090

The flow will be turbulent.
Stokes’ Law
When a solid object moves through a fluid then, its motion is opposed by viscous force.
This viscous force exerted by fluid on object depends on
1. Velocity (v) of body
2. Size of body
3. Shape of body
4. Viscosity of fluid
The viscous force (or drag) Fv on a spherical body of radius (r) moving with velocity (v) in a medium of viscosity (  )
is given by
Fv  6 rv
This relation is called Stokes’ law.
Illustration 15. An air bubble of diameter 2 cm rises through a long cylindrical column of a viscous liquid, and
travels at 0.21 cms-1. If the density of the liquid is 1.47 g cm-1find its coefficient of viscosity. Ignore
the density of the air.
Solution: Weight of the bubble is equal to the viscous force.
4 3 2r 2 g
r g  6rv or  …(i)
3 9v
Given r  102 m ;   1.47 103 kg/m3
v  0.21 102 m / s g  9.8 m / s 2
2  (102 )2 1.47  103  9.8

Substituting these values in (i) we have,    152.5 kgm1s 1
9  0.21 102
Terminal Velocity (Vt)

Consider a spherical body falling from rest through a large column of viscous fluid. The forces acting on body are

1. Weight (vertically downward) B
2. Buoyant Force (B) (vertically upward)

3. Viscous Force (Fv) (vertically upward) FV
Initially, V=0
So, Fv = 0
Fnet = mg – B
v
and body accelerates downwards. As the velocity of body increases, Fv increases and at
some stage,
Fnet = mg – B – Fv = 0 mg
mg – B = FV
Acceleration of body becomes zero and it moves downwards with constant velocity. This constant velocity is called
Terminal velocity (Vt).
At terminal velocity Vt,
4 3 4 3
R g  R  g  6 Rvt
3 3
Where,  = density of material of sphere ;  = density of fluid
2 (   ) 2
 =coefficient of viscosity of fluid ; vt  R g
9 
Variation of velocity of sphere (v) with time (t) is given by
V vt
O t
Illustration 16. A sphere is dropped under gravity through a viscous fluid. Taking the average acceleration to be
half the initial acceleration, show that the time required to attain the terminal velocity is
independent of the fluid density.
(  0 ) 2r 2
Solution: Initial acceleration, a  g Terminal velocity, v  g (  0 )
 9
at at
Let t be the time required to attain the terminal velocity.  v  0 or v
2 2
a
Average acceleration 
2
g 2r 2 4r 2 
Putting the values of ‘ a ’ and ‘ g ’ in (i) we have, (  0 )t  g (  0 ) or t 
2 9 9
As the expression for t does not contain 0 it is independent of 0 .
IN CHAPTER EXERCISE
1. Which of the following is correct?

(a) The excess pressure inside a spherical drop of liquid is 2T/R
(b) The excess pressure inside a spherical soap bubble is 4T/R.
(c) The excess pressure inside a cylindrical drop of liquid is T/R
(d) Only (A) and (B).
2. If for a liquid in a vessel force of cohesion is twice of force of adhesion, then

(a) The liquid will wet the solid (b) The liquid will not wet the solid
(c) The meniscus will be convex upwards (d) The angle of contact will be obtuse
3. The rise of liquid in a sufficiently long capillary tube depends upon

(a) The outer radius of the tube (b) The inner radius of the tube
(c) The nature of material of the tube (d) The length of the tube.
4. Choose the wrong statements(s)
(a) Viscous force always supports the motion.
(b) A denser fluid is always more viscous than a less dense fluid.
(c) Any object cannot have a velocity after a sufficiently long time more than its terminal velocity in a
given fluid
(d) If a body is at rest in a fluid, then the viscous force on it is zero.
5. Which of the following is/are correct?

(a) A uniform capillary is held vertically with its lower end dipped in water. The water rises up to 10 cm. If
the capillary is now broken at a level of 6 cm above water level in the vessel, a fountain will be observed.
(b) Water is flowing through a capillary in streamline fashion at rate Q. For a capillary of two fold radius,
other factors remaining unchanged, the flow rate will be 2Q.
(c) For a soap bubble of outer surface area S and surface tension T, the surface energy will be 2TS.
(d) When a sprayer changes 1 drop of a liquid into 106 droplets (assumed of equal size), the surface energy
increase by a factor of 104.
6. A river 10 m deep is flowing at 5 m/s. If viscosity of water is 1mpoise, then the shearing stress between the
horizontal layers of free space is
(a) 2×10-3 N/m2 (b) 10-3 N/m2 (c) 0.5×10-4 N/m2 (d) 0.1×10-3 N/m2
7. Surface tension of liquid

(a) Increases with area (b) decreases with area
(c) Increases with temperature (d) decreases with temperature
8. The amount of work done in blowing a soap bubble such that its diameter increases from d to D is (S =
surface tension of solution)
(a) π  D2 -d 2  S (b) 2π(D2- d 2 )S (c) 4 π(D2 -d 2 )S (d) 8π(D2 -d2 )S
9. A solid sphere falls with a terminal velocity of 10 cm/sec in air. If it is allowed to fall in vacuum, the terminal
velocity will be
(a) Equal to 10 cm/s (b) less than 10 m/s (c) more than 10 cm/s (d) never be attained.
10. The energy needed in breaking a drop of radius R into n drops of radius r is
4 4 
(a)  4πr 2 n - 4πR 2  T (b)  4πR 2 - 4πr 2  T (c)  πr 3 - πR 3  T (d) (4πR 2 - n4πr 2 )T
3 3 
11. Two soap bubbles of different radii are in communication with each other, then
(a) Air flows from larger bubble into the smaller one until the two bubbles are of equal size
(b) The size of the bubbles remains the same
(c) Air flows from the smaller bubble into the larger one and the larger bubble grows at the expense of the
smaller one.
(d) None
Answers
1 a, b, c, 2 b, c, d, 3 b, c, 4 a, 5c, 6 c, 7 d, 8 b, 9 d, 10a, 11 c
CONCEPTS & FORMULAE AT A GLANCE
Fn
1. Normal stress or longitudinal stress  n is defined as  n 
S
Ft
2. Tangential or shearing stress is define as  t 
S
3. Longitudinal stress can be of two types
4. Volume stress is equal to change in pressure acting on a given volume.
P  Volume stress
5. Longitudinal strain = ΔL/L
Tensile Stress
6. By Hooke’s law, = Y = Young's modulus
Tensile Strain
7. The ratio of volume stress over volume strain is called Bulk Modulus
ΔP dP dP
B =- = -V  (ΔP = change in pressure,  = density)
Δ V/V dV d
1
8. F= kx, U = kx 2 , k =spring constant
2
x = extension in spring.
9. Surface tension is given by T = F/.
10. The direction of force due to surface tension is perpendicular to the line and tangential to theliquid
surface.
2T
11. Excess pressure inside an air bubble in a liquid, ΔP =
r
4T
12. For a soap bubble in air, there are two surfaces, ΔP =
R
2T cos θ
13. Rise of liquid in a capillary tube; h =
R g
dv
14. Forces of viscosity, F = -ηA where  is a constant called coefficient of viscosity.
dy
15. Stokes’ Law, F = 6 π ηrv
2  ρ -σ 
16. Terminal velocity, vT = r 2  g
9  η 
SOLVED EXAMPLE
OBJECTIVE TYPE
Problem 1: A metal bar of length L and area of cross-section A is rigidly clamped between two walls. The Young’s
modulus of its material is Y and the coefficient of linear expansion is  . The bar is heated so that its
temperature increases by º C . Then the force exerted at the ends of the bar is given by :
(a) YL (b) YL  / A (c) YA (d) Y  / LA
Ans. (c)
Solution: The coefficient of linear expansion is defined as
increse in length l
   Increase in length l   L  . Now
original length  temp. rise L
FL YAl YAL
Y or F   YA
Al L L
Problem 2. When a force is applied at one end of an elastic wire, it produces a strain  in the wire. If Y is the
Young’s modulus of the material of the wire, the amount of energy stored per unit volume of the
wire is given by :
1 1
(a) Y   (b)   Y   (c) Y  2 (d) 2
 Y   .
2 2
Ans. (d)
1
Solution: Energy stored per unit volume  (stress × strain). But stress = Young’s modulus × strain. Therefore
2
1
energy stored per unit volume  Y  2 .
2
Problem 3. Two springs of equal lengths and equal cross-sectional areas are made of materials whose Young’s
modulii are in the ratio of 2:3. They are suspended and loaded with the same mass. When stretched
and released, they will oscillate with time periods in the ratio of:
(a) 3 : 2 (b) 3 : 2 (c) 3 3 : 2 2 (d)9 : 4.
Ans. (a)
F L
Solution: Young’s modulus Y  .
A l
F YA
Force constant k  
l L
Where l is the extension in the spring of original length L and cross-sectional area A when a force
F  Mg is applied. Now, the time period of vertical oscillations is given by :
M ML T1 Y 3
T  2  2   2 
k YA T2 Y1 2
Hence the correct choice is (a).
Problem 4. If the surface tension of soap solution is  , what is the work done in blowing soap bubble of radius r ?
(a) r 2  (b) 2r 2  (c) 4r 2  (d) 8r 2  .
Ans. (d)
Solution: Since a bubble has two surfaces in contact with air, the total surface area of the bubble
 2  (4r 2 )  8r 2 . Now work done = surface tension × increase in surface area
  (8r 2  0)  8r 2 
Problem 5. A soap bubble of radius r is blown up to form a bubble of radius 2 r under isothermal conditions. If
 is the surface tension of soap solution, the energy spent in doing so is :
(a) 3r 2 (b) 6r 2 (c) 12r 2 (d) 24r 2 .
Ans. (d)
Solution: Surface area of bubble of radius r  4r 2 . Surface area of bubble of radius 2r  4(2r ) 2  16r 2 .
Therefore, increase in surface area = 16r 2  4r 2  12r 2 . Since a bubble has two surfaces, the total
increase in surface area 24r 2 .
 Energy spent = work done = 24r 2
Problem 6. The time period of a simple pendulum is T . The pendulum is oscillated with its bob immersed in a
liquid of density  . If the density of the bob is  and viscous effect is neglected, the time period of
the pendulum will be :
1/ 2 1/ 2 1/ 2 1/ 2
       
(a)   T (b)   T (c)   T (d)   T .
    
Ans. (a)
Solution: The net downward force acting on the bob is
 
ma  F  (  )Vg   g a ( m  V )
  
This is the effective acceleration due to gravity.
1/ 2
l l     l 
 T '  2  2   T  T  2 .
g' (   ) g       g 
Problem 7. Two rain drops of radii r1 and r2 reaching the ground with terminal velocities have their linear
momenta p and 32 p . The ratio r2 / r1 will be
(a) 2 : 1 (b) 1 : 2 (c) 2 : 3 (d) 3 : 2
Ans. (a)
Solution: The terminal velocity v  r 2 and the mass of the drop m  r 3 . Hence the momentum p  mv  r 5 .
32
Given that p2 / p1 
1
5
 r2  5
    (2) or, r2 / r1  2 :1 .
r
 1
Problem 8. Two parallel glass plates are held vertically at a small separation d and dipped in a liquid of
surface tension T , angle of contact   0 and density  . The height of water that climbs up in the
gap between the plates is given by
(a) 2T / d g (b) T / 2d g (c) T / d g (d) None of these.
Ans. (a)
Solution: Upward force due to surface tension is balanced by the weight of the liquid which rises in the gap, so
2T .b  b dhg ,
where, b  width of the plates
2T
 h .
d g
Alternative Method:
The meniscus between the plates has cylindrical shape with radius
d
r . The pressure just inside the meniscus is h
2 A B
1 1  2T
p0  T     p0  ,
r  d
 2T  2T
Now, p A  pB or, p0   p0    hg  h  .
 d  d g
SUBJECTIVE TYPE
Problem 1. A wire of radius r stretched without tension along a straight line is A 2l B
lightly fixed at A and B (figure). What is the tension in the wire when d
it is pulled into the shape ACB. Assume Young’s modulus of the T T
C
material of wire to be Y.
Solution: Increase in length = (AC + CB) – 2 l  [2 (l 2  d 2 )  2l ]
Longitudinal stress = T / r 2 , (where r is radius of wire).
[2 (l 2  d 2 )  2l ]
Longitudinal strain 
2l
Longitudinal stress T 2l
Now, Young’s modulus  or, Y 2

Longitudinal strain r [2[ (l  d 2 )  l ]]
2
Y  r 2  [ (l 2  d 2 )  l ]
 T If d   , then
l
1/ 2
 d2   d2 
(l 2  d 2 )  l  1  2   l 1  2   T  Y  r 2 (d 2 / 2l 2 )
 l   2l 
Problem 2. Two rods of different metals having the same area of cross-section A, are
placed between the two massive walls as shown in figure. The first rod has a l1 l2
length l1 , coefficient of linear expansion 1 and Young’s modulus Y1 . The
y1,l y2,2
corresponding quantities for second rod are l2 ,  2 and Y2 . The temperature of
both the rods is now raised by T degrees.
(i) Find the force with which the rods act on each other (at higher
temperature) in terms of given quantities.
(ii) Also find the length of the each rod at higher temperature.
Solution: (i) When the temperature is raised by T, then
Increase in length of first rod = l11T
and increase in length of second rod l2 2T  Total increase in length
l11T  l2  2T  T (l11  l2  2 ) …(i)
As the walls are rigid, the above increase will not be possible. This will be compensated by the
force F producing decrease in the rods due to elasticity.
F  l1
decrease in length of first rod 
Y1  A
F  l2
decrease in length of second rod   Total decrease in length due to F
Y2  A
F  l1 l2 
   …(ii)
A  Y1 Y2 
From eq. (i) and (ii), we have
F  l1 l1  AT (l11  l2  2 )
    T (l11  l2  2 ) or F …(iii)
A  Y1 Y1   l1 l2 
  
 Y1 Y2 
(ii) Length of the first rod = original length
+ increase in length due to temp.
- decrease in length due to force F
 F l1 
  l1  l11T   …(iv)
 A Y1 
Length of the second rod
 F l2 
  l2  l2  2T   …(v)
 A Y2 
The total length will remain unaltered.
Problem 3. A composite rod is made by joining a copper rod end to end, with a second rod of different
material, but of the same cross-section. At 25ºC, the composite rod is 1 m in length, of which the
length of the copper rod is 30 cm. At 125ºC the length of the composite rod increases by 1.91 mm.
When the composite rod is not allowed to expand by holding it between two rigid walls, it is found
that the length of the two constituents do not change with rise in temperature. Find the Young’s
modulus and the coefficient of linear expansion of the second rod.
Ycu  1.3 1011 N / m2 , cu  1.7 105 / C .
Solution: Length of the composite rod = 100 cm

Length of copper rod at 25ºC = 30 cm
Length of the second rod at 25ºC = 100 – 30 = 70 cm
Length of the copper rod at 125ºC,
l1 '  l1 (1   t )
where  is the coefficient of linear expansion of copper and t is change in temperature.
 l1 '  30(1  1.7 105 100)  30.051 cm
For second rod, l2 '  70(1   '100)
where  ' = coefficient of linear expansion
increase in length of Cu rod = 0.051 cm
increase in length of second rod = 7000  ' cm
Total increase in length = 0.051 + 7000  ' = 0.191
Solving we get  ' = 2 105 /º C

The force F1 required to maintain the Cu rod at its initial length, when the rod is heated, is given by
F1  Y1 At  1.3 1011  A  1.7  105  100
 2.21108 A dyne
The forced F2 required to maintain the other rod at its initial length, when the rod is heated
F2  Y2 A ' t
 Y2 A  2 105  100
Now if the composite rod is not allowed to expand by holding it between two rigid walls,
F1  F2
 2.21108 A  Y2  A  2 105 100
Y2  1.1 1011 N / m2 .
Problem 4. A conical glass capillary tube A of length 0.1 m has diameters 103 m and 5 104 m at the ends.
When it is just immersed in a liquid at 0ºC with larger radius in contact with it, the liquid rises to
8  102 m in the tube. In another cylindrical glass capillary tube B , when immersed in the same
liquid at 0ºC, the liquid rises to 6  102 m height. The rise of liquid in tube B is only 5.5  102 m
when the liquid is at 50ºC. Find the rate at which the surface tension changes with temperature
considering the change to be linear. The density of liquid is (1/14) 104 kg/m3 and the angle of
contact is zero. Effect of temperature on the density of liquid and glass is negligible.
Solution: The situation is shown in figure.
Let r1 and r2 be radii of upper and lower ends of the conical capillary tube. The radius r at the
meniscus is given by
l h
r  r1  (r2  r1 )  
 l  (1)
 0.1  0.08  A
 (2.5 104 )  (2.5 104 )   (r2-r1)
 0.1  l h ()
B
 3.0 104 m
rhg 0ºC r2
The surface tension at 0ºC is given by T0 
2
(3.0 10 4 )(8 10 2 )(1/14 10 4 )(9.8)

2
 0.294 N / m
T0 h 6 102 12 11 11
For tube B ,  0  2
 or, T50   T0   0.294  0.27 N / m
T50 h50 5.5 10 11 12 12
Considering the change in surface tension as linear, the change in surface tension with temperature is
given by
T50  T0 0.27  (0.294) 1

   per K .
T0 t 0.294  50 600
Problem 5. A body of mass 3.14 kg is suspended from one end of a wire of length 10.0 m. The radius of the wire
is changing uniformly from 9.8  104 m at one end to 5.0 104 m at the other end. Find the change
in length of the wire. What will be the change in length if the ends are interchanged? Young’s
modulus of the material of the wire is 2 1011 N / m 2 .
Solution: Consider an element of length dx at a distance x from

the fixed end; then by definition of Y , change in the
r1 x
length of the element will be dx L
r
Fdx r2- r1
dy  [as here L  dx ]
YA
r2
But here
r2  r1
A  r 2  (r1  x tan ) 2 , tan  
L
So total change in length of wire
L F L dx
L   dy  
0 Y (r1  x tan )2
0
To integrate is let r1  x tan   t , so that the above equation becomes
L
F xL F  1 
L   t 2 dt   
Y tan  x  0 Y tan   (r1  x tan   0
FL FL
Or, L   [as (r1  L tan )  b ] … (i)
r1 (r1  L tan )Y r1bY
3.14  9.8  10
So, L  [as F  Mg ]
3.14  (9.8 104 )  (5 104 )(2  1011 )
 L  103 m  0.001m
Further on interchanging a and b in Eqn. (i),  L , i.e., change in length remains same.
Another Method :
The situation is shown in figure.

r1 y
Let L be the length of the wire. Suppose r1 and r2 be the radii of the
dy L
upper and lower ends of the wire respectively. Now, the radius r of r
the wire at a distance y from the upper end is given by r2- r1
r  r1  (r2  r1 ) y / L r2
Stress at a distance y is given by
Mg Mg
2

 r  [r1  (r2  r1 ) y / L]2
Corresponding strain
Stress Mg
 
Young's modulus Y [r1  (r2  r1 ) y / L]2
Consider a very small part dy of the wire. Extension l in this part is given by
Mg dy
l  Strain  dy 
Y [r1  (r2  r1 ) y / L]2
Total extension in the length L of the wire
L L Mg dy Mg L dy
l   l    
0 0 Y [r1  (r2  r1 ) y / L]2 Y  [r1  (r2  r1 ) y / L]2
0
3.14  9.8 L dy
 
(2 10 )(3.14) 0 [(5.0 104 )  (4.8 104 ) y /10.0]2
11
10
10 dy 4.9 10 3  1 
 4.9 103    
0 (5.0  0.48 y )2 0.48  5.0  0.48 y 0
4.9  103  1 1  4.9 103 4.8 3


0.48  9.8  5.0   0.48  9.8  5.0  10 m
 
On interchanging the ends, the change in length remains the same.
Problem 6. A light rod of length 200 cm is suspended from the ceiling horizontally by means of two vertical
wires of equal length tied to its end. One of the wires in made of steel and is of cross-section 0.1
cm2 and the other of brass of cross-section 0.2 cm2. Along the rod at which distance a weight be
hung to produce (a) equal stresses in both the wires (b) equal strains in both the wires? Y for brass
and steel are 10 1011 and 20 1011 dyne / cm2 respectively.
Solution: (a) As stresses are equal, S B

T1 T2 T1 A1 0.1 2m
 , i.e.,   or T2  2T1 …(i)
A1 A2 T2 A2 0.2
T1 x T2
Now for translatory equilibrium of the rod, T1  T2  W
which in the light of Eqn. (i) gives W
T1  (W / 3) and T2  (2W / 3) …(ii)
Now if x is the distance of weight W from steel wire, for rotational equilibrium of rod,
T1 x  T2 (2  x ) or, (W / 3) x  (2W / 3)(2  x)
i.e., x  (4 / 3)m
(b) As strains are equal,
T1 T  stress 
 2  as strain  Y 
A1Y1 A2Y2  
T1 AY T1 0.1 20  1011
So  11 or ,  1 i.e., T1  T2
T2 A2Y2 T2 0.2  10 1011
So, for translatory equilibrium of rod, T1  T2 =W in the light of Eqn. (iii) yields
T1  T2  (W / 2)
And for rotational equilibrium of rod
T1 x  T2 (2  x ) or (W / 2) x  (W / 2)(2  x ), i.e., x  1m
Problem 7. Under isothermal condition two soap bubbles of radii a and b coalesce to form a single bubble of
radius c. If the external pressure is p0 show that surface tension,
p0 (c3  a 3  b3 )
T .
4(a 2  b2  c 2 )
Solution: As excess pressure for a soap bubble is (4T / r ) and external pressure p0 ,
pi  p0  (4T / r )
 4T   4T   4T 
So, pa   p0   , pb   p0  and pc   p0   …(i)
 a   b   c 
4 4 4
and Va  a 3 , Vb  b 3 and Vc  c 3 …(ii)
3 3 3
Now as mass is conserved,  a  b   c
paVa pbVb pcVc  pV 
i.e.,   as PV  RT , i.e.,   RT 
RTa RTb RTc  
As temp.is constant, i.e., Ta  Tb  Tc , so the above expression reduces to
paVa  pbVb  pcVc
which in the light of Eqn. (i) and (ii) becomes
 4T   4 3   4T   4 3   4T   4 3 
 p0  a   3 a    p0  b   3 b    p0  c   3 c 
        
p0 (c3  a 3  b3 )
i.e., 4T (a 2  b2  c2 )  p0 (c3  a3  b3 ) i.e., T .
4(a 2  b2  c 2 )
EXERCISE # 1
ONLY ONE OPTION IS CORRECT
1. As a bubble comes from the bottom of a lake to the top, its radius:
(a) Increases (b) Decreases (c) Does not change (d) Becomes zero.
2. The diagram represents the applied force F per unit area with the corresponding b c c’
change in length x per unit length produced in a thin wire of uniform cross- a
section. If the curve is plotted, the region in which Hooke’s law is obeyed, the F
region in which the material acts like a viscous liquid, and the elastic limit
respectively are represented by :
O x
(a) ob, cc, c (b) oc, cc, c
(c) ob, bc, c (d) oa, bc, b .
3. A uniform metal wire fixed at one end is gradually stretched a little beyond its elastic limit and, then
stretching force is removed. It will
(a) remain stretched and will not contract
(b) lose its elastic property completely
(c) contract, but its final length will be greater than its initial length
(d) contract upto the proportional limit.
4. A uniform rod of length  and density  is being pulled on a smooth horizontal floor with an acceleration‘ a ’.
The stress at the transverse cross-section at the midpoint of the rod has the magnitude
1 1 3
(a)  a (b) a (c) a (d) a .
2 4 4
5. The length of a uniform metal wire is observed to be 1 and  2 under the stretching forces F1 and F2 . The
natural length of the wire is
1   2 1 F2   2 F1 1 F2   2 F1
(a) 1  2 (b) (c) (d) .
2 F2  F1 F1  F2
6. A large drop of oil (density 0.8g/cm3 and viscosity 0 ) floats up through a column of another liquid (density
1.2 g/cm3 and viscosity L ). Assuming that the two liquids do not mix, the velocity with which the oil drop
rises will depend on
(a) 0 only (b) L only (c) both on 0 and L (d) neither 0 nor L
7. The diagram shows the change x in the length of a thin uniform wire caused by the T2
application of stress F at two different temperatures T1 and T2 . The variations shown
suggest that : F T1
(a) T1  T2 (b) T1  T2
(c) T1  T2 (d) None of these.
x
8. A wire can be broken by applying a load of 20 kg wt. The force required to break the wire of twice the
diameter is :
(a) 20 kg wt (b) 5 kg wt (c) 80 kg wt (d) 160 kg wt.
9. One end of a uniform wire of length L and of weight W is attached rigidly to a point in the roof and a weight
W1 is suspended from its lower end. If S is the area of cross-section of the wire, the stress in the wire at a
height (3 L /4) from its lower end is:
(a) W1 / S (b) [W1  (W / 4)] / S (c) [W1  (3W / 4)]/ S (d) (W1  W ) / S .
10. A tensile force of 2  105 dyne doubles the length of a rubber cord of cross-sectional area 2 cm2 . The Young’s
modulus of rubber is :
(a) 4 105 dyne / cm2 (b) 1105 dyne / cm2 (c) 2 105 dyne / cm2 (d) 1104 dyne / cm2 .
11. Two rods of different materials having coefficients of thermal expansion 1 and  2 and Young’s moduli Y1
and Y2 respectively are fixed between two rigid massive walls. The rods are heated such that they undergo
the same increase in temperature. There is no bending of the rods. If 1 and  2 are in the ratio 2:3, the
thermal stresses developed in the two rods are equal provided Y1 : Y2 is equal to :
(a) 2:3 (b) 1:1 (c) 3:2 (d) 4:9.
12. A uniform rod of mass m , length L , area of cross-section A and is rotated about an axis passing through one
of its ends and perpendicular to its length with constant angular velocity  in a horizontal plane. If Y the
Young’s modulus of the material of rod, the increase in its length due to rotation of rod is :
m2 L2 m2 L2 m2 L2 2m2 L2
(a) (b) (c) (d) .
AY 2 AY 3 AY AY
13. A ball of mass ‘m’ and radius ‘r’ is released in viscous liquid. The value of its terminal velocity is proportional
to:
(a) (1/ r ) only (b) m / r (c) (m / r )1/ 2 (d) m only.
A
14. A small spherical solid ball is dropped in a viscous liquid. Its journey in the liquid B
is best described in the figure shown by :
Velocity
(a) Curve A (b) Curve B C
(c) Curve C (d) Curve D. D
Distance
15. A spherical liquid drop of radius R is divided into eight equal droplets. If surface tension is T , then work done
in the process will be:
(a) 2R 2T (b) 3R2T (c) 4R 2T (d) 2RT 2 .
16. An air bubble of radius r in water is at a depth h below the water surface at some instant. If P is
atmospheric pressure and d and T are the density and surface tension of water respectively, the pressure
inside the bubble will be:
(a) P  hdg  (4T / r ) (b) P  hdg  (2T / r ) (c) P  hdg  (2T / r ) (d) P  hdg  (4T / r ) .
17. One end of a uniform capillary tube of inner radius 1.0 mm is held vertically such that one end is just dipped
in water (surface tension  0.07 N/m ) and a length of 1cm is outside water. Which of the following option is
true?
(a) the liquid will keep on overflowing from the open end as the tube length is insufficient
(b) the liquid will rise upto the top and will assume flat surface
(c) the liquid will rise the full exposed length and the radius of its meniscus will be equal to the radius of the
capillary (  1.0mm )
(d) the liquid will rise the full length of the tube and will assume a meniscus of radius  1.4 mm .
18. A vertical glass capillary tube of radius r open at both ends contains some water
(surface tension T and density  ). If L be the length of the water column, then
4T 2T T T
(a) L  (b) L  (c) L  (d) L  . L
rg rg 4rg 2rg
19. A uniform rod of mass m , length L , area of cross-section A and Young’s modulus Y hangs from a rigid
support. Its elongation under its own weight will be
(a) zero (b) mgL /2YA (c) mgL/ YA (d) 2mgL / YA
EXERCISE # 2
More than one Option correct

1 An elastic metal rod will change its length when it
(a) Falls vertically under its weight
(b) Is pulled along its length by force acting at one end
(c) Rotates about an axis at one end
(d) Slides on a rough surface
2 The wires A and B shown in the figure are made of the same material, and have radii rA and rB
respectively. The block between them has a mass m.
When the force F is mg/3, one of the wires breaks.
(a) A will break before B if rA = rB
(b) A will break before B if rA< 2rB
(c) Either A or B may break if rA = 2rB.
(d) The lengths of A and B must be known to predict which wire will break
3 A body of mass M is attached to the lower end of a metal wire, whose upper end is fixed. The elongation of
the wire is l.
(a) Loss in gravitational potential energy of M is Mgl
(b) The elastic potential energy stored in the wire is Mgl
(c) The elastic potential energy stored in the wire ½ Mgl
(d) Heat produced is ½ Mgl.
4 A metal wire of length L, area of cross-section A and Young’s modulus Y is stretched by a variable force F such
that F is always slightly greater than the elastic force of resistance in the wire. When the elongation of the
wire is l,
YAl 2
(a) the work done by F is
2L
YAl 2
(b) the work done by F is
L
YAl 2
(c) the elastic potential energy stored in the wire is
2L
(d) no heat is produced during the elongation
5 Select the correct alternative(s)

(a) elastic forces are always conservative
(b) elastic forces are not always conservative
(c) elastic forces are conservative only when Hooke’s law is obeyed
(d) elastic forces may be conservative even when Hooke’s law is not obeyed
6. Which of the following statement(s) is /are correct?

(a) Angle of contact   900 , if cohesive force  adhesive force.
(b) Angle of contact   900 , if cohesive force  adhesive force.
(c) Angle of contact   00 , if cohesive force =adhesive force.
(d) If the radius of capillary is reduced to half, the rise of liquid column becomes 4 times.
7. When a capillary tube is dipped in a liquid, the liquid rises to a height h in the tube. The free liquid surface
inside the tube is hemispherical in shape. The tube is now pushed down so that the height of the tube
outside the liquid less than h. Then
(a) The liquid will ooze out of the tube slowly
(b) The liquid will come out of the tube like in a small fountain.
(c) The liquid will fill the tube but not come out of its upper end.
(d) The free liquid surface inside the tube will not be hemispherical.
8. Choose the wrong statement(s)

(a) Surface tension is directly proportional to extension of surface
(b) The pressure inside a soap bubble of surface area S, surface tension T and radius R is higher than the
outside pressure by 8T/R
(c) Contact angle of water with glass is zero degree
(d) Mercury has a low surface tension than water
9. Which of the following statements is correct?

(a) If angle of contact is obtuse, the liquid rises in capillary
(b) If angle of contact is acute, then liquid wets solid.
(c) If angle of contact is obtuse, the shape of liquid meniscus is convex upwards.
(d) Surface tension of liquids, decreases with rise in temperature
10. When an air bubble rises from the bottom of a deep lake to a point just below the water surface. The
pressure of air inside the bubble
(a) Is greater than the pressure outside it (b) Is less than the pressure outside it
(c) Increase as the bubble moves up (d) Decrease as the bubble moves up
EXERCISE # 3
Comprehension Type
Comprehension –I
1. When a viscous liquid flows, adjacent layers oppose their relative motion by applying a viscous force given
by
dv
F = -ηA
dz
Where,   coefficient of viscosity,
A= surface area of adjacent layers in contact.
dv
= velocity gradient
dz
Now, a viscous liquid having coefficient of viscosity  is flowing through a fixed
tube of length  and radius R under a pressure difference Pbetween the two
ends of the tube. Now, consider a cylindrical volume of liquid of radius r. Due to
steady flow, net force on the liquid in cylindrical volume should be zero.
dv
 2 r  P r 2
dr
0 P R
  dv  rdr(layer in contact with the tube is stationary)
v 2  r
 r2  PR 2
v = v 0  1-  , where v 0 =
 R2  4η
Now, the volume of the liquid flowing per second through the tube
R R  r2 
Q   v 2 rdr   vo 1   2 rdr
0 0
 R2 
π PR 4
 Q=
8η
This is called Poiseuille’s equation.
Read the paragraph carefully and answer the following question:

1. The viscous force on the cylindrical volume of the liquid varies as
(a) F  r 2 (b) F  r (c) F 1/r (d) F 1/r 2
2. The velocity of flow of liquid at r = R/2is

3PR 2 PR 2 PR 2 PR 2
(a) (b) (c) (d)
16η 8η 4η 2η
3. The volume of the liquid flowing per sec across the cross-section of the tube is
(a) πR 2 v 0 (b) (πR 2 v 0 ) / 2 (c) (πR 2 v 0 ) / 3 (d) (πR 2 v 0 ) / 4
4. The pressure difference at the ends of the tube is

 v 0 2 v0 4 v0
(a) (b) (c) (d) None of these
R2 R2 R2
5. Force acting on the tube due to the liquid is

(a)  v0 (b) 2 v0 (c) 4 v 0 (d) 6 v 0
Comprehension –II
The force of interaction between the molecules of same substance is called cohesive force while
force of interaction between molecules of different substances is called adhesive force. Both the forces are
0
attractive and have a range of about 10 A . If we consider a molecule A well inside a liquid we find that it is
0
equally attracted by the surrounding molecules in all the direction (within sphere of radius 10 A ) and so it
does not experience any resultant force. On or near the surface of a liquid, the molecules do not exist on the
free side and so a molecule (say B) experiences a resultant force vertically downwards into the liquid. For
this reason, the molecules of the surface have a tendency to go into the liquid. Thus, the surface tends to
contract and gives rise to surface tension.
As surface molecules like B experience a net downward force of cohesion and have tendency to go down, so
in increasing the area of the surface more molecules are to be shifted to the surface from inside. Thus, more
mechanical work will have to be done against the net downward force of cohesion. This work is stored by
the molecules in the surface as potential energy called free surface energy tension.
Furthermore, molecules like P, in contact with the liquid will stick to the solid surface, i.e. will meet it if the
force of adhesion A is greater than net force of cohesion C. The liquid will not wet the solid surface if C  A
Also molecules like Q at the surface in contact with the solid will experience a net force of cohesion C R . If
adhesion A is greater than cohesion C R , the resultant force will be F. As the liquid can’t support tangential
force, F must be perpendicular to the surface of the liquid. So, the meniscus will be concave and the angle of
contact will be acute ( 900 ) [see figure (a)]. However, if adhesion is lesser than cohesion, the resultant
force F will be directed into the liquid and so the meniscus (which is perpendicular to F as liquid cannot
support tangential force) will be convex and the angle of contact will be obtuse ( 900 ) [see figure (b)]
Read the paragraph carefully and answer the following question:

1. A liquid particle B, which is present in the vicinity of a liquid particle A can exert a force on A if the distance
of B from A is
(a) 1nm (b) 104 pm (c) 1 m (d) 1 mm
2. The free surface energy, stored in the surface is because of work done
(a) By the cohesive forces (b) By the adhesive forces
(c) Against the cohesive forces (d) Against the adhesive forces
3. Match all the entities of column 1 with at least one in column 2

Column 1 Column 2
(a) Concave meniscus (i) Adhesion> cohesion

(b) Angle of contact is 90
0 (ii) Adhesion = Cohesion
(c) Pressure below the meniscus is more (iii) Adhesion < Cohesion
than above it by 2T/r.
Now, select the correct option from the following.
(A)(a) –(i), (b) – (ii), (c) – (iii) (B) (a) – (ii), (b) - (iii),(c) - (i)
(C)(a) – (iii), (b)- (ii), (c) – (i) (D) (a) – (iii), (b) – (i), (c) – (ii)
4. The behavior of a liquid relative to a side of the container depends

(a) Only on the forces of adhesion
(b) Only on the forces of cohesion
(c) Both on the forces of cohesion and adhesion
(d) None of the above
5. As a liquid cannot support a tangential force, so net force F must be
(a)along the surface of the liquid
(b) along a direction normal to the resultant liquid surface
(c) along a direction normal to the initial surface (plane surface of liquid)
(d) none of the above
MATRIX MATCH TYPES
Match the following.
Column – I Column – II
(a) Terminal velocity (p) Average density becomes less than that of liquid
(b) Objects of high density can also (q) Upthrust is zero
float
(c) A beaker having a liquid under (r) Varies with velocity
free fall
(d) Viscous drag (s) Upthrust and viscous force
EXERCISE # 4
SUBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS

1. A steel wire of length 4.7 m and cross-section 3.0 105 m2 stretches by the same amount as a copper wire of
length 3.5 m and cross-section 4.0 105 m 2 under a given load. What is the ratio of the Young’s modulus of
steel to that of copper?
2.
Two wires of diameter 0.25 cm, one made of steel and other made of brass are 1.5m
loaded as shown in figure. The unloaded length of steel wire is 1.5 m and that Steel
of brass wire is 1.0 m. Young’s modulus of steel is 2.0  1011 Pa and that the bass 4.0kg
is 0.911011 pa. Compute the elongations of steel and brass wires. (1 Pa = 1 N 1.0 m
Brass
m-2)
6.0 kg
3. A composite wire of uniform diameter 3.0 mm consists of a copper wire of length 2.2 m and a steel wire of
length 1.6 m stretches under a load by 0.7 mm. Calculate the load, given that the Young’s modulus for copper
is 1.1 1011 Pa and that for steel is 2.0  1011 Pa (1 Pa = 1 Nm-2)
4. A hydraulic automobile lift is designed to lift cars with a maximum mass of 3000 kg. The area of cross-section
of the piston carrying the load is 425 cm2. What maximum pressure would the smaller piston have to bear?
5. A U-shaped wire is dipped in a soap solution, and removed. The thin soap film formed between the wire and
the light slider supports a weight of 1.5 102 N (which includes the small weight of the slider). The length of
the slider is 30 cm. What is the surface tension of the film?
6. What is the pressure inside the drop of mercury of radius 3.00 mm at room temperature? Surface tension of
mercury room temperature is 4.65  101 Nm-1. The atmospheric pressure is 1.01  105 Pa. Also give the excess
pressure inside the drop.
7. In Millikan’s oil drop experiment, what is the terminal speed of an uncharged drop of radius 2.0 105 m and
density 1.2  103 kg m-3. Take the viscosity of air at the temperature of the experiment to be 1.8 105 Pa-sec.
How much is the viscous force on the drop at that speed? Neglect buoyancy of the drop due to air.
8. A tank with a square base of area 1.0 m2 is divided by a vertical partition in the middle. The bottom of the
partition has a small-hinged door of area 20 cm2. The tank is filled with water in one compartment, and an
acid (of relative density 1.7) in the other, both to a height of 4.0 m. compute the force necessary to keep the
door close.
9. There is soap bubble of radius 2.4 104 m in air cylinder which is originally at the pressure of 105 N / m 2 . The air
in the cylinder is now compressed isothermally until the radius of the bubble is halved. Calculate now the
pressure of air in the cylinder. The surface tension of the soap film is 0.08 Nm 1 .
10. Two separate air bubbles (radii 0.002 m and 0.004 m) formed of the same liquid (surface tension 0.070 N/m)
come together to form a double bubble. Find the radius and the sense of curvature of the internal film
surface common to both the bubbles.
11. Two spherical soap bubbles coalesce. If V is the consequent change in volume of the contained air and S
the change in the outer surface area, show that
3PV  4 ST  0
Where, T is the surface tension of the soap bubble and P the atmospheric pressure.
WINDOW TO IIT - JEE
A liquid of density 900 kg/m3 is filled in a cylindrical tank of upper radius 0.9m
1.
0.9 m and lower radius 0.3 m. A capillary tube of length l is attached at
the bottom of the tank as shown in the figure. The capillary has outer
radius 0.002 m and inner radius a . When pressure P is applied at the
top of the tank volume flow rate of the liquid is 8  106 m3/s and if H
capillary tube is detached, the liquid comes out from the tank with a
velocity 10 m/s. Determine the coefficient of viscosity of the liquid. 0.3m
[Given : a 2  106 m2 and a 2 / l  2 10 m]
l
[IIT 2003]
2. In a Searle’s experiment, the diameter of the wire as measured by a screw gauge of least count 0.001 cm is
0.050 cm. The length, measured by a scale of least count 0.1 cm, is 110.0 cm. When a weight of 50 N is
suspended from the wire, the extension is measured to be 0.125 cm by a micrometer of least count 0.001 cm.
Find the maximum error in the measurement of Young’s modulus of the material of the wire from these data.
[IIT 2004]
3. A container of width 2a is filled with a liquid. A thin wire of weight per unit length 
is gently placed over the liquid surface in the middle of the surface as shown in the y
figure. As a result, the liquid surface is depressed by a distance y( y  a) . Determine
the surface tension of the liquid.
2a
[IIT 2004]
4. A small sphere falls from rest in a viscous liquid. Due to friction, heat is produced. Find the relationbetween
the rate of production of heat and the radius of the sphere at terminal velocity. [IIT 2004]
5. The pressure of a medium is changed from 1.01  105 Pa to 1.165  105 Pa and change in volume is 10%
keeping temperature constant. The bulk modulus of the medium is [IIT 2005]
(a) 204.8  105 Pa (b) 102.4  105 Pa (c) 51.2  105 Pa (d) 1.55  105 Pa
6. A glass tube of uniform internal radius  r  has a valve separating the two
identical ends. Initially, the valve is in a tightly closed position. End 1 has a
hemispherical soap bubble of radius r . End 2 has sub- hemispherical soap
bubble as shown in figure.
Just after opening the valve. [IIT 2008]
(a) air from end 1 flows towards end 2 . No change in the volume of the soap bubbles
(b) air from end 1 flows towards end 2 . Volume of the soap bubble at end 1 decreases
(c) no change occurs
(d) air from end 2 flows towards end 1 . Volume of the soap bubble at end 1 increases.
PASSAGE BASED PROBLEM

Passage # 1
5
A small spherical monoatomic ideal gas bubble     is trapped inside a liquid of density 1 (see figure).
3
Assume that the bubble does not exchange any heat with the liquid. The bubble contains n moles of gas.
The temperature of the gas when the bubble is at the bottom is T0 , the height of the liquid is H and the
atmospheric pressure is p 0 (Neglect surface tension) [IIT 2008]
7. As the bubble moves upwards, besides the buoyancy force the following forces are acting on it. [IIT 2008]
(a) Only the force of gravity
(b) The force due to gravity and the force due to the pressure of the liquid
(c) The force due to gravity, the force due to the pressure of the liquid and the force due to viscosity
of the liquid
(d) The force due to gravity and the force due to viscosity of the liquid.
8. When the gas bubble is at a height y from the bottom, its temperature is [IIT 2008]
25 25
 p  l gH   p  l g  H  y  
(a) T0  0  (b) T0  0 
 p0  l gy   p0  l gH 
35 35
 p  l gH   p  l g  H  y  
(c) T0  0  (d) T0  0 
 p0  l gy   p0  l gH 
9. The buoyancy force acting on the gas bubble is (Assume R is the universal gas constant) [IIT 2008]
25
(a) l n RgT0
 p0  l gH  (b)
l nRgT0
35
 p0  l gy 2 5  p0  l gH  25
 p0  l g  H  y  
35
(c) l n RgT0
 p0  l gH 
(d)
l n RgT0
25
 p0  l gy 8 5  p0  l gH 3 5  p0  l g  H  y 
2
10. Two soap bubbles A and B are kept in a closed chamber where the air is maintained at pressure 8Nm . The
radii of bubbles A and B are 2 cm& 4 cm, respectively. Surface tension of soap-water used to make bubble is
nB
0.04 Nm 1 . Find the ratio , where nA and nB are the number of moles of air in bubbles A and B,
nA
respectively. (Neglect the effect of gravity) [IIT 2009]
Passage # 2
When liquid medicine of density  is to be put in the eye, it is done with the help of a dropper. As
the bulb on the top of the dropper is pressed, a drop forms at the opening to the dropper. We wish to
estimate the size of the drop.
We first assume that the drop formed at the opening is spherical because that requires a minimum increases
in its surface energy. To determine the size, we calculate the net vertical force due to the surface tension T
when the radius of the drop is R. When this force becomes smaller than the weight of the drop, the drop gets
detaches from a dropper.
11. If the radius of the opening of the dropper is r, the vertical force due to the surface tension on the drop of
radius R (assuming r << R)is [IIT 2010]
2 r 2T 2 R 2T
(a) 2 rT (b) 2 RT (c) (d)
R r
4 1
12. If r  5  10 m ,   103 kgm 3 , g  10ms 2 , T  0.11Nm , the radius of the drop when it detaches from
the dropper is approximately [IIT 2010]
3 3 3 3
(a) 1.4 10 m (b) 3.3 10 m (c) 2.0 10 m (d) 4.110 m
13. After the drop detaches, its surface energy is [IIT 2010]
6 6 6 9
(a) 1.4 10 J (b) 2.7 10 J (c) 5.4 10 J (d) 8.110 J
14. One end of a horizontal thick copper wire of length 2Land radius 2R is welded to an end of another horizontal
thin copper wire of length L and radius R. When thearrangement is stretched by applying forces at two ends,
the ratio of the elongation in the thin wire to that in the tick wire is
(a) 0.25 (b) 0.50 (c) 2.00 (d) 4.00
(JEE Advanced 2013)
15. A glass capillary tube is of theshape of truncated cone with anapex angle  so that its
two endshave cross sections of differentradii When dipped in watervertically, water
rises in it to aheight h, where the radius of itscross section is b. If the surfacetension of
water is S, its density is  , and its contact angle with glass is  , the value of h will be (g
is the acceleration due to gravity)
2S 2S
(a) cos      (b) cos     
bg bg
2S 2S
(c) cos     2  (d) cos     2 
bg bg
(JEE Advanced 2014)
16. In plotting stress versus strain curves for the materials P and Q, a student by
mistake puts strain on the y – axis and stress on the x – axis as shown in the figure.
Then the correct statement(s) is (are)
(a) P has more tensile strength than Q
(b) P is more ductile than Q
(c) P is more brittle than Q
(d) The Young’s modulus of P is more than that of Q
(JEE Advance 2015)
17. Two spheres P and Q of equal radii have densities 1 and  2 respectively. The spheres are connected
by a massless string and placed in liquids L1and L2of densities  1 and  2 and viscosities  1 and  2
respectively. They float in equilibrium with the sphere P in L1and sphere Q in L2and the string being taut (see
 
figure). If sphere P alone in L2has terminal velocity VP and Q alone in L1has terminal velocity VQ , then
 
VP VP
1 2    
(A) 
 (B) 
 (C) VP  VQ  0 (D) VP  VQ  0
2 1
VQ VQ
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE # 1
Single Choice
1. (a) 2. (d) 3. (c) 4. (a) 5. (c) 6. (b) 7. (a)
8. (c) 9. (c) 10. (b) 11. (c) 12. (c) 13. (b) 14. (c)
15. (c) 16. (b) 17. (d) 18. (a) 19. (b)
EXERCISE #2
One or more than one may be correct
1. (b) (c) 2.(a) (b) (c) 3. (a) (c) (d) 4. (a) (c) (d) 5. (b) (d) 6 a, b 7 c, d 8 a, b, d
9 b, c, d 10 a, d
EXERCISE # 3
Comprehension – I
1. a 2. a 3. b 4. c 5. c
Comprehension – II
1. a 2. c 3. a 4. c 5. b
Matrix match type

1. (a)  (iv), (b)  (i) (c)  (ii) (d)  (iii)
EXERCISE #4
SUBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS
1. 1.79 2. 1.5 104 m (steel); 1.3  104 m (brass)
3. 1.8  102 N 4. 6.92 105 Pa
5. 2.5 102 Nm-1
6. Excess pressure = 310 Pa total pressure  1.0131105 Pa 7. 5.8 cm/sec; 3.93 1010 N.
8. 54.88 N 9. P  8.08 105 N/m2 10.= 0.004 m
PREVIOUS YEAR IIT-JEE

1 a dQ
1. n N-S/m2 2. Y  1.09 1010 N/m
2
3. T 4.  r5
720 2y dt
5.(d) 6.(b) 7.(d) 8.(b) 9. (b) 10. 6 11.(c) 12.(a) 13.(b) 14. (c)
15. (d) 16. (ab) 17. (ad)

Pace Booklet - Properties of Matter

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Fluid Mechanics & Properties of Matter Rg-Phy.

Properties of Matter - Solid

Hooke’s law, Young’s modulus, Bulk modulii of elasticity

Terms related to Elasticity

2. Perfectly elastic body

3. Perfectly plastic body

Interatomic and Intermolecular forces

The potential energy is a minimum at the equilibrium separation r0, at which

For smaller distances force is repulsive. Attractive

1.Normal stress or Axial stress or Longitudinal stress:

Normal stress has two types:

Example A column supporting vertical load.

Stress developed is Normal Tensile stress.

2. Shearing Stress or Tangential Stress (  )

If applied force is variable, then tangential stress is different at different

Example A shaft resists shear stress when it is twisted by external torque.

 Area of section  A sec 

(d) Shearing stress is maximum when sin 2  1 or 2  900 or   450

1. Longitudinal strain (l )

2. Volume Strain (v )

Illustration4: A copper wire of length 5m is suspended from ceiling. When a mass

Solution: Original length = 5m

Changein length 2 10 2 m

Where, E is constant of proportionality and is known as modulus of Elasticity.

Modulus of Elasticity (E)

Types of Modulii of Elasticity:

1 Young’s Modulus of Elasticity (Y)

Solution: Here, l = 10m = 1000cm

F/A FL (8 10 4 )(9.8 N)  (4.0 m)

2. Bulk Modulus of Elasticity (B or K)

body which decreases its volume by (V ) as shown. The volumetric

For gases, there are two types of Bulk modulii

Isothermal Bulk modulus of elasticity of gas

Adiabatic Bulk modulus of elasticity of gas

displacement 0.4 cm stress 333 Pa

7 If a gas is heated at constant pressure, its isothermal compressibility

1. Negative sign implies radius of wire decreases as the length

Stress Strain Curve

OP  stress – strain graph is linear and it obeys Hook’s law i.e.

Elastic potential energy stored in a stretched wire or Rod

Thermal Stress and Thermal Strain l , , Y , A

If deformation of body is prevented, the stresses are induced in the body. A B

Answer 1c, 2 b, 3b, 4a, 5 b, 6 b, 7b

PROPERTIES OF MATTER- LIQUID

Cause of surface Tension

Measurement of Surface Tension

Alternative method to measure surface tension

Solution: Length of the surface = circumference of the circular plate

Measurement of surface energy

Solution: In case of a soap bubble, there are two free surfaces.

 work done at blowing a soap bubble of radius R is given by.

W  2  4R 2  T , where T is the surface tension of the soap solution.

where, R  0.1 m, T  0.06 Nm-1

 W   8(0.1)2  0.06 J  1.51 102 J .

Similarly, work done is forming a bubble of radius 0.2 m is,

W  8(0.2) 2  0.06 J  6.03  102 J

W  W   6.03 102 J  1.51 102 J  4.52 102 J

Excess Pressure inside a curved surface:

Excess pressure (P) inside a soap bubble

Fout  Pout ( r 2 ) Fin  Pin ( r 2 )

Case-II When   90o liquid curves down

1. Directly proportional to the area (A) of the layers in contact

1 decapoise = 1N-s/m2 = 1 Pa-s = 10 poise