Chapter 1

POSTS AND TELECOMMUNICATIONS INSTITUTE OF
TECHNOLOGY
——————–o0o——————–
Chapter 1: The limit and continuity of

functions of one variable
CALCULUS 1
Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Fundamental

science 1
Hanoi - 2021
1 / 46
Department of Mathematics Chapter 1: The limit and continuity of functions of one variable
Content
1 1.1. Definition, composite functions, inverse functions,
elementary functions
1.1.1. Definition
1.1.2. Increasing or decreasing functions
1.1.3. Bounded functions
1.1.4. Composite functions
1.1.5. Symmetry of Functions
1.1.6. Inverse Functions
1.1.7. Some elementary functions
2 1.2. Definition of the limit, operations of the limit
1.2.1. Definition
1.2.2. Operations of the limit
3 1.3. Continuous functions
1.3.1. Continuity at a point
1.3.2. Continuous on an interval
1.3.3. The properties of continuous functions
1.3.4. The Intermediate Value Theorem
2 / 46
Content
1.1.1. Definition
1.2.1. Definition
3 / 46
1.1.1. Definition
Definition
A function f consists of a set of inputs, a set of outputs, and a rule
for assigning each input to exactly one output. The set of inputs is
called the domain of the function. The set of outputs is called the
range of the function.
4 / 46
1.1.1. Definition
For a general function f with domain D, we often use x to denote

the input and y to denote the output associated with x. When
doing so, we refer to x as the independent variable and y as the
dependent variable, because it depends on x. Using function
notation, we write y = f (x), and we read this equation as " y
equals f of x.”
For the squaring function, we write f (x) = x2
5 / 46
1.1.1. Definition
Definition
Let X ⊆ R, Y ⊆ R, the map
f :X→Y
x 7→ y = f (x)
is called a function of one variable, the set X is called the domain

of the function f . Normally, x is called the argument, y is the function.
The value set of the function y = f (x) is a set of the form
fval = {f (x) : x ∈ X}.
6 / 46
1.1.1. Definition
The graph
The graph of a function is the set of all points (x, y) in the coordinate
plane where y = f (x).
Example
Consider the function f , where the domain is the set D = {1, 2, 3} and
the rule is f (x) = 3 − x in the following figure.
7 / 46
Hướng dẫn
Với mọi x ∈ (0, π2 ], ta có
ln(sin x)
f (x) = √ ,
x
Từ x ∈ (0, π2 ], suy ra sin x ∈ (0, 1] và ln(sin x) ∈ (−∞, 0],
8 / 46
1.1.1. Definition
Example
For each of the following functions, determine the domain and the
range.
2
√ − 4) + 5
a. f (x) = (x
b. f (x) = 3x + 2 − 1
3
c. f (x) =
x−2
9 / 46
Definition
We say that a function f is increasing on the interval I if for all
x1 , x2 ∈ I,
f (x1 ) ≤ f (x2 ) when x1 < x2
We say f is strictly increasing on the interval I if for all x1 , x2 ∈ I,
f (x1 ) < f (x2 ) when x1 < x2

We say that a function f is decreasing on the interval I if for all
x1 , x2 ∈ I
f (x1 ) ≥ f (x2 ) if x1 < x2
We say that a function f is strictly decreasing on the interval I if
for all x1 , x2 ∈ I
f (x1 ) > f (x2 ) if x1 < x2
10 / 46
1.1.2. Increasing and decreasing functions
Example
The function f (x) = 3x is increasing on the interval (−∞, ∞) because
3x1 < 3x2 whenever x1 < x2 . On the other hand, the function
f (x) = −x3 is decreasing on the interval (−∞, ∞) because −x31 > −x32
whenever x1 < x2
11 / 46
Definition
The function y = f (x) is called upper bounded on the domain
D if and only if there exists a constant M ∈ R such that
f (x) ≤ M ∀x ∈ D.
The function y = f (x) is called lower bounded on the domain D

if and only if there exists a constant m ∈ R such that
f (x) ≥ m ∀x ∈ D.
The function y = f (x) is called bounded on the domain D if and

only if f is bounded above and lower bounded on D.
12 / 46
Infimum and supremum
Definition
The number m is called infimum of the function f on the domain
D, denoted by m = inf f (x) if and only if m is the largest number
x∈D
that satisfies
f (x) ≥ m ∀x ∈ D.
The number M is called supremum of the function f on the
domain D, denoted
M = sup f (x)
x∈D
if and only if M is the smallest number satisfying
f (x) ≤ M ∀x ∈ D.
13 / 46
Composite functions
Consider the function f with domain A and range B, and the function
g with domain D and range E. If B is a subset of D, then the
composite function (g ◦ f )(x) is the function with domain A such
that
(g ◦ f )(x) = g(f (x))
14 / 46
Example
Consider the functions f (x) = x2 + 1 and g(x) = 1/x.
a. Find (g ◦ f )(x) and state its domain and range.
b. Evaluate (g ◦ f )(4), (g ◦ f )(−1/2).
c. Find (f ◦ g)(x) and state its domain and range.
d. Evaluate (f ◦ g)(4), (f ◦ g)(−1/2).
15 / 46
Definition
If f (x) = f (−x) for all x in the domain of f , then f is an even
function. An even function is symmetric about the y-axis.
If f (−x) = −f (x) for all x in the domain of f , then f is an odd
function. An odd function is symmetric about the origin.
16 / 46
Example
Determine whether each of the following functions is even, odd, or
neither.
a. f (x) = −5x4 + 7x2 − 2
b. f (x) = 2x5 − 4x + 5
3x
c. f (x) = 2
x +1
17 / 46
Inverse Function
Given a function f with domain D and range R, its inverse function
(if it exists) is the function f −1 with domain R and range D such that
f −1 (y) = x if f (x) = y. In other words, for a function f and its inverse
f −1 ,f −1 (f (x)) = x for all x in D, and f f −1 (y) = y for all y in R.

18 / 46
1.1.6. Inverse functions
Problem-solving strategy: Finding an inverse function

Solve the equation y = f (x) for x.
Interchange the variables x and y and write y = f −1 (x).
Example
Find the inverse for the function f (x) = 3x − 4. State the domain and
range of the inverse function. Verify that f −1 (f (x)) = x
19 / 46
1.1.6. Inverse functions
The inverse function of sin, denoted "arcsin", and the inverse

function of cos, denoted "arccos", are defined on the domain
D = {x | −1 ≤ x ≤ 1} as follows:
arcsin(x) = y if and only if sin(y) = x and − π2 ≤ y ≤ π

2
arccos(x) = y if and only if cos(y) = x and 0 ≤ y ≤ π
The inverse tangent function, denoted tan−1 or arctan, and inverse

cotangent function, denoted cot−1 or arccot, are defined on the
domain D = {x | −∞ < x < ∞} as follows:
arctan(x) = y if and only if tan(y) = x and − π2 < y < π

2
arccot(x) = y if and only if cot(y) = x and 0 < y < π
20 / 46
Exponential and logarithmic functions

The exponential function y = bx is increasing if b > 1 and
decreasing if 0 < b < 1. Its domain is (−∞, +∞) and its range is
(0, ∞).
The logarithmic function y = logb (x) is the inverse of y = bx .
Its domain is (0, ∞) and its range is (−∞, +∞).
The natural exponential function is y = ex and the natural
logarithmic function is y = ln x = loge x
Given an exponential function or logarithmic function in base a,
we can make a change of base to convert this function to any base
b > 0, b 6= 1. We typically convert to base e.
The hyperbolic functions involve combinations of the
exponential functions ex and e−x . As a result, the inverse
hyperbolic functions involve the natural logarithm.
21 / 46
Content
1.1.1. Definition
1.2.1. Definition
22 / 46
1.2.1. Definition
Look at the graphs of the functions
x2 − 4 |x − 2| 1
f (x) = , g(x) = , and h(x) =
x−2 x−2 (x − 2)2
which are shown in the following figure. In particular, let’s focus our
attention on the behavior of each graph at and around x = 2.
23 / 46
1.2.1. Definition
Each of the three functions is undefined at x = 2, but if we make

this statement and no other, we give a very incomplete picture of
how each function behaves in the vicinity of x = 2.
To express the behavior of each graph in the vicinity of 2 more
completely, we need to introduce the concept of a limit.
Let’s first take a closer look at how the function
f (x) = x2 − 4 /(x − 2) behaves around x = 2. As the values of x
approach 2 from either side of 2, the values of y = f (x) approach
4. Mathematically, we say that the limit of f (x) as x approaches 2
is 4. Symbolically, we express this limit as
lim f (x) = 4
x→2
24 / 46
1.2.1. Definition
Definition
Let f (x) be a function defined at all values in an open interval
containing a, with the possible exception of a itself, and let L be a real
number. If all values of the function f (x) approach the real number L
as the values of x(6= a) approach the number a, then we say that the
limit of f (x) as x approaches a is L. (More succinct, as x gets
closer to a, f (x) gets closer and stays close to L. ) Symbolically, we
express this idea as
lim f (x) = L
x→a
25 / 46
1.2.1. Definition
Recall that the distance between two points a and b on a number line
is given by |a − b|
The statement |f (x) − L| < ε may be interpreted as: The distance
between f (x) and L is less than ε.
The statement 0 < |x − a| < δ may be interpreted as: x 6= a and
the distance between x and a is less than δ.
The statement |f (x) − L| < ε is equivalent to the statement
L − ε < f (x) < L + ε
The statement 0 < |x − a| < δ is equivalent to the statement
a − δ < x < a + δ and x 6= a
26 / 46
1.2.1. Definition
Definition
Let f (x) be defined for all x 6= a over an open interval containing a.
Let L be a real number. Then, the limit
lim f (x) = L
x→a
is defined by that, for every ε > 0 there exists a δ > 0 such that
0 < |x − a| < δ ⇒ |f (x) − L| < ε.
27 / 46
One-sided limits
Limit from the left: Let f (x) be a function defined at all values
in an open interval of the form (c, a), and let L be a real number.
If the values of the function f (x) approach the real number L as
the values of x (where x < a ) approach the number a, then we say
that L is the limit of f (x) as x approaches a from the left.
Symbolically, we express this idea as lim f (x) = L
x→a−
Limit from the right: Let f (x) be a function defined at all
values in an open interval of the form (a, c), and let L be a real
number. If the values of the function f (x) approach the real
number L as the values of x( where x > a ) approach the number
a, then we say that L is the limit of f (x) as x approaches a from
the right. Symbolically, we express this idea as lim f (x) = L
x→a+
28 / 46
One-sided limits (continuity)
Limit from the right: Let f (x) be defined over an open interval
of the form (a, b) where a < b. Then,
lim f (x) = L
x→a+
if for every ε > 0, there exists a δ > 0 such that if 0 < x − a < δ,
then |f (x) − L| < ε.
Limit from the left: Let f (x) be defined over an open interval
of the form (b, a) where b < a. Then,
lim f (x) = L
x→a−
if for every ε > 0, there exists a number δ > 0 such that if

−δ < x − a < 0, then |f (x) − L| < ε
29 / 46
Two types of one-sided limits
Example

x+1 if x < 2
For the function f (x) = , evaluate each of the
x2 − 4 if x ≥ 2
following limits.
a. lim f (x)
x→2−
b. lim f (x).
x→2+
30 / 46
Infinite limits
Infinite limits
Let f (x) be defined for all x 6= a in an open interval containing a.
If the values of f (x) increase without bound as the values of x
(where x 6= a ) approach the number a, then we say that the
limit as x approaches a is positive infinity and we write
lim f (x) = +∞
x→a
If the values of f (x) decrease without bound as the values of x

(where x 6= a ) approach the number a, then we say that the
limit as x approaches a is negative infinity and we write
lim f (x) = −∞
x→a
31 / 46
Infinite limits
Infinite limits
Let f (x) be defined for all x 6= a in an open interval containing a.
We have an infinite limit
lim f (x) = +∞
x→a
if for every M > 0, there exists δ > 0 such that if 0 < |x − a| < δ,
then f (x) > M .
We have a negative infinite limit
lim f (x) = −∞
x→a
if for every M > 0, there exists δ > 0 such that if 0 < |x − a| < δ,
then f (x) < −M .
32 / 46
Infinite limits
Example
Evaluate each of the following limits, if possible. confirm your
conclusion.
a. lim x1
x→0−
1
b. lim x
x→0+
c. lim 1
x→0 x
33 / 46
Let f (x) and g(x) be defined for all x 6= a over some open interval
containing a. Assume that L and M are real numbers such that
lim f (x) = L and lim g(x) = M. Let c be a constant. Then, each of the
x→a x→a
following statements holds:
Sum law for limits:
lim (f (x) + g(x)) = lim f (x) + lim g(x) = L + M
x→a x→a x→a
Difference law for limits:
lim (f (x) − g(x)) = lim f (x) − lim g(x) = L − M
x→a x→a x→a
Constant multiple law for limits: lim cf (x) = c · lim f (x) = cL
x→a x→a
Product law for limits:
lim (f (x) · g(x)) = lim f (x) · lim g(x) = L · M
x→a x→a x→a
lim f (x)
Quotient law for limits: lim f (x) = x→a
= M
L
for M 6= 0.
x→a g(x) lim g(x)
x→a
n
Power law for limits: lim (f (x))n = lim f (x) = Ln for every
x→a x→a
positive integer n.
34 / 46
p
n
q √
n
Root law for limits: lim f (x) = n lim f (x) = L for all L if n
x→a x→a
is odd and for L ≥ 0 if n is even and f (x) ≥ 0.
The Squeeze Theorem: Let f (x), g(x), and h(x) be defined for all
x 6= a over an open interval containing a. If
f (x) ≤ g(x) ≤ h(x)
for all x 6= a in an open interval containing a and
lim f (x) = L = lim h(x)

x→a x→a
where L is a real number, then lim g(x) = L.

x→a
35 / 46
Example
Use the limit laws to evaluate
a. lim (4x + 2)
x→−3
2x2 −3x+1
b. lim x3 +4
x→2
√
c. lim (2x − 1) x + 4
x→6
d. lim x cos x.
x→0
36 / 46
Content
1.1.1. Definition
1.2.1. Definition
37 / 46
A function f (x) is continuous at a point a if and only if the following

three conditions are satisfied:
i. f (a) is defined
ii. lim f (x) exists
x→a
iii. lim f (x) = f (a)
x→a
A function is discontinuous at a if it fails to be continuous at a.
38 / 46
Example
Using the definition, determine whether the function
a. f (x) = x2 − 4 /(x − 2) is continuous at x = 2

−x2 + 4 if x ≤ 3

b. f (x) = is continuous at x = 3.
4x − 8 if x > 3
Example
Find the constant c that makes g continuous on (−∞, ∞).
2
x − c2 if x < 4
g(x) =
cx + 20 if x > 4
39 / 46
Continuity from the right and from the left

A function f (x) is said to be continuous from the right at a if
lim f (x) = f (a).
x→a+
A function f (x) is said to be continuous from the left at a if
lim f (x) = f (a).
x→a−
Example
x−1
Find the interval(s) that the function f (x) = x2 +2x
is continuous.
40 / 46
Continuous on an interval
A function f is continuous on an interval if it is continuous at every
point in the interval. (If f is defined only on one side of an endpoint of
the interval, we understand continuous at the endpoint to mean
continuous from the right or continuous from the left.)
Example
√
Show that the function f (x) = 1 − 1 − x2 is continuous on the
interval [−1, 1]
41 / 46
Theorem
If f and g are continuous at x0 and c is a constant, then the
following functions are also continuous at x0 : f + g, f − g, cf , f g,
f
and if g(x0 ) 6= 0.
g
Any polynomial is continuous everywhere; that is, it is continuous
on R = (−∞, ∞)
Any rational function is continuous wherever it is defined; that is,
it is continuous on its domain.
The following types of functions are continuous at every number in
their domains: polynomials, rational functions, root functions,
trigonometric functions.
42 / 46
The properties of continuous functions

If f is continuous at b and lim g(x) = b, then lim f (g(x)) = f (b).
x→a x→a
In other words,

lim f (g(x)) = f lim g(x) .
x→a x→a
If g is continuous at a and f is continuous at g(a), then the

composite function f ◦ g given by (f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x)) is
continuous at a.
43 / 46
The properties of continuous functions (cont.)

On what intervals is each function continuous?
(a) f (x) = x100 − 2x37 + 75
x2 + 2x + 17
(b) g(x) =
x2 − 1
√ x+1 x+1
(c) h(x) = x + −
x − 1 x2 + 1
44 / 46
The Intermediate Value Theorem
Let f be continuous over a closed, bounded interval [a, b]. If z is any
real number between f (a) and f (b), then there is a number c in [a, b]
satisfying f (c) = z
45 / 46
1.3.4. The intermediate value theorem
Example
Show that there is a root of the equation 4x3 − 6x2 + 3x − 2 = 0
between 1 and 2 .
Show that f (x) = x3 − x2 − 3x + 1 has at least one root.
46 / 46

Chapter 1

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Chapter 1

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

POSTS AND TELECOMMUNICATIONS INSTITUTE OF

Chapter 1: The limit and continuity of

Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Fundamental

For a general function f with domain D, we often use x to denote

is called a function of one variable, the set X is called the domain

Với mọi x ∈ (0, π2 ], ta có

Từ x ∈ (0, π2 ], suy ra sin x ∈ (0, 1] và ln(sin x) ∈ (−∞, 0],

f (x1 ) < f (x2 ) when x1 < x2

The function y = f (x) is called lower bounded on the domain D

The function y = f (x) is called bounded on the domain D if and

if and only if M is the smallest number satisfying

Problem-solving strategy: Finding an inverse function

The inverse function of sin, denoted "arcsin", and the inverse

arcsin(x) = y if and only if sin(y) = x and − π2 ≤ y ≤ π

The inverse tangent function, denoted tan−1 or arctan, and inverse

arctan(x) = y if and only if tan(y) = x and − π2 < y < π

Exponential and logarithmic functions

Each of the three functions is undefined at x = 2, but if we make

0 < |x − a| < δ ⇒ |f (x) − L| < ε.

if for every ε > 0, there exists a number δ > 0 such that if

If the values of f (x) decrease without bound as the values of x

f (x) ≤ g(x) ≤ h(x)

for all x 6= a in an open interval containing a and

lim f (x) = L = lim h(x)

where L is a real number, then lim g(x) = L.

A function f (x) is continuous at a point a if and only if the following

Continuity from the right and from the left

The properties of continuous functions

If g is continuous at a and f is continuous at g(a), then the

The properties of continuous functions (cont.)

You might also like