Eur. Phys. J.

Plus (2024) 139:327

https://doi.org/10.1140/epjp/s13360-024-05124-z

Regular Article

Novel soliton structures and dynamical behaviour of coupled Higgs field equations

Naseem Abbasa , Amjad Hussainb

Department of Mathematics, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad 45320, Pakistan

Received: 10 November 2023 / Accepted: 18 March 2024

© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Società Italiana di Fisica and Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2024

Abstract In this paper, we consider the coupled Higgs field equations, which explain the structure of the conserved scalar nucleons
interacting with a neutral scalar meson. We obtain periodic and shock-wave profiles of the model using the Jacobi elliptic function
(JEF) technique. The outcomes are in the form of trigonometric, hyperbolic, and rational function solutions. The dynamical behavior
of the same model is investigated from several viewpoints, including bifurcation, quasi-periodic motion, chaotic patterns, Lyapunov
exponents, and sensitivity analysis.

1 Introduction

Partial differential equations (PDEs) are central to dynamical systems encoding linear and nonlinear processes and phenomena. It
is necessary to look for a solution to these PDEs to uncover the nonlinear model’s physical description and related structures. For
such a critical job, numerous approaches have been developed, including the Lie classical approach [1, 2] and related symmetry
reduction [3–6], the extended (G  /G 2 )-expansion method [7], the Jacobi elliptic function expansion method [8, 9], the homotopy
perturbation method [10], the modified simple equation method [11], the first integral method [12, 13], etc. Besides, coupled systems
of nonlinear PDEs frequently arise in many areas of physics; see, for instance, [14–17]. The investigations of nonlinear optics and
multi-component Bose-Einstein condensates led to the development of coupled Hartree equations, whose existence and nonexistence
were discussed by Wang et al. in [15]. In [16], Chen et al. constructed optical soliton solutions to the coupled Schrodinger equations.
Khater et al. [17] used the generalized exp-function approach to derive the solitary wave solutions for the coupled Higgs equations.
We end this discussion here, despite the existence of more relevant papers on this topic in the literature.
Quasi-periodic and chaotic patterns play significant roles in the study of nonlinear dynamics. In nonlinear optics, quasi-periodic
patterns refer to behaviors that exhibit some form of regularity but lack exact periodicity. Understanding these patterns helps
in the design and control of optical devices and systems. Chaotic patterns can emerge in optical systems due to the nonlinear
interactions among light waves, dispersion, and other optical effects. This understanding is crucial for predicting and controlling
chaotic phenomena in optical communications, signal processing, and other applications. In summary, the study of quasi-periodic
and chaotic patterns in nonlinear optics using different models offers valuable insights into the behavior of optical systems and
informs the design and optimization of optical devices and communication technologies. That is the reason, in both perturbed and
unperturbed frameworks, the bifurcation of dynamical systems has been a point of discussion for many authors, see for instance
[18–20].
In view of the above discussion, in this paper, we construct the solitary wave solution of the coupled Higgs field equations:

Ptt − Px x − α P + β P |P |2 −2PQ  0,
(1)
Qtt + Qx x − β(|P |2 )x x  0,
using the JEF method and analyzing the same via different bifurcation tools. The system explains the structure of the conserved
scalar nucleons interacting with a neutral scalar meson. For the values of the parameters α < 0, β < 0, system (1) shows the
coupled nonlinear Klein-Gorden equation, and in a similar way, for the values of α > 0, β > 0, this shows the coupled Higgs field
equations. In [21], Using geometric analysis, the authors discussed the solitary wave solutions for the delayed coupled Higgs field
equations. In [22], Tajiri obtained the N-soliton solutions to the considered model (1). Later on, some general traveling wave profiles
of the system (1) were constructed in [23]. Kumar et al. [24] obtained exact explicit solutions via the Lie analysis method. By using
Lie theory, in [25], the authors obtained the series solution and conservation laws of the considered system Eq. (1). Talukdar et al.
[26] discussed the traveling-wave solution of the Eq. (1) and analyzed it using the dynamical system theory.

a e-mail: naseemabbas@math.qau.edu.pk
b e-mail: a.hussain@qau.edu.pk (corresponding author)

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The structure of this paper is as follows: In Sect. (2), the solitary wave solutions of the coupled Higgs field equations are obtained
by using the JEF method. In Sect. (3), the graphical analysis of the solutions so obtained is done by choosing suitable values
of the parameters. In Sect. (4), dynamical analysis, including chaotic, quasiperodic behaviors, Hamiltonian dynamics, Lyapunov
exponents, and sensitivity of the considered model, is done in detail. In Sect. (5), discussion and concluding remarks are presented
as well.

2 Solitary wave profiles of the coupled Higgs field equations

In this portion, we find out the solitary wave profiles for the coupled Higgs field Eq. (1). We let
P (x, t)  (ρ)eiψ , Q(x, t)  φ(ρ), (2)
with ρ  x − kt, ψ  bx − t,  and φ are real valued functions in ρ and taking b  k, then the system (1) has the following
form
 2
(k − 1) + (b2 − 2 − α) + β3 − 2φ  0,
(3)
(k 2 + 1)φ  − β(2 )  0,

where ( )  d
dρ . By taking integration of second equation of system (3) and considering zero constant of integration, we get
β2
φ, (4)
k2 + 1
which, on substituting back into the first equation of the system (3), gives
β(k 2 − 1) 3
(k 2 − 1) + (b2 − 2 − α) +   0, (5)
k2 + 1
or equivalently
(k 2 + 1)(k 2 − 1) + (k 2 + 1)(b2 − 2 − α) + β(k 2 − 1)3  0, (6)

2.1 Solutions of the Higgs equations by the JEF technique

In this subsection, we compute the periodic wave and solitary wave structures of the considered Eq. (1) using JEF method. The
detailed description of the method can be seen in [27]. Here, we apply the wave change to get the ODE:
(k 2 + 1)(k 2 − 1) + (k 2 + 1)(b2 − 2 − α) + β(k 2 − 1)3  0. (7)

We use the balancing procedure to an ODE Eq. (7) and we have n  1. Then from (ρ)  nv1 av B(ρ), we get
(ρ)  a0 + a1 B(ρ). (8)
Substituting Eq. (8) into Eq. (7), we get a system of algebraic equations. By finding the solution of these algebraic equations using
Maple, we obtain
2 − b2 + α βa12
m1  m1, m2  , m3  − , a0  0, a1  a1 . (9)
k2 − 1 k2 + 1
We follow the solution for Eq. (7) from Eq. (8) as
(ρ)  a1 B(ρ). (10)
Using the Eq. (7), we can compute various types of solitons based on the values the parameters m 1 , m 2 and m 3 .
Family 1: When m 1  1, m 2  −(1 + 2 ) and m 3  2 2 .
We get the periodic wave profile by analysing B(ρ)  sn(ρ, ) in Eq. (7), we have
(ρ)  a1 sn(ρ, ). (11)
In the situation  → 1, Eq. (11) becomes the shock wave profile as demonstrated by
(ρ)  a1 tanh(ρ). (12)
We have a solution of Eq. (1) by using Eqs. (2) and (4) as
β
P1 (x, t)  a1 tanh(x − kt)ei(bx−t) , Q1 (x, t)  2 (a1 tanh(x − kt))2 . (13)
k +1
Family 2: When m 1  − 2 (1 − 2 ), m2  2 2 − 1 and m 3  2.

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We have a periodic wave profile by analysing B(ρ)  ds(ρ, ) in the Eq. (7)
(ρ)  a1 ds(ρ, ). (14)
In the instance  → 1, Eq. (14) gives to
(ρ)  a1 csch(ρ). (15)
We compute a profile of Eq. (1) by using Eqs. (2) and (4) as
β
P2 (x, t)  a1 csch(x − kt)ei(bx−t) , Q2 (x, t)  2 (a1 csch(x − kt))2 . (16)
k +1
Family 3: When m 1  1 − 2 , m 2  2 − 2 , m 3  2.
We have the periodic wave profile by considering B(ρ)  cs(ρ, ) in the Eq. (7)
(ρ)  a1 cs(ρ, ). (17)
In the instance  → 1, Eq. (17) gives to
(ρ)  a1 coth(ρ). (18)
We find a solution to Eq. (1) by using Eqs. (2) and (4) as
β
P3 (x, t)  a1 coth(x − kt)ei(bx−t) , Q3 (x, t)  2 (a1 coth(x − kt))2 . (19)
k +1
Family 4: When m 1  1 − 2 , m 2  2 2 − 1, m 3  −2 2 .
We determine the periodic wave structure by considering B(ρ)  cn(ρ, ) in Eq. (7)
(ρ)  a1 cn(ρ, ). (20)
In the instance  → 1, Eq. (20) gives to
(ρ)  a1 sech(ρ). (21)
We acquire at the solution to Eq. (1) by using Eqs. (2) and (4) as
β
P4 (x, t)  a1 sech(x − kt)ei(bx−t) , Q4 (x, t)  2 (a1 sech(x − kt))2 . (22)
k +1
Family 5: When m 1  2 − 1, m 2  2 − ρ 2 , m 3  −2.
We derive a periodic wave profile by studying B(ρ)  dn(ρ, ) in Eq. (7)
(ρ)  a1 dn(ρ, ). (23)
In the instance  → 1, Eq. (23) gives us
(ρ)  a1 sech(ρ). (24)
We arrive at the solution to Eq. (1) by using Eqs. (2) and (4) as
β
P5 (x, t)  a1 sech(x − kt)ei(bx−t) , Q5 (x, t)  2 (a1 sech(x − kt))2 . (25)
k +1
Family 6: When m 1  14 , m 2  2−2 , m 3  2 ·
2 2

sn(ρ, )
We acquire the double periodic structure by considering B(ρ)  1±dn(ρ, ) in Eq. (7)
sn(ρ, )
(ρ)  a1 · (26)
(1 ± dn(ρ, ))
In the instance  → 1, Eq. (26) gives us
tanh(ρ)
(ρ)  a1 · (27)
(1 ± sech(ρ))
We get the solution to (1) by using Eqs. (2) and (4) as
 2
tanh(x − kt) β tanh(x − kt)
P6 (x, t)  a1 ei(bx−t) , Q6 (x, t)  2 a1 . (28)
(1 ± sech(x − kt)) k +1 (1 ± sech(x − kt))
2 2 −2 2
Family 7: When m 1  4 , m2  2 , m3  2 ·

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sn(ρ, )
We acquire the double periodic profile by analysing B( )  in Eq. (7)
1±dn(ρ, )
sn(ρ, )
(ρ)  a1 · (29)
(1 ± dn(ρ, ))
In the instance  → 1, Eq. (29) gives us
tanh(ρ)
(ρ)  a1 · (30)
(1 ± sech(ρ))
We reach at the solution to Eq. (1) by using Eqs. (2) and (4) as
 2
tanh(x − kt) β tanh(x − kt)
P7 (x, t)  a1 ei(bx−t) , Q7 (x, t)  2 a1 . (31)
(1 ± sech(x − kt)) k +1 (1 ± sech(x − kt))
2 2 2
Family 8: When m 1  − (1−4 ) , s2  ( 2+1) , s3  −1 2 ·
We obtain the double periodic profile by considering B(ρ)  cn(ρ, ) ± dn(ρ, ) in Eq. (7)
(ρ)  a1 ( cn(ρ, ) ± dn(ρ, ))· (32)
In the situation  → 1, Eq. (32) results in
(ρ)  a1 (sech(ρ) ± sech(ρ))· (33)
We acquire at the solution to Eq. (1) by using Eqs. (2) and (4) as
β
P8 (x, t)  a1 (sech(ρ) ± sech(ρ))ei(bx−t) , Q8 (x, t)  2 (a1 (sech(ρ) ± sech(ρ)))2 . (34)
k +1
Family 9: When m 1  ( 4−1) , m 2  ( 2+1) , m 3  ( 2−1) ·
2 2 2

dn(ρ, )
We arrive at the double periodic structure by taking B(ρ)  in Eq. (7)
1±sn(ρ, )
dn(ρ, )
(ρ)  a1 · (35)
1 ± sn(ρ, )
In the condition  → 1, Eq. (35) produces
sech(ρ)
(ρ)  a1 · (36)
1 ± tanh(ρ)
We arrive at the solution to Eq. (1) by using Eqs. (2) and (4) as
 2
sech(x − kt) i(bx−t) β sech(x − kt)
P9 (x, t)  a1 e , Q9 (x, t)  2 a1 . (37)
1 ± tanh(x − kt) k +1 1 ± tanh(x − kt)
2 2 2
Family 10: When m 1  (1−4 ) , m 2  (1−2 ) , m 3  (1−2 ) ·
cn(ρ, )
We compute the double periodic structure by taking B(ρ)  in Eq. (7)
1±sn(ρ, )
cn(ρ, )
(ρ)  a1 · (38)
1 ± sn(ρ, )
In the instance  → 1, Eq. (38) yields
sech(ρ)
(ρ)  a1 · (39)
1 ± tanh(ρ)
We arrive at the solution to Eq. (1) by using Eqs. (2) and (4) as
 2
sech(x − kt) i(bx−t) β sech(x − kt)
P10 (x, t)  a1 e , Q10 (x, t)  2 a1 . (40)
1 ± tanh(x − kt) k +1 1 ± tanh(x − kt)
2 2 2 2
Family 11: When m 1  41 , m 2  (1−2 ) , m 3  (1−2 ) ·
sn(ρ, )
We arrive at the double periodic solution by taking B(ρ)  dn(ρ, )±cn(ρ, ) in Eq. (7)
sn(ρ, )
(ρ)  a1 · (41)
dn(ρ, ) ± cn(ρ, )
In the instance  → 1, Eq. (41) gives us
tanh(ρ)
(ρ)  a1 · (42)
sech(ρ) ± sech(ρ)

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We have a structure of Eq. (1) by using Eqs. (2) and (4) as

tanh(x − kt)
P11 (x, t)  a1 ei(bx−t) ,
sech(x − kt) ± sech(x − kt)
 2 (43)
β tanh(x − kt)
Q11 (x, t)  2 a1 .
k +1 sech(x − kt) ± sech(x − kt)
Family 12: When m 1  0, m 2  0, m 3  2·
We acquire a rational structure by taking B(ρ)  D
ρ in the solution of Eq. (7)
D
(ρ)  a1 · (44)
ρ
In the instance  → 1, Eq. (44) gives us
D
(ρ)  a1 · (45)
ρ
We obtain a solution structure to Eq. (1) by using Eqs. (2) and (4) as
 2
D β D
P12 (x, t)  a1 ei(bx−t) , Q12 (x, t)  2 a1 . (46)
x − kt k +1 x − kt
Family 13: When m 1  0, m 2  1, m 3  0·
We acquire a rational structure by taking B(ρ)  Deρ in Eq. (7)

(ρ)  a1 Deρ · (47)

In the instance  → 1, Eq. (47) gives us

(ρ)  a1 Deρ · (48)

We get at the solution to (1) by using Eqs. (2) and (4) as

β
P13 (x, t)  a1 De(x−kt) ei(bx−t) , Q13 (x, t)  2 (a1 De(x−kt) )2 . (49)
k +1

3 The physical attributes of the obtained results

We comprehend the dynamic behavior of the obtained solutions by applying the pictorial visualizations of the novel analytical
structures to the coupled Higgs field equations. We analyze the graphic representation of our newly computed waveform structures
involving hyperbolic types, trigonometric forms and rational feature graphs of various categories. The physical interpretation of
the coupled Higgs field equations is dependent on the simulation using the symbolic computation software Mathematica. Some
well-known soliton structures, such as double periodic waves, shock wave solutions or kink-shaped solitons, solitary waves or
bell-shaped solitons, and periodic wave soliton solutions, are recognized by the physical characteristics. Figure 1 depicts the shock
wave soliton solution. The bell-shaped soliton solutions are depicted in Fig. 2 while. Figure 3 depicts the double periodic structure.

4 Dynamical features of the governing equations

In this section, bifurcation analysis, Hamiltonian dynamics, chaos and sensitivity analysis of the considered model is done in details.

4.1 Phase-plane analysis

This subsection is dedicated to phase plane analysis [28] of the considered model. Equation (6) can be written as

  ϒ1  − ϒ2 3 , (50)
(α+2 −b2 ) β
where ϒ1  (k 2 −1)
and ϒ2  (k 2 +1)
· Assume   ψ, we can write a planar dynamical system as
⎧
⎪
⎨ d  ψ,
dρ
(51)
⎪
⎩ dψ  ϒ  − ϒ 3 ,
dρ 1 2

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Fig. 1 Graphical structure of the shock wave soliton profile (13) to the Eq. (1) with a1  5, k  2, b  1 and   1

Fig. 2 Graphical structure of the solitary wave or bell-shaped soliton profile (22) to the Eq. (1) with a1  5, k  2, b  1 and   1

Fig. 3 Graphical structure of the double periodic waves soliton profile (28) to the Eq. (1) with a1  5, β  2, k  2

where ϒ1 and ϒ2 are specified above. To find the equilibrium points of the system (51), the system

ψ  0,
(52)
ϒ1  − ϒ2 3  0,

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Table 1 Classification of the Equilibrium type Saddle Centre Cusp

equilibrium points
J (, ϕ) Negative Positive Zero

Fig. 4 Phase diagrams of the dynamical system (51)

is solved. As a result, the system has three equilibrium points:

ϒ1 ϒ1
E1  (0, 0), E2  ,0 and E3  − ,0 . (53)
ϒ2 ϒ2

The system (51) has a Jacobian with the determinant form as

 
0 1
J (, ψ)  det  −ϒ1 + 3ϒ2 2 . (54)
ϒ1 − 3ϒ2 2 0

We know the classification of the equilibrium points as labeled in Table 1.

We consider a number of scenarios for the system’s parameters in order to study phase plane analysis of the dynamical system
(51). Phase portraits for system (51) are shown in Figs. 4 and 5.
Case 1: ϒ1 > 0 and ϒ2 > 0.
By taking into account various values of the relevant constants as k  2, α  3,   1, b  1 and β  5, Fig. 4a illustrates
the three different equilibrium positions E1  (0, 0), E2  (1, 0), and E3  (−1, 0). The image makes it obvious that E1 is a saddle
point and that E2 and E3 are centre points.
Case 2: ϒ1 < 0 and ϒ2 < 0.
By taking into account various values of the relevant constants as k  2, α  −3,   1, b  1 and β  −5, Fig. 4b illustrates
the three different equilibrium positions E1  (0, 0), E2  (1, 0), and E3  (−1, 0). The image makes it obvious that E1 is a centre
point and that E2 and E3 are saddle points.
Case 3: ϒ1 > 0 and ϒ2 < 0.
By taking into account various values of the relevant constants as (k  2, α  3,   1, b  1 and β  −5, Fig. 5a illustrates
the three different equilibrium positions E1  (0, 0), E2  (i, 0), and E3  (−i, 0). The image makes it obvious that E1 is a saddle
point.
Case 4: ϒ1 < 0 and ϒ2 > 0.
By taking into account various values of the relevant constants as k  2, α  −3,   1, b  1 and β  5, Fig. 5b illustrates
the three different equilibrium positions E1  (0, 0), E2  (i, 0), and E3  (−i, 0). The image makes it obvious that E1 is a centre
point.

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Fig. 5 Phase diagrams of the dynamical system (51)

Table 2 Phase plots classification Equilibrium classification Equilibrium points

(0, 0) (− 1, 0) (1, 0)

−1 +2 +2
Classifying Unstable & saddle Stable & centre Stable & centre

4.2 Hamiltonian dynamics

dψ
Definition 1 A dynamical system of the type d
dρ  A(, ψ), dρ  Z (, ψ) is known as Hamiltonian dynamical system if there
is a function H(, ψ) such that:

A(, ψ)  ∂∂ψ
H
,
∂H (55)
Z (, ψ)  − ∂ .

A necessary and sufficient condition for a system to be Hamiltonian is that [29]

dA dZ
+  0. (56)
d dψ

According to the definition (1), our considered model system (51) is the Hamiltonian dynamical system because it satisfies the
state equation
   
∂ d ∂ dψ
+  0, (57)
∂ dρ ∂ψ dρ

and yields us a Hamiltonian function:

ϒ1 2 ϒ2 4 ψ2
H(, ψ)  − − · (58)
2 4 2

Definition 2 If the second order partial derivatives of the H(, ψ) exists at an interval (0 , ψ0 ) and (0 , ψ0 ) is a critical point of
H(, ψ). Consider a function  H × Hψψ − (Hψ )2 , then at that point

• If > 0, then H(, ψ) has max. or min. value at critical point.

• If < 0, then H(, ψ) has saddle at critical point.
• If  0, then the method fails to test critical point.

According to definition (2), Table 2 shows the classification of the phase plots by using suitable values of the parameters. It is
concluded that the our obtained Hamiltonian dynamical system has saddle-node and centre-node bifurcation point.

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Fig. 6 Phase portraits of the system (59)

Fig. 7 Phase portraits of the system (59)

4.3 Quasi-periodic and chaotic patterns

In this part, we investigate the chaotic and Quasi-periodic patterns of the understudy model by invoking a perturbation term to the
planar dynamical system (51). Then, we can type
⎧
⎪
⎨ d(t)  ψ(t),
dt
(59)
⎪
⎩ dψ(t)  ϒ (t) − ϒ 3 (t) + f cos(ωt),
dt 1 2 0

where f 0 and ω show the amplitude and frequency of the external perturbation term applied to the system (51). This analysis shows
the affects of the external perturbation force on the planar dynamical system’s (51) properties. For this, we fix all the other parameters
of system (59) and vary the values of f 0 and ω. Figures 6 and 7 with parameters k  2, α  1,   3, b  2 and β  21.25
confirms the chaotic pattern and Quasi-periodic behavior as because of the solution curves show deviations upon a small changes
in the amplitude and frequency in the external perturbation.

4.4 Chaos

The collection of Lyapunov exponents (LEs) is known as the Lyapunov spectrum (LS). In order to detect the chaos in the system,
dynamical analyst mostly uses LEs and LS. The application of the bifurcation and chaotic analysis in coupled Higgs field equation
has received a significant amount of attention thus far. Therefore, by locating LE and LS using the helpful technique, this section

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Table 3 Lyapunov exponent for ϒ1 Exponent (λ)

1D-Map
2.00 − 0.004
2.17 − 0.39
2.20 − 0.15
2.30 − 0.05
2.38 + 0.37
2.39 + 0.33
2.40 + 0.40
2.41 + 0.36
2.43 + 0.51
2.48 + 0.47
2.49 + 0.49
2.50 + 0.44

Fig. 8 Lyapunov plot for system

(51) with ϒ1  2, ϒ2  4.25

investigates the chaos from coupled Higgs field equations. With relation to the state variables  and ψ, Eq. (51) is a decoupled
system. As a result, the cubic nonlinear equation in Eq. (51) is what fundamentally affects the chaos in coupled Higgs field equations
as a decoupled dynamical system Eq. (51). In order to analyse the second equation of Eq. (51), the Lyapunov exponent’s algorithm
for (1-D Map) can be used: By taking into account the appropriate parameters, Table 3 displays several Lyapunov exponents based
on the aforementioned algorithm. It is clear form Table 3 that the maximum positive Lyapunov is λ  +0.51. which shows that the
trajectories are diversing and considered system presents chaos.

Algorithm 1 Lyapunov exponent calculation

However, the following method can also be used to compute the Lyapunov spectrum in order to obtain the chaotic behaviour for
Eq. (51). It should be mentioned that the Lyapunov exponents spectrum expresses how to characterise the direction of the orbital
divergence to look for chaos. To compute the Lyapunov spectra, the conventional Gram-Schmidt Re-normalization Process (GSRP)
is used. The next sequential illustrations show the differential form of the GSRP [30, 31]. By examining a 2-D form of Eq. (51) as
˙  f (, ρ) (where  and f are defined the 2-D vector fields).

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Table 4 Lyapunov exponents Time λ1 λ2

profile for 2-D maps
0.1000 0.078129 − 0.078129
1.0000 0.584701 − 0.584701
2.0000 0.736523 − 0.736523
2.200 0.74135 − 0.74135
5.0000 0.398478 − 0.398478
10.0000 0.281345 − 0.281345
20.0000 0.148486 − 0.148486
30.0000 0.112893 − 0.112893
40.0000 0.099217 − 0.099217
Bold values show the Largest and 50.0000 0.062782 − 0.062782
smallest values of the Lyapunov 60.0000 0.083716 − 0.083716
exponents

Fig. 9 Lyapunov spectrum profile

for 2-D maps

The specific calculating process is also described in references [30, 31]. So, using the following formula, one can determine the
spectrum of the Lyapunov exponent:

λ1,2  lim (t −1 ln|| j ||). (60)

t→∞

By selecting particular values for the parameters, the estimated values for the Lyapunov spectrum based on the GSRP are illustrated
in Table 4.
To replicate Figs. 8 and 9 this study for LEs and LS is being undertaken. By utilising MATLAB to implement the aforementioned
procedure [32–35]. The analysis of the system’s stability for the dynamical system’s long-term evaluation depends heavily on the
LEs. The rapid divergence of the dynamical system’s unpredictable trajectories is taken into account by a positive LE. The system
possesses a chaotic attractor, which is why the study concentrates on the orbits’ paths that draw in the nearby solutions with at
least one positive LE. The incorporations of two LEs (λ1 , λ2 ) for the case of an autonomous dynamical system with two degrees of
freedom are developed in the ways listed below [36]:

• If (λ1 , λ2 )  (−, −) it is fixed point;

• If (λ1 , λ2 )  (0, −) it has limit cycle;
• If (λ1 , λ2 )  (+, −) It has a chaotic attractor inside.

According to Table 4 and Fig. 9, the positive exponents represent the orbit’s divergence, and the negative exponents illustrate the
orbit’s contraction. Additionally, the Hamiltonian dynamics are valid since the sum of exponents is equal to zero. Moreover, by
linking with 1-D mapping positive exponents in Table 3 the bold face row in Table 3 and Fig. 8 shows that the system possesses
chaos.

4.5 Sensitivity analysis

The Runge–Kutta method is used in this subsection to perform the sensitivity analysis of the dynamical system (51). For this purpose,
it is solved by the Runge–Kutta technique for k  2, α  1,   3, b  2 and β  21.25 with initial conditions (0)  0.1 and
ψ(0)  0 in Fig. 10 and (0)  0.01 and ψ(0)  0.01 in case of Fig. 11. The Figs. 10, 11 display the outcomes of such a successful
strategy. The statistics make it obvious that minor modifications to the initial conditions have little to no impact on the stability of
the solution.

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Fig. 10 Sensitivity plot for system (51) with k  2, α  1,   3, b  2 and β  21.25 and initial condition (0.1, 0.0)

Fig. 11 Sensitivity plot for system (51) with k  2, α  1,   3, b  2 and β  21.25 and initial condition (0.01, 0.01)

5 Discussion and concluding remarks

An important result of this research is an attempt to explain the relationship between the Hamiltonian dynamical system and
the bifurcation with phase portrait via the Hamiltonian function. The center-node and saddle-node phase states of the Hamiltonian
dynamical system are conserved, and the nodes flip when the value of the parameters changes. The coupled Higgs model’s parameter
values have no effect on how the phase portrait is shaped. By considering the values of the parameters: k  2, α  3,   1,
b  1 and β  5, the two centre equilibrium points are obtained as (1, 0) and (−1, 0) (Table 2 ). It is clear from Fig. 4a that there
are homoclinic orbits with a number of periodic orbits around the center equilibrium points. It clears that solitary and many periodic
wave solutions are supported by coupled Higgs field equations. The other point (0, 0) shows the saddle node bifurcation. To detect
the Hopf-bifurcation feature for the considered model, the dynamical system (51) can be written in the linearization form as
⎧
⎪
⎨ d  ψ,
dρ
(61)
⎪
⎩ dψ  ϒ ,
dρ 1

The following is the Jacobian matrix of this system at the point (0, 0):
   
0 1  0 1
  (62)
ϒ1 − 3ϒ2 2 0  ϒ1 0
(0,0)

The following formula can be used to determine this matrix’s eigenvalues:

 
 
0 − μ 1 
 
 0 (63)
 
 ϒ1 0 − μ

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μ1,2  ± ϒ1 (64)
The first scenario for a bifurcation to occur is:
Re(μ1,2 )  0 (65)
Thus, the only necessary condition for a bifurcation to take place is when ϒ1  0. Consequently, the Hopf-bifurcation theorem’s
first condition is met. But the subsequent prerequisite for this theorem is not satisfied for the considered model:
 
d 
Re μ1,2 (ϒ)  0 (66)
dϒ 1 ϒ1 0

It is evident that the Hopf-bifurcation properties are not supported by the model that is being studied. Consecutively, the Hamilto-
nian function, as given in Eq. (58), guarantees that the considered model is the Hamiltonian dynamical system. Furthermore, the
introduction of a deriving force term f 0 cos(ωt) in the duffing oscillator enabled us to detect the chaotic motions in the system.
To sum up, the JEF method is applied to compute the analytical solutions for the model under study, including hyperbolic,
trigonometric, and rational function solutions. The new results are in the form of periodic, double periodic, shock wave, and bell-
shaped solutions. The results corresponding to the Hamiltonian dynamical analysis show attractor chaos in the Higgs field equations
which is produced by travelling wave solutions that occur in numerous locations and are directly connected to the equilibrium point.
Bifurcation and chaos theory developed here help researchers understand the behavior of the system. Understanding these results
allows for more accurate predictive modeling of the systems. Moreover, one can use insights from bifurcation and chaos theory to
design control strategies for the same. Finally, these results have broad applications leading to improvements in prediction, control,
optimization, and design.
Data Availability For the current study, no data sharing is applicable because no data were investigated or developed for this article.

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