FABRICATION AND CHARACTERIZATION OF GAP: A GREEN ALGAE

(CHLOROPHYTA)-BASED PLASTIC WITH MUSSEL

(PERNA VIRIDIS) SHELLS AS BIOADDITIVE

Ailey Jhae U. Alvarez

Precious Lindsay Carpio
Precious Emerald C. Chavez
Tyrone Jikaine T. Ladanan
Jewel Alexxa L. Maca

A thesis manuscript, specifically Chapter 1, submitted to the faculty of the Senior High
School Department, Emiliano Tria Tirona Memorial National Integrated High School in
partial fulfillment of the requirements for the subject, Practical Research 2: Quantitative
Research. Prepared under the supervision of Ms. Maisie R. Aviñante.

INTRODUCTION

Plastic market in the Philippines has been shaped by the packaging, consumer

goods, and automotive industries. Its versatility in various applications, its lightweight

properties, and cost-effectiveness have significantly contributed in driving its demand

(6Wresearch, 2022). The use of plastics has been deeply embedded in our daily lives,

from grocery bags and cutleries, and to water bottles and wrappers. In 2019, the study

by the Global Alliance for Incinerator Alternatives (GAIA) has revealed that the daily

consumption of sachets in the Philippines amounts to a staggering 164 million pieces,

equating to approximately 59.7 billion sachets annually. The average Filipino uses 591

pieces of sachets, 174 shopping bags, and 163 sando bags yearly.

In the Philippines, the plastics industry contributed US$2.3 billion to the

national economy in 2018 and also provided low-cost consumer items to poor and

middle-income families (World Bank Group, 2021). According to Earth.Org (2023), an

estimated 20 million Filipino individuals are living below the poverty line in 2021,

resulting in a prevailing state of poverty, citizens hunt for the cheapest alternative –

leaving large corporations to seize the opportunity to offer palm-sized packages of

products and building a “sachet economy”. However, the quest for convenience has

gone too far and people are not making effective use of plastics, wasting valuable

resources and harming the environment. Consequently, the Philippines became the

third-largest contributor to plastic waste worldwide, contributing to an estimated 0.75

million metric tons of ocean plastic every year. The low cost and convenience of plastic

sachets, as well as inefficient waste disposal, have made the Philippines one of the

world’s leading plastic polluters, causing tremendous negative impacts on the

environment (WWF, 2018).

Since the consumption of this flexible material has continued to expand in

recent decades, the problem of plastic waste has gotten worse (Alves, 2024). The fast

urbanization and growth of the middle class in Southeast Asia has resulted in an

increase in the consumption of plastic products and packaging due to its convenience

and adaptability, making the region a hotspot for plastic pollution (Kwakwa & Mora,

2021). Evidently, the Philippines is only one of several nations in Southeast Asia that

illegally import plastic waste from developed nations. In fact, the Global North bears

equal responsibility for issues deemed domestic in nature (Guevarra, 2022). According

to a report by the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD),

of the plastic that is produced worldwide, only nine percent is recycled; the rest is

incinerated, disposed of incorrectly, or dumped in landfills. Only 2% of these 9% are

effectively recycled; the rest are downcycled and eventually end up as plastic waste.

Therefore, the problem of plastic waste is rampant.

Excessive consumption of plastic and improper disposal of plastic trash are

becoming increasingly dangerous, causing landfills to overflow, choking rivers, and

threatening marine ecosystems. This has a detrimental effect on industries that are

critical to many economies like tourism, shipping, and fishing that are vital to many

countries (Kwakwa & Mora, 2021). As stated by Ramos (2023), in terms of plastic

waste dumped in the ocean worldwide in 2019, the Philippines accounted for the

highest percentage. Approximately 36.38% of the world's oceanic plastic waste was

produced by the nation; this is far more than India, the second-largest plastic polluter,

which was only responsible for 12.92% of the total that year.

Despite being primarily afflicted, society remains to utilize synthetic polymers

that offer highly-desirable qualities, including strength, flexibility, resistibility, and so

on. These synthetic polymers are derived from petroleum hydrocarbons that are

incredibly versatile and abundant (Al-Khairy et al., 2022). Manufacturing these

petroleum-based polymers produces high carbon emissions from the extraction and

refinement procedures involved (Masnadi et al., 2018), making it challenging to

effectively process petroleum-based plastics (PET) without the need for harsh

chemicals or the production of hazardous waste products. Plastic is not biodegradable

and is made using non-renewable energy sources (Anderson, 2006). In actuality,

microorganisms are unable to alter the chemical structure of plastic, rendering it

nonbiodegradable (Tokiwa et al., 2009, Babu et al., 2013). Moreover, plastic's

degradability is hampered by its large molecular weight, high degree of crystallinity,

and high hydrophobicity (David et al., 2019). In consequence with these, both ocean

and landmass are interminably infested with plastics. Therefore, plastic waste will

continuously influence the environment by causing land, water, and air pollution and

contributing to global warming (Khyalia et al., 2022).

The lack of suitable landfill sites is another issue in waste disposal, which only

portrays the negative impacts of conventional plastics within different aspects. An

alternative to landfill sites is waste incineration. However, incineration and open

burning of plastic waste are risks of contamination, air pollution, vegetation damage,

and groundwater pollution (Rosenberg et al., 2021). In addition, plastic wastes may

contain heavy metals, impeding the soil and reaching water sources. Hence, affecting

the fertility of the soil and obstructing groundwater movement in large quantities (Silva,

2014).

By 2040, the rate at which plastic waste leaks into the ocean will have tripled if

the current trend in plastic use continues (Lau, 2020). It is imperative to increase the use

of alternatives to petroleum-based plastics that produce fewer emissions during

production and can be broken down or processed without the need for hazardous waste

products (Nachod et al., 2021). In that aspect, the usage and fabrication of bio-based

polymers as an alternative for petroleum-based polymers should be a perspective to

mitigate the impact of plastic pollution.

 Bioplastics are polymers derived from natural resources that can either fully or

partially degrade depending on the additives and renewable resources utilized in their

manufacture. For instance, in the natural environment, the action of various organisms'

enzymes breaks down bioplastic into CO2, H2O, and other inorganic compounds. Then,

when the degradation process is finished, no hazardous residue is left. Furthermore, the

creation and application of bioplastic reduces environmental harm caused by

inappropriately disposed of plastic waste and preserves the petrochemicals needed to

produce conventional plastic. In addition, bioplastic has a smaller carbon footprint than

synthetic plastic, uses less fossil fuel, emits less CO2, and eliminates waste that isn't

biodegradable. The selection of raw materials and other additives affects the cost of

bioplastic production (Mostafa et al., 2018). Moreover, bioplastic can be produced from

renewable, edible, and in-edible raw materials like starch, cellulose, proteins, and

bacteria like PHA, PHB, PLA, etc (Kumari et al., 2018).

Polylactic Acid Plastic (PLA) is a type of bioplastic that is not allowed to mix

with traditional recycled plastics such as polyethylene terephthalate (PET) as it can lead

to contamination of the whole batch and end up being rejected in landfills (Cho, 2017).

Another type of bioplastic, Polyvinyl Acid plastic (PVA), requires high temperature to

decompose with a minimum of 70 degrees Celsius to degrade in water (Lorenz n.d.). If

this type of plastic winds up in the oceans, it will not degrade as the average

temperature of the ocean is 20 degrees Celsius while 30 degrees Celsius in tropical

climates (Scripps Institution of Oceanography, 2014). These types of bioplastics need

high-temperature industrial composting facilities which require large amounts of energy

to produce enough heat to degrade the bioplastic. This process produces carbon

emissions which are harmful to the environment. There are only a few of these facilities

where not all bioplastics can be processed and end up in landfills. Bioplastics, if not

disposed of properly, can emit methane gas in oxygen-deprived landfills and cause harm

to the environment (Cho 2017).

To address these shortcomings and enhance bioplastics, the researchers aim to

fabricate and characterize a green algae-based bioplastic with mussel shells as a

bioadditive.

Algae emerged as one of the most sustainable alternative sources for bioplastic

production due to their fast growth rate and the ability to withstand harsh environments

and grow on non-arable land. These properties have outgrown most terrestrial plants as

promising feedstocks for bioplastic production (Yap et al., 2022). As a consequence of

the increasing demand on environmentally-friendly polymers, crops rich in starch such

as potatoes and corn, are used to produce bioplastics. However, this contributes to

competition for food sources, land areas, water, and nutrient consumption. Contrary to

this, microalgae do not compete with the human food source, can withstand adverse

environmental conditions, and is able to thrive using waste resources which makes it a

better candidate as a source for manufacturing bioplastics (Chia, et al., 2020).

Marine microalgae have been studied for their starch content and could reach up

to 19% of total starch content (Ramli et al., 2020). It opened a new potential of

revolution for starch-based bioplastic as it exhibits rapid growth and is found across

various bodies of water, rendering them an abundant source of biomass. The small
granules of starch produced from microalgae possess an advantage to replace the starch

from food-based, as the small granules are able to yield a good quality of bioplastic.

Green mussels, on the other hand, are frequently harvested as a food source. If

shells are composed of 70% of the total weight of the mussels, tons of green mussel

shells require proper disposal in order to reduce environmental pollution (Ismail et al.,

2021). Green mussel shells are a form of biogenic waste that significantly contributes

to the amount of solid waste, especially in the Asia-Pacific Region where its prevalence

is evident. Subsequently, green mussel shells contain 95.7 to 98.2 wt. % calcium,

making it rich in calcium carbonate which could be used as a low-cost, environmentally

friendly biogenic source (Irfa’i et al., 2022). According to Nuriyah et al. (2019) calcium

carbonate is found to increase the physical and mechanical properties of bioplastics,

increasing its stiffness and strength. Additionally, it is odorless, tasteless, biodegradable,

and can be sourced from biogenic wastes including green mussel shells.

Hence, the purpose of the study is to fabricate a bioplastic using Green algae

and mussel shells as bioadditive. This water and vinegar-soluble starch-based bioplastic

will be derived from starch extracted from green algae and further enhanced with

calcium carbonate from mussel shells. This study not only produces beneficial and eco-

friendly products, but also lessens the abundance and excessiveness of green algae and

mussel shells within the vicinity. Making bioplastics is advantageous due to its

attributes, such as their biodegradable composition derived from renewable resources,

and it can also help reduce the problem of plastic wastes that suffocate and contaminate
the environment (Acciona, n.d.). As the bioplastics are soluble (Choo, 2017), the GAP

can be either dissolved in water or vinegar for decomposition, if possible.

Statement of the Problem

General Objective

This study titled Fabrication and Characterization of GAP: A Green Algae

(Chlorophyta)-based Plastic with Mussel (Perna viridis) Shells as Bioadditive aims to

develop a bioplastic made from green algae and mussel shells as bioadditive that is

soluble in water and vinegar and evaluate it in terms of physical appearance, water and

vinegar solubility, and tensile properties.

Specific Objectives

Specifically, this research study will aim to answer the following questions:

1. What is the rating of GAP in terms of:

a. Transparency

b. Texture

2. What is the weight of GAP with mussel shells before and after soaking for 48

hours in

a. Vinegar

b. Water
3. What is the weight of GAP without mussel shells before and after soaking for

48 hours in

a. Vinegar

b. Water

4. Is there a significant difference in the before and after weight of GAP with

mussel shells and GAP without mussel shells after soaking for 48 hours in:

a. Vinegar

b. Water

5. Is there a significant difference between GAP with mussel shells and GAP

without mussel shells in terms of:

a. Vinegar Solubility

b. Water Solubility

c. Tensile Strength
Scope and Delimitations of the Study

This study will focus on fabricating GAP, a green algae-based biopolymer, as

well as using mussel (Pernia viridis) shells as bio-additive, as it contains calcium

carbonate which increases the stiffness and the strength of the bioplastic (Nuriyah et al.,

2019). Additionally, it contains molecules with bio-stimulating properties which makes

bioplastics to be even more sustainable than petroleum-based (PET) (Materia Nova,

2021). In this plastics study, centrifugation and homogenization will be used as processes

for starch extraction from green algae (Chlorophyta). Meanwhile, a calcination and

sieving process will be utilized for the extraction of calcium carbonate from mussel

(Pernia viridis) shells. Any other extraction methods will be no longer considered except

from secondhand extraction procedures such as filtration.

Herewith, there will be two (2) independent groups of bioplastics that will used to

be compared: GAP which will be incorporated with mussel (Pernia viridis) shells as bio-

additive and Negative Control Group, which will be the GAP without mussel (Pernia

viridis) shells incorporated. Specifically, there is only one independent variable that will

be utilized in this study, which is the incorporation of mussel (Pernia viridis) in GAP as

bioplastic. Meanwhile, the dependent variables will be the water and vinegar solubility,

texture, transparency, and its tensile strength. Further variables are not the scope of the

study which will not be taken into consideration. In addition, each of the independent

groups will have the same amount of starch that will be extracted from green algae

(Chlorophyta) and distilled water. Also, these groups will also undergo the same duration

and process of fabrication.

 The green algae (Chlorophyta) that will be utilized in this study will be obtained

from Kawit, Cavite. Meanwhile, the mussel (Pernia viridis) shells will be acquired from

the researchers’ residences and mussel shells’ vendors along Kawit, Cavite if possible.

The fabrication and the actual experimentation of the bioplastic using the materials stated

will be conducted at the school's laboratory. Aside from that, the characteristics and

quality of the fabricated GAP (Green Algae-Based Plastic) with and without mussel

(Pernia viridis) shells as bio-additive will be tested at both the school laboratory and

researchers’ residences.

This research study will only evaluate and characterize the capacity of GAP,

considering that it is with and without mussel (Pernia viridis) shells as bio-additive. The

potential of the fabricated GAP will be tested based on its tensile strength, texture and

transparency, and solubility in different pH concentrations (vinegar and water).

Specifically, the evaluation for tensile strength, the researchers will perform three (3)

trials per produced bioplastics. Spring scale will be used for the tensile strength; to

measure the greatest or maximum amount of force that can be applied to stretch the

GAPs until they break. Additionally, the researchers will use likert scale to characterize

the texture and transparency of the produced bioplastics and three (3) pieces of

bioplastics will be characterized per group. Lastly, there will only be two (2) solvents;

vinegar and water, to examine how well they will dissolve for disposal. The researchers

will only use 100mL of water and 100mL of vinegar for solubility evaluation. Three (3)

pieces of produced bioplastics will be soaked per group. These tests will be performed at

the school laboratory by the researcher. Since the study will only focus on the said

properties, such as the solubility, physical appearance, and tensile properties of the
fabricated bioplastic, other possible test to assess GAP as bioplastic such as

biodegradability, combustibility, and heat resistance tests will no longer be considered.

Significance of the Study

This study titled Fabrication and Characterization of GAP: Green Algae

(Chlorophyta)-based Plastic with Mussel (Perna viridis) Shells as Bioadditive will

basically benefit everyone who uses and incorporates plastic into their daily lives. Its

primary goal is to fabricate an alternative bioplastic by utilizing green algae and mussel

shells, which are frequently discarded as waste, with the aim to reduce the problem of

plastic wastes that suffocate and contaminate the environment.

More specifically, it will benefit the following:

Consumers. The key feature of GAP lies in its solubility, facilitating easier

disposal. This characteristic will particularly benefit consumers who heavily rely on

plastics, especially single-use plastic. With GAP, they can use plastic guilt-free, knowing

that it won’t add to environmental pollution and will be incredibly simple to dispose of.

Manufacturers. The environmentally friendly and readily available components

of GAP present significant advantages for manufacturers aiming to utilize sustainable

packaging solutions. This study offers cost-efficient ingredients, which can effectively

reduce expenses allocated to packaging, thereby enhancing revenue generation for their

products and businesses. Moreover, GAP’s comparably simplified production process, in

contrast to petroleum-based plastic, requires less energy, further enhancing its appeal as a

viable alternative.
 Food Industry. Mussel shells, typically discarded as waste, will serve as a

valuable bioadditive to enhance the physical properties of bioplastics due to their calcium

carbonate content. Instead of allowing these shells, which constitute the majority of the

mussel’s weight, to accumulate in landfills, utilizing them will significantly reduce the

overall waste generated by the food industry.

Environment. GAP’s organic ingredients and water and vinegar solubility

contribute to reducing single-use plastics that pollute the environment, resulting in

significantly less plastic ending up in landfills or oceans, where it can harm marine life.

The environment will also become a healthier habitat for wildlife, reducing the chance of

them losing their lives due to plastic. Furthermore, GAP’s production requires less

energy and produces less pollution compared to petroleum-based plastics which helps to

alleviate impacts of climate change. Additionally, by utilizing green algae, the risk of

harmful algal blooms contaminating water and depriving marine life of oxygen is

minimized.

Conceptual Framework

This is a figure that shows the three process of conducting the research:

The Input, the Process and the Output.

 INPUT

• Green algae (Chlorophyta) Biomass

• Mussel (Perna viridis) Shell Powder as Calcium Carbonate Bioadditive
• Vinegar and Water for Solubility Testing

PROCESS

• Pulverization of Mussel Shells

• Dehydration of Green algae biomass
• Starch Extraction
• Ethanolic Extraction of Green algae biomass
• Calcination of Powdered Mussel Shells for Calcium Carbonate Extraction
• Utilization of Laboratory Equipment and Paraphernalia
• Fabrication of Bioplastic from Extracted Substances from Green algae and
Mussel shells

OUTPUT

• Amount of Fabricated Bioplastic

• The Capacity of Bioplastic in terms of its Solubility between Water and
Vinegar and its Tensile Properties
• This research study will determine if green algae biomass that will be
utilized for the extraction of starch with Mussel shells as bioadditive will
produce a bioplastic that is more sustainable that can be an alternative to
the usual petroleum-based plastics.

Figure 1. Conceptual Framework of the Study: Fabrication and Characterization of GAP:

A Green algae (Chlorophyta)-based Plastic with Mussel (Perna viridis) Shells as
Bioadditive
Figure 1 illustrates the process of gathering data for the study, Fabrication and

Characterization of GAP: Green-Algae (Chlorophyta)-based Plastic with Mussel (Perna

viridis) Shells as Bioadditive. The inputs of the study are green algae (Chlorophyta)

biomass, mussel (Perna viridis) shells, vinegar, and water, as these are the primary

variables needed by the study to reach its objective. Since the study is experimental, the

researchers will undergo the process of dehydration and ethanolic extraction of green

algae biomass in order to extract the starch. Then, the researchers will use the

pulverization of mussel shells and the calcination of powdered mussel shells in order to

extract the calcium carbonate. After obtaining the materials, the researchers will utilize

laboratory equipment to fabricate a bioplastic. The researchers will fabricate a total of 12

GAPs, of which 6 are made from starch extracted from green algae and 6 are further

enhanced with calcium carbonate from mussel shells. The whole experimentation would

be the basis for the researchers to conduct a total of three tests: two are solubility tests,

namely water solubility and vinegar solubility, and one for tensile properties. These tests

will be conducted to analyze the tensile strength of GAP and its potential to serve as a

sustainable alternative to the usual petroleum-based plastics.

Definition of Terms

The following terms are defined according to how they are used in the study:

GAP. Acronym for Green Algae-based Plastic, is a bioplastic made from starch

extracted from green algae and further enhanced with calcium carbonate from mussel

shells.
 Bioadditive. A bio-based additive that enhances the strength and biodegradation

of plastics. Calcium carbonate is the bioadditive used in GAP.

Bioplastic. Plastics made from natural ingredients. GAP is a bioplastic made from

Starch.

Calcium carbonate. A chemical compound gathered from grounded mussel

shells. It is used as the bioadditive in GAP.

Green Algae. A sustainable alternative source of bioplastic production. It is used

as a source of starch used in GAP.

Mussel Shells. A sustainable biogenic source of bioadditive. It is used as a source

of Calcium carbonate used in GAP.

Starch. A powder extracted from green algae. It is used as an alternative

sustainable natural polymer to polymers used in PVA and PLA bioplastics.

Tensile Properties. Are composed of the reaction of the bioplastic to resist when

forces are applied in tension. Tensile strength is the property that is aimed to study.

Tensile Strength. It is the maximum amount of tensile stress the GAP can

withstand before it breaks.

Vinegar Solubility. It is a test to measure the amount of GAP plastic that can

dissolve in vinegar in 48 hours, defined by the equation VS (%) = [(V0-Vf)/V0] × 100.

Water Solubility. it is a test to measure the amount of GAP plastic that can

dissolve in distilled water in 48 hours, defined by the equation WS (%) = [(W0-Wf)/W0]

× 100.