8 ● GENERALITIES

Breeder flocks
Section I

Hatcheries Feed mill

Grow out

Processing plant
Further processing Rendering plant
Distribution

Institutional
Retail Export
Consumer
Fig.2.1: Vertical integration diagram. Shows possible segments that may be included within a vertically integrated broiler company.

MP Martin
MP Martin

Fig.2.2: Separation of male and female areas is shown. Female Fig.2.3: Egg storage in hatchery.
feeders and nest boxes are positioned on the outer raised slatted
area. Male feeders are located in the central area where there is
litter.

Temperature too high Temperature too low

Temperature correct Drafty conditions

MP Martin

Brooder Chicken

Fig.2.4: In ovo inoculation machine used at transfer from incuba- Fig.2.5: Behavior patterns of a flock can signify discomfort based
tor to hatcher. on ventilation and temperature issues.

Manual of poultry diseases

MP Martin
2. CHICKEN PRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
Commercial meat chicken production originated in
the United States in the early 20th century as
demand for poultry meat was rising. This demand
led to the rise of larger flocks of chickens with the
primary intention of selling the birds for meat.
Chickens grown primarily for the purpose of meat
production, or broilers, can be found throughout
the world raised in a diversity of management sys-
tems. Many commercial broiler producers are ver-
tically integrated (Fig.2.1) where multiple seg-
ments of production are controlled by the same
company. Proponents of this type of production
assert that it provides better control and continuity
of production, better understanding of the value of
each segment, and improved ability to plan product
supply to meet future market demands. Depending
on the size and goals of a specific broiler company,
they may have variability in the integrated seg-
ments that are internally owned.
Many broiler integrators have most or all chicken
farms privately owned and under contract by the
integrated company. Within this model, family run
farms are paid and given bonuses based on various
predetermined productivity parameters. The
cooperative model also shares similar elements of
the integrated model, but with growers as part
owners of the company. There are many more pro-
duction models, but the objective of this chapter is
to present the basic components required to pro-
duce chickens at a commercial level.
As chicken flocks started being raised solely for
mass meat production, genetic selection became an
important aspect of broiler production and still is
today. Established chicken breeds throughout the
world that had good meat characteristics were
often used as the starting point for genetic selec-
tion where an emphasis was placed on growth rate,
feed conversion, and muscle yield amongst other
production parameters. Some selection emphasis is
on egg production parameters to improve breeder
efficiency.
Disease resistance has also been an important part
of genetic selection over the years providing resis-
tance to specific diseases such as Marek’s disease
and avian leucosis or improving general hardiness
of the birds so that they are productive across a
diversity of environments. Often this selection is
CHICKEN PRODUCTION ● 9
Generalities
Chapter 2
done by a separate primary breeder company that
then sells parent stock or broiler breeders to a com-
mercial integrator or breeding company. There are
some commercial integrators that have their own
primary breeder stock that is maintained internally.
ANIMAL PRODUCTION SEGMENTS
There is wide variability of management and hou-
sing methods in raising broilers that are implemen-
ted based on several factors including but not limi-
ted to potential disease challenges, company goals,
personal experience, breed of birds raised, market
demand, economic factors, and geographic region
where birds are raised. Included in this chapter are
some common ways these segments are operated,
but they are not intended to be all inclusive of the
wide range of broiler management styles and
methods.
Broiler breeders
Most broiler breeders are housed to allow for natu-
ral breeding. Young male and female chickens may
be raised separately or together prior to breeding
age. Because broiler chicken strains have the
potential for very rapid growth, breeder chickens
are often feed restricted. Weight management by
feed restriction prevents disease issues such as
obesity related disorders, lameness, and reproduc-
tive disorders. Feed restriction programs may
include restriction of volume of feed, frequency of
feeding, and/or energy levels in the feed.
During the growing stages, breeders are often hou-
sed in an environment where light duration is res-
tricted so the birds are exposed to a short day
length. The basic goal of a lighting program for
broiler breeders is to have birds become reproduc-
tively active at approximately the same age by uni-
formly increasing the day length prior to reproduc-
tive maturity. Breeders are often moved just before
breeding (approximately 19-23 weeks of age) into
a breeding house specifically designed to facilitate
reproductive activity and egg collection. This may
include designated areas where the males and
female preferentially eat and spend most of their
time and nest boxes that facilitate egg collection
(Fig.2.2).
Slats may be provided in hen areas to minimize
bird contact with fecal material, which can
Manual of poultry diseases
 10 ● GENERALITIES
Section I

MP Martin

MP Martin
Fig.2.6: Birds behavior avoiding the brooder pan demonstrates Fig.2.7: Partition within a commercial broiler house to reduce the
that the temperature is set too high. risk of piling of birds.

Cumulative feed intake per bird (kg)

Daily feed intake per bird (kg)

Daily intake (kg)

Cumulative
intake (kg)

Day of age
Fig.2.8: Representative daily and cumulative feed intake per bird (kg). Feed intake is breed specific. The primary breeder supplier
should be contacted with the most accurate information for the bird being used. The following chart is derived from the Ross 708
Broiler Performance Objectives, 2012.

Body weight (kg)

Body weight (kg)

FCR
FCR

Day of age
Fig.2.9: Representative weight gain and feed conversion ratio (FCR) of a commercial broiler. Growth curves and FCR are breed
specific. The primary breeder supplier should be contacted with the most accurate information for the bird being used. The following
chart is derived from the Ross 708 Broiler Performance Objectives, 2012.

Manual of poultry diseases

MP Martin
decrease the incidence of disease and keep eggs
cleaner. For natural breeding the ratio of females
to males is approximately 10:1 but may vary with
management system and breed. Mortality, flock
behavior, and egg fertility may be monitored to
adjust male to female ratio. Farms can have auto-
mated egg collection or hand collection. Eggs
should be collected frequently to decrease shell
contamination, consumption of the eggs by the
breeder chickens, and risk of partial incubation on
farm.
Eggs are stored on site until they are able to be
brought to the hatchery. Egg storage on farm is
optimally in a controlled temperature environment
[approximately 55-65°F (12.8-18.3°C) and 70-
75% relative humidity] where eggs are not too
warm so that incubation begins not too cold for
embryo viability. Many breeder facilities have fee-
ding systems that allow feeding different rations to
the males and females based on their separate
nutritional requirements. Broiler breeders may be
molted to improve egg production parameters
when the flock is older. However, it is common to
only have one reproductive cycle for broiler bree-
ders and then start with a new flock of breeders
after egg production parameters decline.
Broiler hatchery
Chicken eggs are often stored prior to incubation
to improve hatchability. Although optional storage
time at ideal storage temperatures is approxima-
tely 7 days, eggs may be stored for significantly
more or less time based on supply and demand,
availability of eggs, and needs for placement of
chicks on open farms (Fig. 3). Eggs may be pre-
warmed prior to incubation for several hours. Only
clean eggs should be set to minimize the risk of
disease causing hatchability issues and poor chick
quality and uniformity. Broiler eggs are typically
incubated for approximately 21 days with 18 days
of the total incubation time in the incubator and 3
days in the hatcher. The length of incubation can
change based on individual hatcheries, equipment
used, breed of chicken, and other variables.
Although incubation temperatures are approxima-
tely 99.5°F (37.5°C) at the start of incubation and
may decrease slightly during hatching and relative
humidity is approximately 55% and may increase
during hatching, there are many variables that can
affect optimal hatchability. As such, incubation
programs are best designed to meet individual hat-
chery needs and challenges.
As eggs are transferred between incubation and
C H I C K E N P R O D U C T I O N ● 11
hatching systems, they may be given an in ovo ino-
culation (Fig.2.4). In ovo inoculations may contain
Chapter 2
labeled vaccines or antibiotics or other products
labeled for in ovo use. The most common products
given in ovo are Marek’s disease vaccines, which
provide a uniform delivery of the vaccination, cost
savings in decreased labor in larger hatcheries, and
reduction of clinical disease. Hatched chicks may
have some handling depending on the manage-
ment system, but often in large hatcheries automa-
tion separates the chicks from the shells, counts
chicks into transport trays, provides any necessary
vaccinations via spray, and stacks trays in prepara-
tion of being moved to farms.
Most commercial broiler chickens do not require
separate sex rearing so they are not sexed at the
hatchery. If sexing is required, many of the com-
mon commercial breeds have a feather sexing gene
that allows for easy identification of males and
females with minimal handling (most often by
observing differences in wing feathers between
males and females). Birds are moved to the farm as
needed, usually the same day as hatch and during
cooler temperatures to minimize stress.
Commercial broilers
Prior to placement, commercial broiler farms
should be prepared to receive new chicks. If litter
has been recycled, it may be turned, treated, and/or
otherwise managed to reduce ammonia, pathogen,
and insect load. Houses will be heated to provide
adequate temperature for the chicks and feed and
water lines may be primed so that they are at room
temperature prior to placement. Temperature may
be uniform within houses or a temperature gra-
dient may be provided to allow chicks to better
adjust their individual temperatures. If a tempera-
ture gradient is provided, feeders and waterers
should be placed so that birds can adjust their tem-
perature and still have easily access to feed and
water.
In general, chicks are placed at a ground tempera-
ture of approximately 90-95°F (32.2-35°C) and
temperature is decreased as the birds age at
approximately 5°F (2.8°C)/week until the tempe-
rature is around 70°F (21°C). However, this
greatly varies based on the management system
and breed of bird so temperature should be adjus-
ted based on flock behavior (Fig.2.5 & 2.6). Many
commercial broiler houses have some or extensive
environmental control and the ability to implement
standard program flock profiles for temperature
and ventilation. Chickens in these environments
Manual of poultry diseases
 12 ● GENERALITIES

Age Liters per Gallons per

(Weeks) 1000 birds 1000 birds
Section I

1 61 16.1
2 106 28.0
3 171 45.2
4 237 62.6
5 293 77.4
6 336 88.8
7 363 95.9
8 374 98.8
Tabl.2.1: Representative water consumption chart for broilers.

MP Martin
Water consumption charts can be breed specific. The primary
breeder supplier should be contacted with the most accurate
water consumption chart for the bird being used. The following
chart is derived from the Ross Broiler Management Manual, Fig.2.10: Good access to feed. There is no overcrowding and the
2009. Consumption assumes 21°C uniform house temperature. equipment is well maintained.

Age Week 1 Week 2 - pre-processing * Week 2 - pre-processing *

(Processing Weight) (Any) (x < 2.5kg) (x > 2.5kg)
Intensity (lux) 30-40 5-10 5-10
Day Length (hours) 23 20 18
Tabl.2.2: Representative lighting requirements chart. Basic light intensity and photoperiod recommendations can be breed specific.
The primary breeder supplier should be contacted with the most accurate information for the bird being used. The following chart is
derived from the Ross Broiler Management Manual, 2009.
* Pre-processing is 3 days prior to scheduled processing

MP Martin
MP Martin

Fig.2.11: Good access to water. There is no overcrowding and Fig.2.12: Ventilation maintaining good air quality and litter condi-
the height is appropriate to allow birds easy access with minimal tions.
water leaking to the litter.
MP Martin

MP Martin

Fig.2.13: Chick with conjunctivitis associated with high ammonia Fig.2.14: Temperature probe to monitor temperature at bird level.
levels.

Manual of poultry diseases

MP Martin
should always be monitored visually on a regular
basis as individual flocks may vary and equipment
failures may occur.
Partitions may be present in larger broiler houses
to reduce the risk of piling of birds but do not need
to completely restrict bird movement between sec-
tions of the house (Fig.2.7). Commercial broilers
are typically given ad libitum feed and water
throughout the growing period but adjustments
may be made based on past performance, breed,
and company goals.
Breed standards often exist for feed and water
consumption (Fig.2.8 & Tabl.2.1) as well as
weight gain and feed conversion (Fig.2.9) to guide
growers and help them identify problems. Many
commercial broiler operations have reduced ligh-
ting intensity throughout the growing period to
decrease the risk of traumatic injury that may
cause mortality and processing condemnations, but
long day lengths facilitate feed intake and rapid
growth (Tabl.2.2).
Broiler processing
Based on market needs, broilers will be processed
at a target weight or age determined by the indivi-
dual company. Loading chickens into transport
vehicles to move to processing may be done at
night or early morning to decrease physical and
heat stress during loading.
At the processing plant, misting or fans may help
keep birds cool and reduce mortality while birds
are waiting to be processed. In colder regions, hea-
ting systems may be needed. Handling of birds at
processing, including unloading and shackling,
should be done in a way to minimize trauma to the
birds, which would not only be a welfare concern
but would lead to increased condemnations. Birds
should be rendered unconscious and/or euthanized
in a manner that does not cause undue stress,
increase condemnations, or adversely affect food
safety.
BASIC HUSBANDRY
Feed & Water
Clean feed and water should be provided to broiler
chickens with adequate space and sufficient access
per bird (Fig.2.10 & 2.11). Feed formulations may
change throughout the life of a flock based on the
nutritional needs throughout growth and reproduc-
tive development. This feeding strategy is called
C H I C K E N P R O D U C T I O N ● 13
phase feeding. Maintenance of feed and water
equipment can minimize the risk of leaking/spil-
Chapter 2
ling into the environment.
Poorly maintained equipment may increase litter
moisture, adversely affect birds health by expo-
sure, increase the risk of enteric pathogens, and
attract wild animals including rodents.
Temperature & ventilation
Uniformity of ventilation is ideal to improve flock
performance (Fig.2.12). Poor ventilation may pro-
mote excessive litter moisture and increase the
exposure of the chickens to enteric pathogens.
Poor ventilation may cause excessive ammonia
levels, which could be detrimental to the health
and welfare of animals and employees (Fig.2.13).
Excessive ammonia at the level of the chicks may
be less detectable to a standing human and high
levels can cause health problems such as corneal
ulceration, conjunctivitis, and inflammation/decil-
liation of the trachea thereby predisposing birds to
respiratory pathogens.
Poor temperature control may cause birds to be
less productive, decrease consumption of feed and
water, and predispose birds to secondary infec-
tions. Continual monitoring of birds behavior can
minimize the risk of excessive temperature stress
(Fig.2.14). Care should be given to provide ade-
quate ventilation during times of inclement envi-
ronmental temperatures.
Litter
Excessive litter moisture can increase environmen-
tal load of enteric pathogens, predisposing the
flock to disease. Wet litter can also lead to expo-
sure where birds become wet and are unable to
thermoregulate, leading to morbidity and mortality
problems. Wet and caked litter can trap ammonia
and potentially cause scalding of the foot pads and
lameness. Excessively dry litter can lead to high
levels of dust in the environment, which can
damage the respiratory tract and predispose
chickens to respiratory pathogens.
Type and quality of litter can affect moisture
absorption and litter longevity. Litter is commonly
recycled between flocks in the United States. In
some other countries, it is replaced after each
flock. Litter should be changed out between flocks
when there is evidence of increased morbidity,
mortality or condemnations that could be attributa-
ble to poor litter conditions or enteric pathogens.
Manual of poultry diseases
 14 ● GENERALITIES
Section I

MP Martin
Fig.2.15: Data record chart for broiler breeders. Chart helps track
% egg production, hatchability, hen weight, and rooster weight
compared to breed standard.

MP Martin
Fig.2.16: Data record chart for broiler breeders. Chart helps
track egg production, feed consumption, and separate sex
mortality.

House 1
House 2
Mortality (Percentage)

House 3
House 4
House 5
House 6

Age (weeks)
Fig.2.17: Example of weekly broiler mortality curve by house.

Manual of poultry diseases

MP Martin
DISEASE PREVENTION
Many strategies are used in commercial broiler
production to mitigate the risk of disease.
Genetic selection, as previously mentioned, can
be done to improve the general hardiness of the
bird and increase resistance to specific disease
agents. Vaccination programs are critical in broi-
ler production (see chap.V.82). Vaccination pro-
grams should be focused on pathogens which
commonly affect broilers and strains which are
geographically relevant and/or are historical
threats within the company. Vaccination pro-
grams should be monitored through routine
flock surveillance and/or serology.
Biosecurity is critical to disease prevention in
broiler flocks (see Chap.V.80). In general, biose-
curity programs should mitigate the risk of
infectious disease transmission by controlling
insects, rodents, wild animals, pets, employees,
human visitors, and vehicles that may poten-
tially carry disease. It is not cost effective to
mitigate all risk and depending on bird value (i.e
breeders vs. commercial broilers) there may be a
greater investment of resources for biosecurity.
General management can greatly affect disease.
Any deficiency in feed, water, litter, ventilation,
or temperature management may lead to exces-
sive stress in the flock and predispose the birds
to disease associated with infectious agents.
Care should be given to provide broiler chickens
with good environmental conditions and moni-
tor flocks for disease.
C H I C K E N P R O D U C T I O N ● 15
Monitoring is essential to disease prevention
programs including diagnostics for specific
Chapter 2
infectious agents, monitoring vaccination pro-
grams, and general flock/mortality assessments to
look at patterns of morbidity and mortality.
Routine assessment of average weights and
feed/water intake can also help identify disease
problems before they become severe.
Good record keeping of production parameters
(Fig.2.15 & 2.16), mortality charts (Fig.2.17),
biosecurity procedures, and flock assessments are
beneficial and facilitate monitoring broiler and
broiler breeder flocks for disease also occurring.
Resulting improvements will require ongoing
efforts to offer the best adapted environment to
these new lines of birds.
REFERENCES
A Practical Guide for Managing Risk in Poultry
Production. R. L. Owen, Editor. American
Association of Avian Pathogens, Inc. 2011.
Broiler Management Guidelines, Aviagen.
http://en.aviagen.com/
Broiler Management Guidelines, Cobb.
http://www.cobb-vantress.com/products/guide-
library/general/broiler-management-guide
Diseases of Poultry, 12th ed. Y. M. Saif, Editor-in
Chief. Blackwell Publishing, Ames, Iowa. 2008.
National Chicken Council Animal Welfare
Guidelines and Audit Checklist http://www.natio-
nalchickencouncil.org/wp-
content/uploads/2012/01/NCC-Animal-Welfare-
Guidelines-2010-Revision-BROILERS.pdf
Manual of poultry diseases