SEDULIUS SCOTTUS

DE RECTOR/BUS CHRIST/ANIS
'ON CHRISTIAN RULERS'

Edited and translated by

R. W. Dyson

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 CONTENTS

Preface 11
Sigla and Abbreviations 13
Introduction 15

I. De eo quod pium rectorem, accepta potestate

regali, primum dignos Deo et sanctis ecclesiis
honores dicare oportet 50
Why it is fitting for the godly ruler, when he
has received royal power, first of all to dedicate
worthy honours to God and His holy churches
II. Qualiter rex orthodoxus primum semetipsum
regere debet 56
How an orthodox king should first rule himself
III. Qua arte et industria momentaneum regnum
stabiliri potest 62
By what art and industry a momentary kingdom
can be made stable
IV. De regia potestate non tarn opibus et fiducia
fortitudinis quam sapientia cultuque
pietatis perornanda 68
That royal power ought to be adorned not so
much by riches and the confidence ofstrength
as by wisdom and the worship of godliness
 CONTENTS
V. Quanta sacri moderaminis sollicitudo erKa
uxorem et liberos propriosque domesticos ab
eodem est exhibenda
The great care for godly direction that ought
to be exhibited by the ruler towards his wife and
his children and the members of his own
household
VI. Quales consiliarios et amicos bonum principem
habere decet
What kind of counsellors and friends it is proper
for the good prince to have
VII. Quae res malos principes facial
What may make princes wicked
VIII. De avaris et impiis reKibus, et quanta per eosdem
populum mala vet ipsos ultio divina consequitur
ConcerninK avaricious and uniodly kinKS, and
the Kreat evils with which, because of them, the
divine venKeance pursues both the people and
themselves
IX. De reRe pacifico atque clementi; vel quibus danda
sunt beneficia
Co11cerninR the peaceful and clement kinK: or
those to whom benefits should be Riven
X. Quot columnis reKnum justi reRiS sustentatur
The many pillars by which the just kinR's
kinRdom is supported
XI. De eo quod bonus princeps ecclesiasticis causis
benivola intentaque sollicitudine favere debeat;
et synodalib11s conventibus
CONTENTS
Why the KOOd prince should support ecclesiastical
causes with benevolent and earnest care; and
76 concerninK synodal assemblies
XII. De eo quod saluberrimis antistitum admonitionibus
et correptionibus pio rectori obtemperare sit
Kloriosum 118
Why it is Klorious for a iOdly ruler to comply
with the most wholesome admonitions and
82 corrections of the bishops
XIII. De zelo boni rectoris rationabili ac pietate permixto 128
ConcerninK the zeal of the KOOd ruler, combininK
90 reason and piety
XIV. Deduce Christiano, ut non in sua et suorum
fortitudine, sed in Domino confidat 136
92 ConcerninK the Christian commander, that he
should trust neither in his own strenKth nor in
that of his people, but in the Lord
xv. De eo quod imminentibus hostilium bellorum
fragoribus divinum sit implorandum auxilium 142
Why divine aid should be sought against the
100 threatening noises of hostile wars
XVI. De adversis, si forte contigerint 158
Concerning adversities, if perhaps they should
108 come to pass
XVII. De non superbiendo post oblatam etiam ab
hostibus pacem, seu prostratos hostes 166
ConcerninR the avoidance of pride after peace has
been offered even by enemies, or when enemies
110 have been laid low
 CONTENTS
XVIII. Gratiarum actiones ac benivola vota post pacem
seu victoriam Deo reddenda
That, after peace or victory, acts of thanks8iving
and well-intentioned prayers should be returned
to God
XIX. De privilegiis sanctae matris Ecclesiae a pio
rectore conservandis, ac dignis ecclesiarum
praepositis atque ministris
Concerning the privileges of Holy Mother Church
that are to be preserved by a godly ruler; and
worthy stewards and ministers of the Church
XX.
Quanta ignominia superbos, qualisque vel quanta
gloria hie et in futuro principes orthodoxos
comitatur
How great is the disgrace that accompanies the
proud, and of what kind or how great is the glory
of orthodox princes here and in the world to come
Index
174
PREFACE
182 The purpose of this volume is to make available a new
scholarly edition of an important political tract of the ninth
century. I have aimed to make the Latin text more complete and
accurate than anything hitherto available; the English translation
is as faithful to the original as I could make it; and the edition
is supported by an Introduction intended to contexualise it in
relation to the general development of political theory in the
190 Christian west.
My thanks are due to the librarians and staff of the British
Library, Durham University Library and the Clayport Library,
Durham, for the facilities they have made available. I am
grateful also to Julie Slater and Julia Stapleton for reading
199 earlier drafts; to Caroline Palmer of Boydell & Brewer for
her inexhaustible help and support; and to Boydell &
Brewer's anonymous reader, who made so many constructive
suggestions.
R.W. Dyson
Durham, 2010
 SIGLA AND ABBREVIATIONS

H Sedulius Scottus, Uber de rectoribus Christianis, ed. S.

Hellmann, in Quellen und Untersuchungen zur
lateinischen Philologie des Mittelalters 1 (Munich: C.H.
Beck'sche Verlagsbuchhandlung, 1906)
M Sedulii Scoti liber de rectoribus Christianis ad Caro/um
Magnum vel Ludovicum Pium, PL 103:291-332

CCCM Corpus Christianorum, continuatio medievalis, Turnhout:

Brepols, 1966 sqq.
CCSL Corpus Christianorum, series latina, Turnhout: Brepols,
1954 sqq.
CSEL Corpus scriptorum ecclesiasticorum latinorum, Vienna,
1866 sqq.
MGH Monumenta Germaniae historica
NCE New Catholic Encyclopedia, New York: McGraw-Hill,
1967
PL J.-P. Migne, Patrologiae cursus completus, series Iatina,
Paris, 1857 sqq.
Vulg. Biblia sacra vulgatae editionis Sixti V pont. max. iussu
recognita et Clementis VIII auctoritate edita, edn.
Regensburg, 1929
 INTRODUCTION

Sedulius Scottus
Most of what we know about the life and activity of Sedulius
Scottus (or Scotus) 1 consists of inferences from his own writ-
ings, especially his poetry. 2 It cannot be said to amount to
much. 'Sedulius' is thought to be the Latin equivalent of the
Irish name Siadhal or Shiel. At some time between 840 and
851, Sedulius and a group of scholarly companions migrated
from Ireland to the city of Liege on the Meuse. They were hos-
pitably received there by the bishop, Hartgar, to whom
Sedulius addressed several poems. 3 Possibly these migrants

1 To distinguish him from the fifth-century Christian poet Caelius

(Coelius) Sedulius, Sedulius Scottus is sometimes called Sedulius Junior.
The spelling 'Scottus' tends to be the one more often used, but the point
is hardly important.
2 There is a brief biography of Sedulius in the Introduction to Gerard
Edward Doyle's Scdulius Scott11s: 011 Christian Rulers and TI1e Poems
(Binghamton, NY: State University of New York at Binghamton, 1983).
See also L.M. Davies, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, sv Sedulius
Scottus; S. Hellmann, Sedu/ius Scott11s, Quellen und Untersuchungen zur
lateinischen Philologie des Mittelalters 1 (Munich: Beck, 1906),
Introduction; H. Pirenne, Sedulius de Liege, Memoires couronnes et
autres memoires publies par l' Academie royale de Belgique, 33:4 (Brus-
sels, 1882).
3 Hartgar became bishop of Liege in 840. While in the city, Sedulius ad-
dressed three poems to Queen Irmingard, wife of the emperor Lothair I,
who died in 851. These facts establish the approximate date of
Sedulius's arrival. Sedulius's poetry, edited by Ludwig Traube, is in Po-
etae Latini aevi Carolini, MGH Poetae Latini Medii Aevi, 3. There is a
more recent edition by Jean Meyers (Sedulius Scotti Carmina, CCCM, 117;
Turnhout: Brepols, 1991); and see the translations by E.G. Doyle in the
16 SEDULIUS SCOITUS
had made their way from a monastery at Kildare in the prov-
ince of Leinster, 4 though why they should have undertaken
what must have been a difficult and dangerous journey is
something about which we can only speculate. It has been
suggested, though for no reason that seems persuasive, that
they were part of a deputation sent in 848 to Charles the Bald
by the Irish king Maelsechlainn to report a victory over the
Vikings.5 Perhaps it is enough to suppose that they arrived at
Liege as part of the general gravitation of intellectuals into the
Frankish kingdom encourage d by the 'Carolingia n Renais-
sance.' It is not unreasonable to conjecture that the impact of
the Viking invasions on intellectual life in Ireland might have
prompted Sedulius and his companion s to seek a more conge-
nial environme nt abroad. 6
At all events, Sedulius was active at Liege as a poet,
scholar and scriptural exegete until about 860. There is reason
volume cited in the previous note. See also F. Bnmholzl, Gescl1ichte der
lateinisch.m Literatur des Mittelalters, 1: Von Cassiodor bis Zllm A11skla11g der
karolingischen Erneuenmg (Munich: Wilhelm Fink Verlag, 1975). There is
a short appreciation of Sedulius's poetry in F.J.E. Raby, A History of
Christian-Latin Poetry from the Beginnings to the End of the Middle Ages
(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1927), pp. 193-196. Sedulius's other works in-
clude a commentary on Porphyry's Isagog11e and a commentary on the
Pauline epistles, Collectanea in omnes beati Pauli Epistolas. He also wrote
commentaries on the grammatical works of Donatus, Priscian and
Eutyches (ed. Bengt Lofstedt, In Donati artem maiorem (CCCM, 40 B:
Grammahci Hibemici Carolini aevi; pars III, 1; Turnhout: Brepols, 1977);
/11 Donati Artem minorem; In Priscian11m; In Eutychem (CCCM, 40 C:
Grammatici Hibemici Carolini aevi; pars III, 2; Tumhout: Brepols,
1977)) and a collectaneum of classical works (ed. Dean Simpson, Sedulii
Scotti collectane11m miscella11e11111 (CCCM, 67; Tumhout: Brepols, 1988)).
4 J. Camey, 'Sedulius Scottus,' Old Ireland, ed. R. McNally (New York:
Fordham University Press, 1965), p. 235.
5 N. Chadwick and M. Dillon, The Celtic Realms (London: Weidenfeld &
Nicolson, 1967), p. 191.
6 Doyle, Sed11lius Scottus, pp. 10-11; K. Hughes, The Ch11rch in Early Irish
Society (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1966), pp. 205-206.
INTRODUCTION 17
to think that Bishop Hartgar appointed him scholasticus - di-
rector of studies, as we should say - of the Cathedral School of
St Lambert. He appears also to have enjoyed some kind of
royal preferment, though we know nothing about the patron-
age that he acknowledges in the final chapter of De rectoribus
Christianis. After about 860 he disappears from sight. Some
evidence, though of a very flimsy character, suggests that he
went from Liege to Milan, but nothing substantial is known of
his later years or of the place, time and circumstances of his
death. He is learned and well-read; not at all fastidious about
displaying a knowledge of pagan literature or using its termi-
nology/ and humorous and self-deprecating. He is a compe-
tent and mellifluous poet (though somewhat given to mixed
metaphors), and writes a fairly elegant and consciously liter-
ary prose style. It is not really possible to say more about him
than this.
From the point of view of the historian of political thought,
it is as the author of De rectoribus Christianis that Sedulius is a
significant figure. Celticists make a point of claiming him as
their own, but if De rectoribus Christianis has any Irish connec-
tions they are of a tenuous kind. Undoubted ly the practice of
composing short manuals of advice to rulers was already well
established in Ireland, and it may be that chapter ten of De rec-
toribus Christianis, which gives the impression of being a
slightly awkward importatio n into the text, is adapted from an
Old Irish original. 8 Also, there are in chapter twenty (and per-
haps to some extent elsewhere) resonances of a source that is
almost certainly Irish in origin: the pseudo-Cyprianic treatise
7 See, for example, 'Celsitonanti s' - 'Heavenly Thunderer' - on pp.
44/45; this is a title that one might expect to find applied to Jupiter.
There are quite a few similar instances, though 'pagan-sound ing' epi-
thets are not uncommon in Christian poetry from the time of Caelius
Sedulius and Juvencus onwards.
8 Camey, 'Sedulius Scottus,' pp. 247-248; R. Mitchell Smith, 'The Spec11-
l11m principum in Early Irish Literature,' Speculum 2 (1927).
 18 SEDULIUS SCOTIUS
De duodecim abusionibus saeculi. For our purposes, however,
9
these features of the text are of no great significance. More to
the point is the fact that De rectoribus Christianis stands
squarely within the family of short political treatises produced
by ecclesiastics in the Frankish kingdom during the ninth cen-
tury. These treatises are manuals of advice for rulers, custom-
arily called specula regum or principum. The generic term is not
entirely happy. Such literary 'mirrors' do not reflect what is,
but express what is desired. The king or prince is encourage d
to look into them and contemplate an image of what he ought
to be and of how he should discharge his responsibilities. 10
Sedulius calls his own venture into the genre an enchiridion, a
handbook; he recommen ds its addressee to consult it fre-
quently 'quatenus facilius animadver tere possit quanta mala
malis, et quanta bona bonis rectoribus superna et divina justi-
9 Ed. S. Hellmann, Ps.-Cypria1111s de xii ab11si11is saeculi, Texte und Unter-
suchungen zur altchristlichen Literatur 34 (Leipzig: Teubner, 1909). Cf.
especially:
Multi et varii dolores prosperitatem regni inficiunt: carorum et
liberorum mortes tristitiam conferunt, hostium incursus provin-
cias undique vastant, bestiae armentorum et pecorum greges di-
lacerant, tempestates aeris et hiemisperia turbata terrarum
fecunditatem et maris ministeria prohibent et aliquando fulmi-
num ictus segetes et arborum flares et pampinos exurunt.
Many and varied sorrows infect the prosperity of the kingdom:
the deaths of loved ones and children bring sadness; everywhere
the invasions of enemies lay waste the provinces; beasts rend the
herds of cattle and the flocks; tempests of the air and troubled
skies hinder the fruitfulness of the earth and the employment s of
the sea, and sometimes the corn, the blossom of the trees and the
vines are blasted by lightning.
See also H.H. Anton: Pseudo-Cyprian, 'De d11odecim ab11sivis saeculi' 1111d
sei11 Ei11Jl11ss auf den Kontinent, i11sbeso11dere auf die karolingischen Fiir-
stenspiegel (Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta, 1982).
10 See L.K. Born, 'The Specula principis of the Carolingian Renaissance,'
Rt'Vue Beige de philologie et d'histoire 12 (1933).
INTRODUCTION 19
tia rependit' - 'the more easily [to) observe how many evils
supernal and divine justice metes out to evil rulers and how
many good things to good ones' (pp. 192/193). Other members
of the same ninth-centu ry family are the Via regia of Smarag- l
dus of Saint-Mihiel (ea 813), the De institutione regia of Jonas of
Orleans (ea 831), and the De regis persona and De ordine palatii
of Archbishop Hincmar of Rheims (ea 833-856). We shall pres-
ently devote some attention to the question of why treatises of
this kind made their appearance in the Frankish kingdom
when they did.
De rectoribus Christianis
Text and Translation
In the rubric of the version printed by J.-P. Migne, De rectoribus
Christianis is described as being addressed 'ad Carolum Mag-
num vel Ludovicum Pium.' This, however, is obviously incor-
rect. The reference to Louis the Pious on pp. 104/105 of the
present edition - 'Haec [virtus, sc. dementia] Ludovicum piis-
simum adornavit imperatore m' - is clearly posthumou s. This
fact establishes the year of Louis' death, 840, as an absolute
terminus a quo. Opinions differ as to whether the king to whom
the treatise is addressed is Charles the Bald (king of the West-
ern Frankish kingdom, 843-877; western emperor, 875-877) or
Lothair II (king of Lotharingia, 855-869). If the former, as
seems on the whole more likely, n De rectoribus Christianis was
composed at some time after 843; if the latter, at some time af-
ter 855. It is not possible to establish the date of composition
more exactly than this.
The treatise consists of a preface in verse followed by
twenty short chapters of exhortation and advice, each of which
11 See especially N. Staubach, Rex Christimws: Hoflwlt11r 1111d Herr-
schaftspropaga11da im Reich Karls des Kahle11, 2: Die Gmndleg1111g der 'relig-
io11 royale' (Cologne: Bohlau, 1993).
20 SEDULIUS SCOTIUS
except the last is followed by a verse paraphrase. It seems
probable that this 'prosimetrum' method is adopted in imita-
tion of Boethius's De consolatione phi/osophiae. Sedulius's main
sources, apart from Scripture, are the histories of Cassiodorus
and Orosius, with various degrees of indebtedness to Bede,
Boethius, Gregory the Great, Isidore of Seville and the Scrip-
tores historiae Augustae. There are a few echoes of St Augustine,
though Sedulius never mentions St Augustine by name, nor
does he directly exploit the Augustinian dualism between the
civitas Dei and the civitas terrena. 12
No one who undertakes to edit a medieval text can know
how many manuscripts may once have existed, or how far
those that are extant may have diverged from the autograph.
Some manuscripts will almost certainly have perished by ac-
cident or vandalism. It may be that others still lurk undiscov-
ered somewhere. The editors of early printed editions
sometimes adopted the unfortunate practice of transcribing a
manuscript and then destroying it, and we cannot with any
accuracy measure the extent to which their printed texts in-
corporate corrections and conjectures (and, of course, errors)
of their own. For all these reasons and more, editors can only
try, by intelligent analysis and comparison and in the light of
specific and contextual knowledge, to arrive at a result that is
as plausible as conscientious scholarship can make it. Seldom
are they in a position to claim that their text is an exact re-
trieval of the original, or even a complete and faithful repre-
sentation of the manuscript tradition.
A critical edition of De rectoribus Christianis, with a long
and detailed Introduction, was published in 1906 by Sieg-
mund Hellmann of the University of Bonn. Another version,
of which Hellmann appears to have taken no notice, appears
in volume 103 of Migne's Patrologia Latina, there reprinted
12 There is a somewhat misleading suggestion to the contrary at Doyle, ed.
cit. p. 21.
INTRODUCTION 21
from Dom Luc D' Achery's Spicilegium of 1655-1677. I do not
think it possible to improve in any large-scale way on the
learned and meticulous edition of Hellmann, and the text
here printed is in most respects the one established by him
from the authorities that he lists and describes in his Intro-
duction. I have, however, emended by conjecture certain of
Hellmann's readings that seem to me plainly wrong (my in-
terventions of this kind are printed in square brackets). I
have also collated Hellman's text with that presented by Mi-
gne, which appears in some few cases to give a better sense.
The critical notes at the foot of each Latin page are full
enough to allow the reader to evaluate my choices and deci-
sions as between the Hellmann (= H) and Migne (= M) texts.
For the reader's convenience, all scriptural and other refer-
ences and general footnotes are printed at the foot of the
pages of the translation. In references to the books of the Bi-
ble, I have used the more familiar English conventions in
preference to those of the Vulgate (thus 'Chronicles' rather
than 'Paralipomenon,' and so forth). The same remark ap-
plies to the numbering of the Psalms, except in some few
cases where the English translation given in the King James
Version and its descendants diverges substantially from the
Latin of the Vulgate.
De rectoribus Christianis has been translated into English
once before, by Edward Gerard Doyle in the volume already
cited. This translation is to my mind often unduly free, and not
always accurate; nor does it succeed in conveying much of the
literary flavour of the original. Also, Dr Doyle is a Celticist. He
has some acquaintance with Carolingian politics, but he is not
a historian of medieval political thought. His Introduction
conveys little in the way of context, and he habitually trans-
lates res publica as 'state,' which is, of course, significantly er-
roneous in relation to the politics of the ninth century. I am,
however, happy to acknowledge that, in some respects, a close
22 SEDULIUS SCOITUS
study of Dr Doyle's translation has improved the quality and
accuracy of my own.
This is especially true in relation to the translation of
Sedulius's verse paraphrases. These poetic interludes present
difficulties of their own, for a reason that is perhaps obvious: it
is simply not possible to render verse literally into a language
other than that in which it was composed. On the one hand it
seems churlish to translate an author's poetic flights into pe-
destrian English. On the other, one must not allow one's
imagination to run too far away from the text. I have done my
best in this regard, to a great extent guided by Dr Doyle's ex-
ample. It has to be said that, though Sedulius's verse is notes-
pecially distinguished, it is a good deal more distinguished
than an English translation can allow it to seem. The parallel
text here presented will allow those with a taste for such
things to make suitable comparisons.
Background and Argument
In order to set Sedulius's treatise in its context, we must go
back quite a long way. It is near the beginning of the fourth
century that we begin to encounter the issue that, more than
any other, was to inform the political discourse of the Euro-
pean Middle Ages. Until then, the Christian Church had ex-
isted more or less on the margins of Roman society, in what
one might call underground conventicles regarded with vary-
ing degrees of hostility and suspicion. Under Nero, the first of
the persecuting emperors, Christians were executed in large
numbers and by extraordinarily brutal means for a vague and
somewhat mysterious crime called odium humani generis: 'ha-
tred of the human race.' 13 Writing in 103 to the emperor Ha-
13 Tacitus, Annales 15:44:2-8. It strikes one as remarkable that anybody
with even a cursory knowledge of the Christian faith could accuse its
votaries of 'hatred of the human race.' According to Tacitus, the Chris-
tians were made scapegoats by Nero for the great fire that devastated
INTRODUCTION 23
drian, the younger Pliny, propraetor of Bithynia, reports that
the Christians, for all their 'stubbornness and inflexible obsti-
nacy,' don't really seem to do any harm; 14 but the fact that
they would not worship the gods of Rome, take an oath in the
name of the emperor or perform military service exposed the
Christians to the reproach of ingratitude and political disloy-
alty. Also, their secrecy and exclusiveness encouraged ru-
mours, and no small degree of prurient curiosity, about the
practices of people who loved their brothers and sisters and
apparently ate human flesh. For reasons of this kind, the
Christian Church was subject to suspicion and recurrent per-
secution down to the early years of the fourth century.
But in 312 a remarkable event occurred. In that year, for
reasons not entirely clear and in circumstances obscured by
myth, hagiography and speculation, the emperor Constantine
himself was converted to Christianity. In 313 he and his col-
league Licinius issued a joint edict, known as the Edict of Mi-
lan, proclaiming toleration of the Christian faith and bringing
to an end the years of marginalisation and persecution. 15 The
Edict of Milan did not make Christianity the official religion of
the Roman empire. This final step, accompanied by the legal
abolition of paganism and much resultant controversy, was
not taken until the end of the century, under the auspices of
Theodosius I. But the Edict of Milan removed the obstacles
Rome in July 64. It is possible also that the expression odium h11111a11i
ge11eris denotes a formal charge of witchcraft or sorcery. Cf. Suetonius,
Nero11is 16:2: ' Punishment was inflicted on the Christians, a class of men
given to a new and wicked superstition'; Origen, Contra Celsum 1:68. See
also J. Stevenson (ed.), A New £11sebi11s (London: SPCK, 1960), pp. 2-3.
14 C. Pli11i Caecili Secundi Epistularum Libri Decenz, ed. R.A.B. Mynors (Ox-
ford: Clarendon Press, 1963), 10:96. It is clear also from this letter that
malicious and anonymous denunciations of Christians were not un•
common.
15 See Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum, ed. and trans. J.L Creed (Ox-
ford: Clarendon Press, 1984), 48.
24 SEDULIUS scorrus
and disabilities to which the Christians had hitherto been sub-
ject. It had the effect of elevating the Christian Church to a
new position of acceptance and respectability. The growth and
prosperity of Christianity seemed to have been secured once
and for all, no doubt by divine providence. By the end of the
century, the Church had indeed become the established
Church of the empire.
But this transformation, even in its earliest phase, brought
with it an unlooked-for complication. The Church found her-
self no longer existing outside, and largely able to ignore, the
governing mechanisms of the Roman commonwealth. She was
now incorporated into that commonwealth as one of its insti-
tutions. Hence arose an important and persistent issue. On the
one hand, the Church of Christ is the only vehicle for the
transmission of divine grace into the world. Salvation is im-
possible other than in her and through the sacraments that she
administers. 'Extra ecclesiam nulla salus est': outside the
Church there is no salvation; so said Cyprian, the great Afri-
can saint of the third century. 16 The Church's importance to
the spiritual welfare of believers is thus supreme, and her au-
thority over them comprehensive and absolute. On the other
hand, as an institution of the Roman commonwealth, is not the
Church as much subject as any other such institution to the
sovereign will of the emperor and to the officials that he ap-
points to execute that will? As the other side of the problem:
the emperor qua emperor is the supreme ruler of the civilised
world and the effective source of its law. In his person, and in
the agencies to which he delegates the tasks of government, is
embodied the whole tremendous legal and moral authority of
Rome. But qua Christian, as a member of the flock of Christ, is
the emperor not as much subject to the authority of His
Church as the least of His sheep?
16 Epist. 72:21 (PL 3:1123).
INTRODUCTION 25
Here, then, is what we may call the paradox of the Two
Powers: a paradox thrown into relief by the legitimation of the
Church as a participant in the public realm. Since the coming
of Christ, there have been in principle, and now there are in
practice, two ruling powers in the world, and each seems to
have an irrefragable claim to sovereignty over the other. Mat-
ters were further complicated by the fact that the Roman em-
peror's authority had by long and unchallenged tradition
legally encompassed religious as well as secular matters. If the
emperor had formerly been the earthly head of the religion of
Jupiter, why should he not now occupy the same position with
respect to the religion of Christ? Constantine retained the an-
cient title Pontifex Maximus (it continued to be used as an im-
perial title until the time of the emperor Gratian (imp. 375-
383)). Constantine's biographer Eusebius of Caesarea tells us
that the emperor regarded himself as a kind of lay bishop, di-
vinely charged with the administration of the Church's tempo-
ral affairs. 17 Nor, in practice, did he confine himself to
temporalities. In 325 Constantine convoked and presided in
person over the First Council of Nicaea, convened to settle the
purely theological questions presented by the Arian heresy.
No doubt the emperor was suitably coached by theological
experts, but it was he who proposed to the Council the word
oµooumoc; - homoousios ('consubstantial') - as the terminus tech-
nicus that, written into the Nicene Creed, authoritatively cap-
tured the nature of Christ's hypostatical relation to the
Father. •a Here, it seemed, was a clear case of a theological con-
17 Vita Constantini, ed. F. Winkelmann, Die griechischen christlichen Schrift-
steller 1:1 (Berlin: Akademie-Verlag, 1975), 4:24.
18 On this controversial subject see especially A. Alfoldi, The Conversion of
Constantine and Pagan Rome (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1948; repr. 1969);
T.D. Barnes, Constantine and E11sebius (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Uni-
versity Press, 1984); K. Baus et al., The Imperial Church from Constantine to
the Early Middle Ages (New York: Seabury, 1980); N.H. Baynes, Constan-
tine the Great and the Christian Church (Oxford: Oxford University Press,
26 SEDULIUS SCOTIUS
troversy having been settled by the intervention, and accord-
ing to the will, of the emperor.
It should be reiterated that, strictly speaking, the problem
that we are here outlining is not one of 'Church and state.'
This expression is often used as a convenient shorthand, but
one cannot begin to use the word 'state' in anything like its
modern acceptation until quite late in the thirteenth century.
Rather, the question has to do with the nature of sovereign au-
thority within a single and undifferentiated community: a
community within which the practices and institutions of re-
ligion are not perceived as standing apart from the ordinary
processes of government. If in such a community there are two
orders of authority each of which has a compelling claim to
the allegiance of its members, how are we to understand the
relation between the two and the practical consequences of
that relation? Surely no authority is 'sovereign' to which not
everything is subject.
From the Church's point of view, the problem was, in es-
sence, that of how to enjoy the indubitable advantages of offi-
cial recognition and protection while retaining autonomy over
her own affairs, both material and doctrinal. Almost from the
moment of Constantine's conversion, the senior clergy of
North Africa showed themselves ready to call upon their secu-
lar counterparts for support against the schismatic Donatists. 19
The great Augustine, after initial misgivings, came to feel that
it was right and in accordance with Scripture for the Church to
enlist the aid of the authorities not only to protect her against
the criminal activity of dissenters, but even to secure doctrinal
1998); R.A. Markus, The End of Ancient Christianity (Cambridge: Cam-
bridge University Press, 1990); C. Rapp, 'Imperial Ideology in the Mak-
ing: Eusebius of Caesarea on Constantine as Bishop,' Journal of
Theological Studies 49.2 (1998).
19 See especially W.H.C. Frend, The Do11atist Church (Oxford: Oxford Uni-
versity Press, 1952).
INTRODUCTION 27
uniformity.20 But the problematic nature of the relation be-
tween secular and spiritual jurisdiction soon began to make
itself felt, especially after the Council of Chalcedon (451), when
emperors showed a marked tendency to intervene on the
'wrong' side of the Acacian schism. 21 For their part, the Byzan-
tine emperors never relinquished the doctrine known as 'cae-
saropapism': that religious as well as political matters fall
within the scope of the emperor's authority. The Church, on
the other hand, wanted, if one may so express it, to have it
both ways. She wanted to be as far as possible exempt from
secular control while enjoying simultaneously the benefits of
integration into the Roman commonwealth.
In attempting to deal with the ' problem' of caesaropapism,
the first impulse of Christian intellectuals was to emphasise
not merely the distinction between spiritual and temporal
matters but their separateness in terms of how they are to be
regulated in practical life. 'Duo sunt quippe, imperator au-
guste, quibus principaliter mundus hie regitur: auctoritas sac-
rata pontificum et regalis potestas' - there are two agencies by
which this world is principally ruled: the consecrated author-
ity of pontiffs and royal power.22 This famous dictum of Pope
[St] Gelasius I (pont. 492-496) was to be quoted innumerable
times during the Middle Ages. Divine providence has ap-
pointed two kinds of power to rule the world, each legitimate,
each with its own area of responsibility or competence, and
each with its different methods. As Augustine had put it, writ-
ing in 412 to Apringius, proconsul of Africa:
20 For the development of Augustine's thought in this regard see R.W.
Dyson, The Pilgrim City (Woodbridge: Boydell, 2001), eh. 5.
21 The role of Justinian I in the 'Three Chapters' controversy in 543 fur-
nishes the classic example of this problem. See D.]. Constantellos,
'Justinian and the Three Chapters Controversy,' Greek Orthodox Theologi-
cal Review 8 (1962-1963), pp. 71-94.
22 See C. Mirbt (ed.), Q11elle11 zur Gescl1ichte des Papsttums (Tiibingen: J.C.B.
Mohr, 1924), pp. 85-86.
28 SEDULIUS SCOITUS
I do not doubt that when you exercise that power which God
has given to you as a man over men, you keep in mind the di-
vine judgrnent seat before which even judges will have to
stand and render an account of their judgments ... It is of you
that the Apostle said, as we read, that you bear not the sword
in vain and that you are 'a minister of God, a revenger to exe-
cute wrath upon him that doeth evil.' 23 But it is one thing to
rule a province and another to rule the Church. The former
must be administered by engendering fear; the latter must
gently commend herself through mildness. 24
The nature of the distinction that Augustine has in mind is on
the face of it clear. Kings and princes rule temporal things
through the instrumentalities of force and fear made necessary
by the depravity of our fallen nature; priests rule spiritual
things through the love and persuasion enjoined upon them
by Christ. Each agency is autonomous within its own sphere;
each should defer to the other; neither should encroach upon
the other's province.
But such attempts to formulate a theory of dual power do
nothing in reality to mitigate the practical problems that the
side-by-side existence of the two powers creates. When the
powers overlap, as inevitably they will, who is to decide which
of them should prevail? Who is to decide exactly where the
boundaries lie? If the powers come into conflict, by what means
are such conflicts to be resolved? The obvious answer toques-
tions of this kind is implicit in, yet at the same time subversive
of, the very idea of a distinction between secular and spiritual
jurisdictions. Secular government has to do only with the things
of this world: a transient and fallen world in which the believer
is urged to regard himself as a pilgrim merely, negotiating his
way through its perils to a better world beyond. The function of
spiritual government, by contrast, is to conduct mankind to-
23 Rom. 13:4.
24 Epist. 134:1-3 (PL 33:510-511).
INTRODUCTION 29
wards this better world, fortifying him by counsel, prayer and
the sacraments against the dangers that beset his pilgrimage.
Surely no one who reflects on this functional difference could
seriously maintain that the two orders are separate but equal;
nor could anyone doubt which of them should adjudicate and
prevail in the event of overlap or disagreement.
St Augustine of course saw this quite clearly, even while in-
sisting on the existence of the separate spheres. Axiomatically,
the things that are Caesar's must defer to those that are God's.
There are indeed two powers, but Christian kings are not only
kings; they are sons of the Church. As such, they must 'serve
the Lord with fear' by 'forbidding and chastising with reli-
gious severity whatever acts are done in opposition to the
Lord's commandments.'
For a man serves God in one way insofar as he is a man, and
in another way insofar as he is also a king. Insofar as he is a
man, he serves Him by living faithfully; but insofar as he is
also a king, he serves Hirn by enforcing with suitable rigour
laws that command what is righteous and punish what is the
reverse. 25
It is the duty of Christian kings, just as it is of Christian car-
penters or shoemakers, to do the will of God, and hence of His
Church, in a manner consistent with their station in life and
the opportunities that it affords.26 Augustine's famous descrip-
tion, at De civitate Dei 5:24, of good emperors, who 'make their
power the handmaid of [God's] majesty by using it for the
greatest possible extension of His worship,' is a forerunner
and model of all subsequent Christian specula principum.
Pope Gelasius sees the point equally clearly. It is already
implied in his distinction between 'auctoritas sacrata pontifi-
25 Epist. 185:19 (PL 33:801).
26 See R.W. Dyson, St A11g11,tine of Hippo: the Christian Transformation of
Political Philosophy (London: Continuum, 2005), eh. 5.
30 SEDULIUS SCOTIUS
cum et regalis potestas': the consecrated authority of pontiffs
and royal power. The emperor Flavius Anastasius, to whom
Gelasius's letter is addressed, would understand quite well the
difference of status as well as function that such a choice of
words expresses. 27 In what must surely be an echo of
Augustine, Gelasius goes on: 'In quibus tanto gravius pondus
est sacerdotum, quanta etiam pro ipsis regibus hominum in
divino reddituri sunt examine rationem' - 'In these things the
burden of the priests is the heavier, inasmuch as they are to
render an account at the divine judgment even for the kings of
men.' In another place, and in remarkably direct language, Ge-
lasius declares that the civil authorities should 'fear' to inter-
fere in matters of religion; that they are 'permitted' to have
power; that they cannot 'presume' to judge things divine; that
the pontiffs should 'make use of' imperial arrangements for
spiritual purposes. 2a
By the end of the fifth century, then, we find established in
ecclesiological thought a conception of earthly power articu-
lated in terms of a dualistic theory, but a theory that is by clear
implication one of unequal dualism. There are two governing
agencies in the world, both ordained of God, but one is ulti-
mately subordinate to the other. In one is vested auctoritas, in
the other (only) potestas. The discussion and interpretation of
this proposition - from both ecclesiastical and royalist stand-
points - was to be a staple of political controversy for some
eight centuries. Ostensibly, Gelasius's point is the uncontro-
versial proposition that royal power ought to submit to the
Church in spiritual matters. But what, when all is said and
done, is not capable of being or becoming a spiritual matter?
27 See R.W. Dyson, Normative Theories of Society and Government in Five Me-
dieval Thinkers (Lewiston, Queenston, Lampeter: Edwin Mellen Press,
2003), pp. 88-90; Cf. W. Ullmann, The Growth of Papal Government in the
Middle Ages (London: Methuen, 1970), pp. 14-31.
28 See Dyson, Normative Theories, pp. 85-88.
INTRODUCTION 31
That, of course, is the rub. Anything and everything can be an
occasion of sin, and who can doubt that kings are subject to
priests by reason of sin? Moreover, the task of deciding what
is and is not sin clearly pertains exclusively to the Church.
This ratione peccati argument, on its own terms unanswerable,
had by the thirteenth century become the most potent weapon
in the Church's arsenal. To accept it is to accept the effective
collapse of the dualistic 'two powers' principle into an ideol-
ogy of ecclesiastical supremacy- eventually, in practice, papal
supremacy - even in temporals.
Gregory I, 'the Great' (pont. 590-604), was the first pope to
embark on a purely western or Latin diplomacy intended to
develop the Church's influence in regions where the rule of
the Byzantine emperor was weakest. 29 Especially through his
correspondence with the Merovingian king Childebert II (reg.
570-595), he began to cultivate amicable relations between the
papacy and the Franks in Gaul. These relations were to be the
foundation of the developments through which, in the second
half of the eighth century, the papacy established for the Latin
Church a western sphere of influence decisively independent
of the caesaropapism of the East. It is to these developments
that we must briefly turn. 30
29 J. Richards, Consul of God: The Life and Times of Gregory the Great (Lon-
don: Routledge, 1980); R.A. Markus, Gregory the Great and His World
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997).
30 For original sources see MGH Karoli11orm11 1:1-60, and J.F. Bohmer, Die
Regeste11 des Kaiserreichs unter den Karolingem, ed. E. Miihlbacher, vol 1 of
Regesta imper,i (Innsbruck, 1889); Die Urkunde11 der Karolinger, ed. E.
Milhlbacher, MGH Diplomata Karolinorum 1:77-484 (this collection
was not quite completed when Fr Miihlbacher died in 1903); Capitularia
regum Francorum, ed. A. Boretius, MGH Capitularia 1:44-259; Concilia
aevi Karoli11i, ed. A. Werminghof, MGH Concilia 2.1:74-306; Epistolae
Karoli11i aevi, ed. E. Dilmmler et al., MGH Epistolae 3:558-657; 4:494-567;
5.1:1-84; Alcuin, Epistolae, ed. E. Diimmler, MHG Epistolae 4:1-493. See
also H. Hahn, Jahrbucher des friinkische11 Reiches, 741- 752 (Berlin, 1863); L.
Olsner, Jahrbiicher des friinkischen Reiches u11ter Konig Pippen (Leipzig,
32 SEDULIUS SCOITUS
By the middle years of the eighth century, a situation had
developed in the kingdom of the Franks that was, from a cer-
tain point of view, both inconvenient and exploitable. Since
the death of Dagobert I in 634, the once vigorous Merovingian
kings had become useless, if occasionally convenient, append-
ages. Royal power, having leaked away from the Merovin-
gians, was now for all practical purposes exercised by an
official called major palatii or doma, the mayor of the palace or
household. This true disposition of power was vividly illus-
trated in 732, when the invading Moors were defeated at the
battle of Tours by an army commanded not by the king,
Theoderic IV, but by the mayor of the palace, Charles Martel.
But in formal terms the mayors of the palace were nonetheless
functionaries rather than sovereigns. In 751 Charles Martel's
son Pepin, mayor of the palace of Childeric III, sent an em-
bassy to Rome to invite the opinion of Pope [St] Zachary (pant.
1863); S. Abel and B. Simson, Jahrbiicher des frii11kischen Reiches w1ter Karl
dem Crossen, Bd 1: 768-788 (Leipzig, 1865); Bd 2: 789-814 (Leipzig, 1883).
And see E. Caspar, Pippin und die romische Kirc/ie: kritische U11tersuchtmgen
zum frii11kisch-piipstliche11 Bunde im Vlll /ahrhuntlerl (Darmstadt: Wissen-
schaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1973). There is an extensive secondary litera-
ture in English; see L.M.0. Duchesne (trans. A.H. Matthew), The
Begi11ni11gs of the Temporal Savereignty of the Popes, AD 754-1073 (repr. New
York: Franklin, 1978); R. Folz, TI1e Coro11atio11 of Charlemagne: 25 December
800 (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1974); F.L. Ganshof (trans. J.
Sondheimer), The Carolingians and the Frankish Monarchy: Studies in Caro-
li11gian History (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1971); P.J. Geary,
France and Cen11a11y: the Creation and Transfon11ation of the Merovi11gia11
World (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988); L. Halphen, Charle111ag11e
and the Carolingian Empire, trans. G. de Nie (New York: North-Holland
Publishing, 1977); P. Lasko, The Kingdom of the Franks: North-West Europe
before Charlemagne (London: Thames & Hudson, 1971); P. Riche, The Caro-
li11gians: A Family Who Forged Europe (Philadelphia: University of Pennsyl-
vania Press, 1993); I. Wood, The Merovingian Ki11gdo111s (London:
Longman, 1994). The following short articles are useful for introductory
purposes: R.E. Sullivan, 'Carolingian Reform,' NCE 3:140-141; C.M.
Aheme, 'Carolingian Renaissance,' NCE 3:141-143.
INTRODUCTION 33
741- 752). Should the name of king belong to one who actually
wields power or to an individual who, though nominally king,
is in fact a nonentity? The pope replied to this leading question
in obliging terms. 'It would be better for one who had power
to be called a king than for one who remained without royal
power.' Moreover, 'he commanded by apostolic authority that
Pepin should be made king.' 31 Whether this complaisance is to
be seen as an instance of far-sighted papal wisdom or base
connivance in a palace coup is a matter probably not worth
discussing. At all events, the last of the rais faineants disap-
peared into the monastery of Saint-Bertin in November 751,
'depositus ac detonsus,' as the contemporary chronicler
Einhard says: 'deposed and shorn' of the symbolic long hair
worn by the Merovingians.32 Pepin (with a large military con-
tingent on hand, to make sure) was elected king by an assem-
bly of Frankish magnates, and anointed at Soissons by no less
a personage than [St] Boniface, archbishop of Mainz.
This ecclesiastical anointing, significant in itself, was
shortly to be brought into much clearer relief. Early in 754,
Pope Zachary's successor, Stephen II/III (pant. 752-757), 33
made an expedition into the Frankish kingdom the chief pur-
pose of which was to enlist Pepin's military assistance against
the expansionist policies in Italy of the Lombard king Aistulf.
On 6 January, he crowned Pepin king and anointed him in
person. At the same time, the pope stressed that, through his
31 A11nales regni Fra11corum, ed. F. Kurze (MGH Scriptores rerum Ger-
manicarum 6), p. 8.
32 Einhard, Vita Karoli Magm, ed. 0. Holder•Egger (MGH Scriptores rerum
Germanicarum 25) 1; though Einhard says that this was done 'jussu
Stephani Romani pontificis,' 'by command of the Roman Pontiff
Stephen.'
33 In March 752, when Pope Zachary died, a Roman cleric called Stephen
was chosen to succeed him; but this Stephen died three days later with-
out being consecrated bishop of Rome. His successor, the ' real' Stephen
II, is for this reason (incorrectly) called Stephen Ill in some sources.
34 SEDULIUS SCOITUS
agency, God had appointed Pepin king of the Franks with the
special duty of protecting the Church of Rome, in which ea•
pacity he was to bear the title Patricius Romanorum, 'Patrician
of the Romans.' In subsequen t correspond ence with the king,
Stephen took pains to emphasise that, through his papal coro-
nation, Pepin had been made St Peter's strong right arm,
charged with securing justice for the Church of Christ. For the
first time, a pope was claiming nothing less than to have con•
secrated a king as the Church's formal lieutenant or auxiliary.
The ceremony of anointing, inspired by Old Testament exam•
pies, was to play a central part in medieval coronation rituals,
in which it came to function as something like the sacramental
bestowal of royal power upon its recipient by the Church. 34
The papacy's activity in relation to the Frankish monarchy
reached an historic culminatio n a quarter of a century later.
On 25 April, 799, Pope [St] Leo III (pont. 795-816), accused by
political enemies of simony, adultery and perjury, was as-
saulted by a gang of armed men near the Flaminian Gate and
severely beaten. Einhard tells us with evident exaggeration
that they gouged out his eyes and cut out his tongue. On 24
November, 800, Leo appealed to Pepin's son and successor
Karl - Charlemag ne - for protection, undertakin g in return to
submit to the king's adjudication of the charges against him. In
November 800, Charlemag ne travelled to Rome 'propter
reparandum , qui nimis conturbatu s erat, ecclesiae statum' - 'to
repair the condition of the Church, which was greatly dis-
34 C. Bouman, Sacring and Crowning: The Development of the Latin Rit11a/ for
the Anointing of Kings and the Coronation of an Emperor Before the Eleve11th
Century (Bijdragen van het lnstituut voor middeleeuvse Geschiedenis
der Tijks-Universiteit te Utrecht, 30: Groningen, 1957). Gerald Ellard,
Ordination Anointings i11 the Western Church Before 1000 AD (Cambridge,
MA: Harvard University Press, 1933); J.L. Nelson, Politics and Ritual i11
Early Medieval Europe (London: Hambledon, 1986). The quasi-sacred na-
ture of royal authority was, of course, to persist as an idea in Western
thought until well into the modem period.
INTRODUCTION 35
turbed.' 35 In plain terms, Charlemag ne came to Rome to pre-
side over the trial of the pope. On 23 December, Leo III swore
his innocence on the Gospels in St Peter' s Basilica, to the satis•
faction of a large assembly of Roman and Frankish clergy.
Two days later, at the end of the Christmas Mass - to Charle-
magne's surprise and against his wishes, we are invited to
think36 - he crowned Charlemag ne not as king of the Franks,
but as imperator Romanorum. In effect, Leo III had pronounce d
not, perhaps, the deposition of the Byzantine emperor, 37 but at
any rate his reduction to a status counterbalanced by that of an
emperor in the West. More than any other event, the corona-
tion of Charlemag ne and the transfer of imperial power - the
translatio imperii - purportedl y effected by it signals the final
division of Christendo m into 'Latin' or European and 'Greek'
or eastern contingents, distinguished by territorial as well as
ecclesiastical and doctrinal frontiers. Its accomplishment by
the pope reflected a clear practical conflation of divine and
worldly power, and sacred and secular history. 38 The question,
raised by Charlemag ne's coronation, of who was the 'genuine'
emperor of the Romans was not settled until the capture of
35 Ibid.
36 Ibid.
37 More strictly, the Byzantine empress. The 'emperor' at the time of Char-
lemagne's coronation was Irene Sarantapechaina (imp. 797-802), around
whose person and conduct many scandalous stories accrued. Irene
styled herself ~acnAEU~ (bnsileus) 'emperor,' rather than ~aaiALaaa
(b~ilissa), 'empress'; but Leo III does seem at one point to have con-
tended that the imperial throne was technically vacant because occu-
pied by a woman. See Theophanes, Chronographia (ed. C de Boor
(Leipzig, 1883-85)), anno mundi 6289; Judith Herrin, The Formation of
Christe11do111 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1987), pp. 454-7,
464. Cf. T.S. Brown, 'Byzantine Italy, c. 680-c. 876,' in The New Cambridge
Medieval History, vol. 2: c. 700-c. 900 (ed. R. McKitterick; Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1995), p. 331.
38 Cf. J. Le Goff, La civilisation de /'Occident medieval (Paris: Flammarion,
1964), pt 2, eh. 6.
36 SEDULIUS SCOTTUS
Constantinople by the soldiers of the fourth Crusade in 1204. 39
For their part, the Frankish monarchs, especially Pepin,
Charlemagne and Louis the Pious, seemed to take entirely se-
riously the obligations as God's servants that ecclesiastical
unction had implicitly imposed on them. Historians and other
commentators have a tendency to assume that professions of
pious intent are rationalisations of occult motives of an eco-
nomic or military or personal character; but we shall not here
attempt to speculate about questions of sincerity or insincerity.
Encouraged by the Anglo-Saxon scholar Alcuin, his friend and
counsellor of many years, Charlemagne in particular em-
braced a theocratic conception of royal authority. It was a con-
ception inspired by the ideas of St Augustine and mirroring
the kingships of the Old Testament. Charlemagne conceived it
his duty to unite the disparate elements of his realm into a sin-
gle populus Dei, enlightened and unified by education and or-
dered to the attainment of salvation. The Carolingian empire
was to be nothing less than the institutional form of the civitas
Dei on earth. To this end Charlemagne sponsored extensive
missionary activity among the Saxons and Eurasian Avars and
continued the programme of ecclesiastical reform and regula-
tion that had been commenced by Pepin. As part of this re-
forming activity there occurred the wholesale renewal of art,
literature and scholarship that historians have so often called
the Carolingian Renaissance. 40
39 But why should anybody suppose that the pope's apostolic authority
might extend to the removal and appointment of kings and emperors? It
is possibly in answer to this question that there appeared, at some time
in the second half of the eighth century, the influential forgery known as
the Donatio Constantini, the 'Donation of Constantine.' See, for example,
W. Ullmann, The Growth of Papal Government in the Middle Ages, pp. 62-
65, 74--86, for some treatment of this complicated and difficult subject.
40 See especially W. Ullmann, The Carolingian Renaissance and the Idea of
Kingship (London: Methuen, 1969); also A. Romagosa, 'The Carolingian
Renaissance and Christian Humanism,' Logos 6:4 (2003), pp. 136-149.
INTRODUCTION 37
On the whole, the senior clergy of Charlemagne's realm
were not disposed to resent the king's vigorous and paternal-
istic involvement in the religious and ecclesiastical life of his
people. For the most part they supported and applauded it.
They certainly did nothing to discourage the idea that the
king is the Church's divinely elected defender against her
worldly enemies. But there lurked potentially within the
Carolingian version of kingship precisely the drawback by
which the Church's relations with the Byzantine emperors
had been so much beset. The Carolingian conception of soci-
ety does not support any differentiation as between 'Church'
and 'state.' The populus Dei is a single and integrated com-
munity, to be governed in all things according to the will of
God. But if emperors and kings are anointed of God, if they
are charged comprehensively with the task of ruling the
earth according to the divine will, why should any part of the
earthly Church's business be exempt from royal authority
and supervision?
Even before his papal coronation Charlemagne did not sub-
scribe to a dear demarcation of the political and religious
spheres. His capitularies and other documents furnish ample
evidence of royal involvement with things lying, one would
have thought, well within the ecclesiastical realm: the admini•
stration of the Church's material resources; the education, ap-
pointment and conduct of the clergy; the reform and
regularisation of the liturgy; the dissemination of the faith and
the cultivation of popular piety. Nor did he consider doctrinal
matters exempt from royal intervention. After the Second
Council of Nicaea (787), he undertook, somewhat to the dis-
may of Pope Hadrian I, to define the position of the Latin
Church on the question of the veneration of images. No one
supposes that the long treatise on this subject called Libri Caro-
lini was written by Charlemagne himself, but it was certainly
composed by court theologians with his approval and pre-
38 SEDULIUS SCOITUS
sented to the pope in his name. Insofar as the purpose of pa-
41
pal diplomacy vis-a-vis the Franks was the emancipation of
the Church from Byzantine control, the Church, in allowing
the idea of theocratic kingship to root itself so healthily in the
West, had taken an obvious risk. Potentially she had contrived
only to translate a caesaropapist ideology from one geographi-
cal seat to another.
It is chiefly in this possibility that we find the rationale of
the specula principum of the ninth century. Addressed to the
various successors of Charlemagne, the common purpose of
these opuscula is to reaffirm and elaborate the principle of du-
alism in such a way as to assign due and proper weight to the
power of kings while being fully assertive of the Church's au-
thority and autonomy. In doing this, their authors touched
also, if tangentially and in a comparatively unsophisticated
way, upon several of the large and perennial themes of politi-
cal theory: the nature and origin of law; obligation; justice;
power and authority.
Most of the advice given by Sedulius Scottus is entirely
predictable. The king must be just and clement; not hasty or
immoderate in his judgments; not tyrannical or arbitrary; per-
spicacious in his choice of queen and companions; not suscep-
tible to flattery; studious in avoiding anger, pride and greed.
But these platitudes are presented within a decisively religious
framework. The king is ordained of God. From the moment of
his anointing, he should never cease to be mindful of this; his
first act as king should be to give thanks for it. He should have
41 Libri Caroli11i sivc Caroli Magni capit11/are de imagi11ib11s, ed. Hubert Bast-
gen (Hanover: Imprensis Bibliopolii Hahniani, 1924); Opus Caroli rcgis
contra sy11od11111 (Libri Caroli11i), ed. Ann Freeman (MGH Legum sectio 3,
Concilia 2, 1998); Ann Freeman, 'Carolingian Orthodoxy and the Fate of
the Libri Carvlini,' Viator 16 (1985), pp. 65-108; 'Theodulf of Orleans and
the Libri Carolin,,' Specu/11111 32 (1957), pp. 663-705; S. Gero, 'The Libri
Caroli11i and the Image Controversy,' Greek Orthodox Theological Review
18 (1973), pp. 7- 34.
INTRODUCTION 39
always before his mind the example of the righteous kings of
the Old Testament and the submission of those kings to the
admonition and correction of religious figures. Inasmuch as he
is an earthly agent of God, his political duties are religious
ones also. They include promotion of the faith and the protec-
tion and advancement of the Church. He must be vigilant of
sin as well as crime, not only in himself but in his family and
subjects also. As the fate of Eli the priest shows, those who are
in a position to correct the sins of others and fail to do so are
participants in their guilt. The king must study and under-
stand the law of God as set forth in the Scriptures; he must
choose wise and honest counsellors and heed their advice; he
must confess himself subject to the Church in both public and
private life. Paramount is the example of the tearful penitence
of Theodosius I when he was excluded from the sacraments by
St Ambrose in 390. The story of the emperor's submission to
penance at the bishop's direction was to be repeated countless
times down to the thirteenth century, growing in the telling
almost with each repetition. (It is rather odd, incidentally, that
Sedulius should have missed the chance to mention the very
similar penance undergone in 822 by Louis the Pious.)
None of this is to suggest that Sedulius gives less than full
recognition to the power of kings. In chapter nineteen he says:
Oportet enim Deo amabilem regnatorem, quern divina ordina-
tio tamquam vicarium suum in regimine Ecclesiae suae esse
voluit, et potestatem ei super utrurnque ordinem praelatorum
et subditorurn tribuit, ut singulis personis et quae justa sunt
decemat, et sub sua dispensatione prior ordo bene docendo et
operando praesit et sequens ordo devote obediendo fideliter
subditus fiat. Et ideo in bono rectore debet laudabilis intentio
esse, et bono studio illud providere, quatenus praepositi eccle-
siarurn Dei suurn Iocurn Iegitirne teneant; eisque ad hoe ad-
rniniculurn regia dementia tribuat ut officium suum
secundurn mandata Dei et sacrorum canonurn instituta
pleniter agere valeant.
40 SEDULIUS SCOITUS
For it is fitting that a ruler worthy to be loved of God, whom
the divine ordinance has willed to be as it were His vicar in
the government of His Church and to whom He has granted
power over both orders, of prelates and subjects, should dis-
cern what is just for each person and that, under his dispensa-
tion, the first order should preside over teaching and
ministering well and the second order be faithfully and de-
voutly subject in obeying. And so in the good ruler there must
be a laudable intention to provide with goodly zeal that those
set over the churches of God may hold their place lawfully;
and let the royal clemency distribute support to them so that
they may be able fully to perform their office according to the
commandments of God and the institutes of the sacred can-
ons.
This is, in fact, a more extensive concession than we find in the
specula of Jonas of Orleans or Hincmar or Smaragdus; but it
certainly does not amount to saying, as one author seems to
think, that the king 'has absolute authority over prelates and
subjects alike.' 42 Of course the king has considerable executive
and supervisory powers; but he has them under specific con-
ditions prescribed by the Church. He is to act only in a manner
consistent with the judgment of the prelates as to what is just
and true. He must be humble and cautious and ready always
to defer to the counsel of the wise (by which, in this context, is
preponderantly meant the counsel of ecclesiastical advisers).
He must not meddle in ecclesiastical affairs. Where matters of
doctrine are concerned, he should look to the example of the
42 R.B. Palmer, 'Sedulius Scotus,' NCE 13:46. Note Sedulius's actual words:
'et potest11te111 ei super utrumque ordinem praelatorum et subditorum
tribuit.' As we remarked in connection with Pope Gelasius, the differ-
ence between potestas and a11ctoritas is by no means merely verbal. Also,
'vicarium suum' need mean no more than 'His agent.' Familiarity with
the later papal title vicarius Christi and the comprehensive claims associ-
ated with it should not lead to the supposition that vicarius here means
more than it does.
INTRODUCTION 41
emperor Valentinian, who, invited by the bishops to contrib-
ute to the discussion of sacred dogma, declared himself un-
worthy to do so. Taking Constantine as his example, the king
is responsible for convoking regular and frequent synods, and
he must give practical effect to what they decide by his con-
sent and executive support. But he is to do nothing until he
has learnt their decrees, and nothing that is at variance with
them, 'ne forte errando ante conspectum Domini culpam ali-
quam detestabilem incurrat' - 'lest perhaps by erring he incur
some detestable blame in the sight of the Lord' (pp. 114/115).
What is more, the prince who fails to act in the prescribed
manner can expect only bad consequences. Despite a style that
is in general courteous and in places elaborately deferential,
there are unmistakably minatory notes in Sedulius's treatise.
The king's power comes from God; but what God has given
He can also take away. Saul was deprived of his kingdom and
his life because he failed to heed the divine commands;
Amaziah, king of Judah, was brought low by his own head-
strong pride. The lesson of history is that good and pious rul-
ers prosper whereas proud and ungodly ones come to grief,
both here and hereafter. Only through a fatal wound was the
apostate emperor Julian brought to acknowledge the victory of
Christ; the soul of Theodoric I was cast into hell by those
whom he had persecuted in life; even the forces of nature con-
spire against the unworthy prince. All this is in keeping with
the divine plan. God does not fail to support those who love
Him, and the righteous must never despair of His aid even at
the worst of times. But the lot of the wicked prince is present
misfortune and future damnation. Military defeat and natural
disasters are visited by God upon bad rulers and their people;
success, material prosperity and blessedness in the life to come
are the rewards of the good.
The assertions of Sedulius and the other compilers of ninth-
century specula are nothing like as sweeping and ambitious as
 42 SEDULIUS SCOTTUS
those of the papal publicists of the thirteenth and fourteenth
centuries. The authors of the Carolingian age are not expo-
nents of papal monarchy. They are cautious and often am-
biguous. They do not say in so many words that the prince
owes his power to the direct agency of the Church or that he is
merely the Church's enforcer. They certainly do not suggest
that he may be formally deposed by the Church or that his
subjects can be released by ecclesiastical sanction from their
obligation to obey him. Nor, for the most part, do they display
any great philosophical or legal acumen in making out their
case. Their advice is expressed in compendia of scriptural quo-
tations accompanied by synopses of worthy authorities. None-
theless, the general trend of their thought is unmistakable.
Ecclesiastical anointing strengthen s the king. By it he is made
Deo coronatus, a king Dei gratia, chosen of God like David and SEDULIUS SCOTTUS
Solomon. But if such anointing dramatises and underwrite s DE RECTORIBUS CHRISTIANIS
the divine character of earthly power, it also imparts to it a
markedly restrictive definition. The law of which the prince is
both the custodian and servant is the law of God, as transmit-
ted and interpreted by God's earthly ministers. The good
prince is the religious prince; the religious prince is a dutiful SEDULIUS SCOTTUS
son of the Church; the prince who is not a dutiful son of the 'ON CHRISTIAN RULERS'
Church puts himself and his people in peril, and may find
himself deprived of his position by divine intervention. 'There
is no secular state: there is only a secular power within the
Church, a necessary weapon of ecclesiastical authority.' 43 To
this extent, the specula of the ninth century represent an early
stage on the journey that was to lead, via the pontificates of
Gregory VII, Innocent III and Boniface VIII, to the massive
hierocratic treatises of Giles of Rome and James of Viterbo.
This is not the least aspect of their interest to the historian of
political thought.

43 M. Wallace-Hadrill, 'The Via Regia of the Carolingian Age,' in B. Smalley

(ed.), Trends III Medieval Political Thought (Oxford: Blackwell, 1965), p. 33.
 INCIPIT OPERIS PRAEFA TIO
SUBSEQUENTIS
Omne ministerium trifido quod praeminet orbe,
Arte gubemandum. Sunt artis plurima dona:
Omnicreans Dominus terras, mare, sidera, coelos
Arte creat, totum pulchrum regit arteque mundum.
Artibus egregiis sapientia Celsitonantisa
Praeposuit hominem cunctis animalibus orbis.
Ars currum regitat, naves ars rite gubernat,
Atque triumphalis res artem bellica spectat.
lndiget artis opisb sic ut res publica felix
Esse queat, rectore bono populoque beato.
Ob hoe coelestum transcurrens prata librorum
Florida congessi vobis, rex, inclytac serta,
Quae capitis vestrae mentis diadema perornent,
Sceptraque glorificent Christi dominantia nutu,
Atque salutiferas divini dogmatis herbas
Pollice decerpsi nardo redolente calathis.
Sumite de liquidis Israel fontibus undas
Quae satient bibulum praedulci rore palatum;
Gloria nam regum, nitidis et stemmata sceptris
HERE BEGINS THE PREFACE OF
THE FOLLOWING WORK
Every ministry that excels in the threefold world 1
Must be governed by art. Many are the gifts of art:
The All-Creating Lord created the lands, seas, stars, heavens
By art, and by art He rules the whole beauteous world.
By excellent arts the wisdom of the Heavenly Thunderer
Has set man over all the creatures of the world.
Art directs the war-chariot and guides the ships rightly,
And the achievement of triumph in war requires art.
So too the commonwealth needs the power of art, that it may
Be happy, with a good ruler and a blessed people.
To this end, passing across the flowery meadows
Of heavenly books, I have plucked for you, 0 King,
Splendid wreaths to adorn the crown of your mind's head
And glorify the sceptres ruling by Christ's command,
And with a thumb fragrant with nard I have gathered
Baskets of the wholesome herbs of divine doctrine.
Drink of the streams of Israel's limpid fountains
That satisfy the thirsty taste with sweetest dew;
For these are the glory of kings and garlands for bright sceptres:

1 Sedulius uses this expression three times in De rectorib11s Christiams. Pos-

s ibly he means air, earth and water; alternatively (more probably, per-
haps), he means the three parts of the earth: Europe, Africa and Asia. Cf.
Ekkehard of St Gall (d. 973), Waltharius, ed. G. Vogt-Spira (Stuttgart:
Reclam, 1994), 1:1-3:
Tertia pars orbis, fratres, Europa vocatur,
Moribus ac linguis varias et nomine genies
a Celsitonantis} celsa Tonantis M Distinguens, cultu, tum religione sequestrans.
b opis] apes M Cf. Doyle, Sed11/ius Scottus, p. 95, n. 1, who mentions also Abbot Theod-
c inclyta] indite H ofrid of Corbie in this connection.
46 De rectoribus Christianis
Dogma ta sunt Domini, nee non exempla priorum,
Gestaque nobilium procerum famosa per orbem.
Artibus his vigeat vestri res publica victrix,
Atque gubemetur multis feliciter annis,
Donec sideream vos ascendatis in aulam,
Juste regnantum qua perpes gloria pollet.
EXPLICIT PRAEFATIO.
Tecum principium, finis, rex Christeque, tecum.
Alpha operis famuli sis, Deus, wquea tui.
INCIPIUNT CAPITULA
EJUSDEM LIBRI
I. De eo quod pium rectorem, accepta potestate regali,
primum dignos Deo et sanctis ecclesiis honores dicare
oportet.
II. Qualiter rex orthodoxus primumb semetipsum regere
debet.
III. Qua arte et industria momentaneum regnum stabiliri
potest.
IV. De regia potestate non tarn opibus et fiducia fortitudinis
quam sapientia cultuque pietatis perornanda.
V. Quanta sacri moderaminis sollicitudo erga uxorem et
liberos propriosque domesticos ab eodem est exhibenda.
VI. Quales consiliarios et amicos bonum principem habere
decet.
a <tJque] uque M
b primum] 0111. M
On Christian Rulers 47
The doctrines of the Lord, the examples of the elders
And the deeds, famed through all the world, of noble chieftains.
Through these arts may your commonwealth flourish and conquer
And for many years be governed happily,
Until you ascend to the starry palace
Where the everlasting glory of just rulers prevails.
HERE ENDS THE PREFACE
The beginning is with Thee, and the end with Thee, 0 Christ
the King. Be Thou, 0 God, the Alpha and Omega
of Thy servant's work.
HERE BEGIN THE CHAPTERS OF
THE SAME BOOK
1. Why it is fitting for the godly ruler, when he has received
royal power, first of all to dedicate worthy honours to
God and His holy churches.
2. How an orthodox king should first rule himself.
3. By what art and industry a momentary kingdom can be
made stable.
4. That royal power ought to be adorned not so much by
riches and the confidence of strength as by wisdom and
the worship of godliness.
5. The great care for godly direction that ought to be exhib-
ited by a ruler towards his wife and his children and the
members of his own household.
6. What kind of counsellors and friends it is proper for the
good prince to have.
48 De rectoribus Christianis On Christian Rulers 49
VII. Quae res malos principes faciat. 7. What may make princes wicked.

VIII. De avaris eta impiis regibus, et quanta per eosdem 8. Concerning avaricious and ungodly kings, and the great
populum mala vel ipsos ultio divina consequitur. evils with which, because of them, the divine vengeance
pursues both the people and themselves.
IX. De rege pacifico atque clementi; vel quibus danda sunt
beneficia. 9. Concerning the peaceful and clement king; or those to
whom benefits should be given.
X. Quot columnis regnum justi regis sustentatur.
10. The many pillars by which the just king's kingdom is
XI. De eo quod bonus princeps ecclesiasticis causis benivola supported.
intentaque sollicitudine favere debeat; et synodalibus
conventibus. 11. Why the good prince should support ecclesiastical
causes with benevolent and earnest care; and concerning
XII. De eo quod saluberrimis antistitum admonitionibus et synodal assemblies.
correptionibus pio rectori obtemperare sit gloriosum.
12. Why it is glorious for a godly ruler to comply with the
XIII. De zelo boni rectoris rationabili ac pietate permixto. most wholesome admonitions and corrections of the
XIV. De duce Christiano, utb non in sua et suorum fortitu- bishops.
dine, sed in Domino confidat. 13. Concerning the zeal of the good ruler, combining reason
XV. De eo quod imminentibus hostilium bellorum fragori- and piety.
bus divinum sit implorandum auxilium. 14. Concerning the Christian commander, that he should
XVI. De adversis, si forte contigerint. trust neither in his own strength nor in that of his peo-
ple, but in the Lord.
XVII. De non superbiendo post oblatam etiam ab hostibus
pacem, seu prostratos hostes. 15. Why divine aid should be sought against the threatening
noises of hostile wars.
XVIII. Gratiarum actionesc ac benivola vota post pacem seu
victoriam Deo reddenda. 16. Concerning adversities, if perhaps they should come to
pass.
17. Concerning the avoidance of pride after peace has been
offered even by enemies, or when enemies have been
laid low.
a et] vel M
18. That, after peace or victory, acts of thanksgiving and
b ut] 0111. H
c actiones) om. M well-intentioned prayers should be returned to God.
 50 De rectoribus Christianis
XIX. De privilegiis sanctae matris Ecclesiae a pio rectore
conservandis, ac dignis ecclesiarum praepositis atque
ministris.
XX. Quanta ignominia superbos, qualisque vel quanta glo-
ria hie et in futuro principes orthodoxos comitatur.
INCIPIT UBER SEDULII DE RECTORIBUS CHRISTIANIS
ET CONVENIENTIBUS REGULIS
QUIBUS EST RES PUBLICA
RITE GUBERNANDA.
I
(De eo quod pium rectorem, accepta potestate re:zali, primum di:znos
Deo et sanctis ecclesiis honores dicare oportet.]
Postquam regale sceptrum regnique gubernacula rector
Christianus susceperit, primum quidem gratiarum actiones
atque condignos Omnipotenti sanctaeque Ecclesiae honores
oportet ut rependat. Res etenim publica tune suo initio pul-
cherrime consecratur cum regia sollicitudo et sacra devotio
sancto Superni Regis timore simul et amore accenditur, cum-
que de gloriosa Ecclesiae utilitate provido consilio procura-
tur, ut quern regalis purpura caeteraque regni insignia
exterius condecorant eumdem laudabilia vota erga Deum et
Sanctam Ecclesiam interius perornent; quia nimirum ad tem-
poralis regni fastigium tune insigniter ascenditur cuma om-
nipotentis regis gloria etb honor pio studio pertractatur.
a cum] de add. H
b et] vel M
On Christian Rulers 51
19. Concerning the privileges of Holy Mother Church that
are to be preserved by a godly ruler; and worthy stew-
ards and ministers of the Church.
20. How great is the disgrace that accompanies the proud,
and of what kind or how great is the glory of orthodox
princes here and in the world to come.
HERE BEGINS THE BOOK OF SEDULIUS ON CHRISTIAN
RULERS AND SUITABLE RULES BY WHICH
THE COMMONWEALTH OUGHT PROPERLY
TO BE GOVERNED
1
Why it is fittin:z for the :zodly ruler, when he has received royal
power, first of all to dedicate worthy honours to God
and His holy churches.
After the Christian ruler has received the royal sceptre and the
insignia of the government of the kingdom, it is fitting that he
should first of all perform acts of thanksgiving and make wor-
thy offerings in recompense to the Almighty and to Holy
Church. For the commonwealth is most handsomely conse-
crated at its beginning when royal solicitude and sacred devo-
tion are kindled with holy fear together with love of the
Supernal King, and when prudent counsel is taken for the glo-
rious advantage of the Church, so that he who is embellished
outwardly by the royal purple and other insignia of the king-
dom will be adorned inwardly by laudable vows before God
and Holy Church; for without doubt he is conspicuously
raised up to the highest point of a temporal kingdom when he
is drawn by pious endeavour to the glory and honour of the
Almighty King.
52 De rectoribus Christianis
Pius itaque princeps Summi Donatoris• omnium voluntati
et sanctis praeceptis obedire magnopere studeat, cujus su-
perna voluntate atque ordinatione se ad culmen regiminis as-
cendisse non dubitat, testante Apostolo, qui ait: Non estb
potestas nisi a Deo; quae autem sunt, a Deo ordinatac sunt. Quan-
tum ergoJ se bonus rector a Deo ordinatum esse cognoscit,
tantum pia sollicitudine invigilat, quatenus omnia coram Deo
et hominibus secundurn trutinam rectitudinis ordinabiliter
disponat atque perpenset. Quid enim sunt Christiani populi
rectores nisi ministri Omnipotentis?
Porro, idoneus et fidelis quisque est minister si sincera de-
votione fecerit quae ei jusserit suus dominus atque magister.
Hine piissimi et gloriosi principes plus se ministros ac servos
Excelsi quarn dominos aut reges hominum nuncupari et esse
exsultant. Unde beatus David, rex et propheta eximius, saepe
servum Domini se norninat; nee non et inclytus Salomon
ejusdem filius, Omnipotentem deprecans inter caetera sic ait:
Respice ad orationem servi tui, et ad preces ejus, Domine Deus
meus; audi hymnum et orationem quam servus tuus orat coram te
hodie, ut sint oculi tui aperti super domum hanc nocte ac~ die, r su-
per domum de qua dixisti: Erit nomen meum ibi. Unde et celeber-
rimae memoriae magnus Constantinus irnperator, credito
atque perfecto salutaris crucis et catholicae fidei mysterio,
cum laetanti ejus imperio etiam religio valde florebat, non
sibimet arrogans, gratias Ornnipotenti Deo referebat quia
a Donatoris] dominatoris H
b est) enim add. Vulg.
c ordi11ata] ordinatae Vulg.
d ergo)o111. M
e ac) et Vulg.
f super dom11111 lta11c 11octe ac die] 0111. M
On Christian Rulers 53
Let the godly prince thus strive with all his might to obey
the will and holy precepts of the Supreme Giver of all things,2
by Whose supernal will and ordination he does not doubt
himself to have ascended to the summit of rule, as the Apostle
attests, who says: 'There is no power but from God: and those
that are, are ordained of God.' 3 To such degree as the good
ruler understands himself to be ordained of God, therefore, in
the same degree is he vigilant with godly solicitude, inasmuch
as he disposes and weighs all things before God and men in an
orderly fashion, according to the balance of righteousness. For
what are the rulers of the Christian people if not ministers of
the Almighty?
Again, someone is a suitable and faithful minister if he
will do with sincere devotion whatever his lord and master
has required of him. For this reason the most godly and glo-
rious princes rejoice more to be called, and to be, ministers
and servants of the Most High than lords or kings of men.
Hence the blessed David, an outstanding king and prophet,
often called himself the servant of the Lord; and the re-
nowned Solomon also, his son, entreating the Almighty, said
this among other things: ' But have regard to the prayer of
Thy servant, and to his supplications, 0 Lord my God. Hear
the hymn and the prayer which Thy servant prayeth before
Thee this day, that Thy eyes may be open upon this house
night and day: upon the house of which Thou hast said, My
name shall be there.' 4 Hence also the great emperor Constan-
tine, of most honoured memory, when he had believed and
completed [in himself] the mystery of the saving Cross and
the Catholic faith, not attributing it to himself when by his
joyous rule religion indeed greatly flourished, returned
thanks to Almighty God because He deigned to have him as a
2 Cf. James. 1:17.
3 Rom. 13:1.
4 1 Kings 8:28-29.
54 De rectoribus Christianis
ministrum opportunum eum habere dignatus fuerat Deus sui
consilii. Ecce, imperator eminentissimus plus gratulabatur se
Dei fuisse ministrum quam terrenum habuisse imperium!
Hine ipse, quia minister supernae voluntatis fuerat, a Bri-
tannico mari usque ad loca Orientis regnum dilatavit pacifi-
cum; et quoniam Omnipotenti semetipsum subdiderat, cuncta
hostilia bella quae sub eodem sunt gesta potentialiter atque
fideliter superavit. Construebat et amplis opibus Christi dota-
bat• ecclesias. Hine ei superna gratia triumphales concessit
habere victorias; quia procul dubio sacri rectores quanto plus
se Regi regum humiliter subjiciunt, tanto magis ad gloriosae
dignitatis eminentiam sublimiter ascendunt.
Quis autem non miretur quantos honores Domino prae-
fatus Salomon rependerit postquam regni sceptrum Deo auc-
tore suscepit?b - quam sapientissima devotione templum
Domini construxerit atque mirifice ornaverit, quantas denique
pacificas hostias Deo obtulerit? Hine fructum suae devotionis
atque orationis percepit, sicut apparens ei Dominus locutus est
dicens: Audivi c orationem tuam et deprecationemt1 quamc depreca-
tus es coram me; sanctificavi domum hanc quam aedificasti, ut pon-
erem nomen meum ibi in sempiternum; et erunt oculi mei et cor meum
ibi cunctis diebus. Tu quoque, si ambulaveris coram me, sicut ambu-
lavit pater tuus in simplicitate cordis et in aequitate, et feceris omnia
quae praecepi tibi, et legitima mea et judicia mea servaveris, ponam
thronum regni tui super Israel in sempiternum, sicut locutus sum
David patri tuo dicens: Non auferetur de genere tuo vir de solio Is-
rael. Itaque, si ille rex Salomon pro sacra devotione proque
a dotabat) ditabat H
b suscepit) susceperit H
c A11divi] exaudivi Vulg.
d deprecntionem) tuam add. Vulg.
e quam] qua Vulg.
On Christian Rulers 55
serviceable minister of His plan. 5 Behold, the most eminent
emperor congratulated himself more because he was a minis-
ter of God than because he had an earthly empire!
Thus, because he was a minister of the supernal will, he
stretched forth a peaceful kingdom from the sea of Britain to
the places of the East; and, because he submitted himself to the
Almighty, he prevailed by power and faith in all the hostile
wars that were waged under him. He built churches of Christ
and endowed them with ample riches. Hence supernal grace
allowed him to have triumphant victories; for, without doubt,
the more humbly holy rulers subject themselves to the King of
kings, the more sublimely do they ascend to the eminence of a
glorious dignity.
And who may not marvel at how many honours the afore-
said Solomon gave in recompense to the Lord after he had re-
ceived the sceptre of kingship with God's authority? - at the
most wise devotion with which he built the temple of the Lord
and marvellously adorned it, and then at how many peace of-
ferings he offered to God?6 For this reason, he received the
fruit of his devotion and prayer when the Lord, appearing to
him, said: 'I have heard thy prayer and thy supplication,
which thou hast made before me. I have sanctified this house,
which thou hast built, to put my name there for ever; and my
eyes, and my heart, shall be there always. And if thou wilt
walk before me, as thy father walked, in simplicity of heart,
and in uprightness, and wilt do all that I have commanded
thee, and wilt keep my ordinances, and my judgments, I will
establish the throne of thy kingdom over Israel for ever, as I
promised David, thy father, saying: There shall not fail a man
of thy race upon the throne of Israel.' 7 Thus, if King Solomon
deserved to have such great glory as a reward for his holy
5 Cf. Cassiodorus, Historia ecclesiastica tripartita 1:9 (PL 69:891-892).
6 1 Kings 5-8.
7 1 Kings 9:3-5.
56 De rectoribus Christianis
construenda domo terrestri Oomini tantam remunerationis
gloriam habere promeruit, quam inaestimabilem habebit glo-
riae palmam si quis Deo amabilis rector sanctam perornaverit
Ecclesiam, quae est Dei vivi spirituale tabernaculum?
Sed haec quae breviter stylo prosali diximus, aliqua ver-
suum dukedine concludamus.
Quisquis florigeri sceptrum fert nobile regni,
Primum Celsithrono vota precesque ferat,
In cujus sacro sunt omnia numine sceptra
Et pax nobilium, vita salusque durum.
Nam regale decus radians diademaque regni
Est timor Altithroni sanctus, amorque Dei.
Lilia florigerum comunt ceu lactea campum,
[Et)• rosa punicei schematis ore rubet,
Sic justus rector virtutum flore virescit,
Germinatb ut fructus mentis in arce sacros.
Pulchra Salomonem decoravit purpura regem,
Nee non Davidis fulgida sceptra patris,
Sed magis interius prudens devotio cordis
Ornavit juvenem glorificando Deum.
lnstar luciferi niteat res publica vestri,
Exortuque novo splendida vota gerat.
II
[Qualiter rex orthodoxus primum semetipsum regere debet.]
Qui apicem regiae dignitatis, Domino praestante, ascenderit,
oportet ut se ipsum primum regat, quern divina dispositio
alios regere ordinavit; rex enim a regendo vocatur. Tune au-
tern hoe nomine se veraciter appellari intelligat, qui semet
a Et] Ut HM
b Germinat) Germinet M
On Christian Rulers 57
devotion and for building the Lord's earthly house, how ines-
timable a palm of glory will a ruler have if, worthy to be loved
of God, he adorns Holy Church, which is the spiritual taberna-
cle of the living God?
But let us now conclude with the sweetness of verse what
we have said briefly in the medium of prose.
Whoever bears the sceptre of a flowering kingdom
Let him first bear vows and prayers to the High-throned
In Whose holy divinity are all sceptres
And the peace, life and health of noble chieftains.
For royal adornment and the kingdom's radiant crown
Are holy fear of the Throne on high, and love of God.
As the milk-white lilies adorn the flowery field
And the rose blushes in its scarlet face,
So is the just ruler verdant with the flowers of virtue
When he brings forth holy fruits in the citadel of the mind.
Beauteous purple adorned King Solomon,
And also the gleaming sceptre of David his father;
But prudent devotion of heart inwardly adorned
The young man more, in glorifying God. 8
Let your commonwealth shine like an image of the morning star,
And, rising anew, let it bear splendid vows.
2
How an orthodox king should first rule himself
It is fitting that he who, with the Lord's help, has ascended to
the highest point of royal dignity should first rule himself,
who by divine disposition has been ordained to rule others;
for a 'king' is so called from 'ruling.' 9 He may know that he is
truly called by that name who does not fail to govern his own
8 Cf. 1 Kings 10:23--24.
9 Isidore, Ety1110I. 9:3:1 (PL 82:341).
58 De rectoribus Christianis
rationabiliter gubernare non ignorat. Rex itaque orthodoxus
summopere studeat ut qui subditis bene• concupiscit im-
perare, aliorumque errata disponit corrigere, ipse mala non
admittat quae stricte in aliisb corrigit, et bona quae imperat,
ante omnes implere contendat.
Sex autem modis bonus rector sese laudabiliter regit: primo
quidem dum illicitas cogitationes animi severitate reprimit;
secundo dum salubria consilia tarn ad suam quam ad populi
utilitatem pertinentia pertractat; tertio cum otiosa et inutilia seu
noxia inanium verborum folia [proflare]c devitet; quarto cum
gloriosorum principum prudentiam simul et verba, nee non di-
vinae Scripturae eloquia, super me) et favum mentis faucibus
sapificet; quinto dumd pemiciosae actionis omne dedecus per-
petrare expavescat; sexto vero cum si qua sunt laudabilia, si qua
sunt gloriosae dispositionis, opera magnifica insigniter osten-
dat, ut qui interius coram Domino devota fulgescit voluntate,
exterius coram populo sermone clarescat et opere.
Quern decet trinam observare regulam, terrorem scilicet et
ordinationem atque amorem. Nisi enim ametur pariter et me-
tuatur, ordinatio illius constare minime poterit. Ergo per bene-
ficia et affabilitatemc procuret ut diligatur, et per justas
vindictas non propriae injuriaer sed legi Dei studeat ut metua-
tur. Hunc ergo oportet esse humilem in suis oculis,g sicut
scriptum est: Rectorem te posuerunt? Noli extolli, sed" esto in illis
quasi unus ex ipsis. Nee solum juste hominibus, sed sui corporis
et animae passionibus dominari, quatenus rector jure queat
nuncupari, sicut quidam sapiens ait: Rex erit, qui recte faciet;
a bene) bona H
b in aliis) malus M
c proflare] profluere HM
d dum] cum M
e beneficia et affabilitatem) affabilitatem et beneficia H
f injuriae) victoriae M
g oportet esse humilem in suis oculis) esse oportet in suis oculis humilem
h sed) 0111. Vulg.
On Christian Rulers 59
self by reason. Let an orthodox king therefore strive with all
his might, so that he who desires to rule subjects well and who
resolves to correct the errors of others may not himself admit
the evils that he sternly corrects in others, and may exert him-
self to fulfil before all people the good things that he com-
mands.
There are six ways in which a good ruler rules himself so as
to deserve praise: first, when he checks with severity the illicit
inclinations of the soul; second, when he carefully considers
wholesome counsels, whether pertaining to his own benefit or
to that of the people; third, when he avoids breathing forth the
vain and useless or harmful trifles of empty words; fourth,
when, above honey and the honeycomb, he tastes with the
jaws of the mind both the prudence and the words of glorious
princes, and also the eloquence of the divine scriptures; fifth,
when he fears to incur the shame of any disgraceful action;
sixth, when, in matters praiseworthy and in things of glorious
character, he conspicuously exhibits magnificent works, so
that he who is resplendent inwardly before the Lord with a
devout will may also shine outwardly before the people in
word and deed.
It behoves him to observe a threefold rule, namely terror
and order and love. For unless he is loved and feared
equally, his ordinance will not in the least be able to endure.
Let him therefore through benefits and kindness ensure that
he may be loved, and let him strive to be feared by justly
avenging injuries not to himself, but to the law of God. It is
fitting for him to be humble in countenance, as it is written:
'Have they made thee ruler? Be not lifted up: be among them
as one of them.' 10 Nor, insofar as he may rightly be called a
ruler, must he justly hold sway over men only, but over the
passions of his own body and soul also, as a certain wise man
says: 'He will be a king who acts rightly; he who does not,
10 Ecclus. 32:1.
60 De rectoribus Christianis
qui non faciet, non erit. Sit ergo consilio prudentissimus; in
sermone, nunc ut poscit ratio,• terribilis, saepius vero gratia
dulcedinis affabilis; victor libidinis; victorb superbiae atque
vesanae ferocitatis; amicus bonorum;c inimicus tyrannorum;
hostis criminurn; hostis vitiorum; in bello cautissimus; in
pace constantissimus; fidelibus promissionibus probatis-
simus; divina humanis praeponens; subjectos deterrens a
malo; invitans ad bona; remunerans copia; indulgentia liber-
ans; ex malis bonos, ex bonis faciens optimos. Sit sanctus et
utilis rei publicae: dementia commendabilis; ini.t bonitate
conspicuus; pietate, fortitudine, castitate, justitia praeclarus;
vir optimus et apice principali dignissimus, Dei timorem
semper prae oculis habens, et secundum Omnipotentis de-
creta justa perpensans judicia, qui dat salutem regibus et
omnia quaecumque vult facit in coelo et in terra et in omni
creatura, quia ipse est Dominus omnium, cui omne Ker.u flecti-
tur coelestium,c terrestrium et infernorum, in cujus manu omnis
potestas in coelo et in terra, qui est Rex regum, et spes gloriae
juste et pie dominantium.
Qui regit affectus animi, rex jure vocatur,
Et fluxas camis qui domat illecebras.
Quamvis qui fulvum superat virtute leonem
a poscit ratio] possit M
b victor) om. M
c bonorum] et add. H
d in] omni H
e coelesti11m] et add. Vulg
On Christian Rulers 61
will not be.' 11 Let him therefore be most prudent in counsel:
now terrible in speech, as reason demands, but more often ap-
proachable by the grace of sweetness; a victor over lust; a vic-
tor over pride and the ferocity of rage; a friend of the good; an
enemy of tyrants; a foe of criminals; a foe of vices; most cau-
tious in war; most constant in peace; most trustworthy in faith-
ful promises; placing the divine before the human; deterring
subjects from evil; inviting them to good; rewarding with
abundance; liberating with indulgence; making good men
from bad ones, and the best men from good ones. Let him be
holy and useful to the commonwealth: commendable in clem-
ency; conspicuous in goodness; distinguished in godliness,
fortitude, chastity and justice; the best of men, and most wor-
thy of the summit of princely power, having the fear of God
always before his eyes and weighing his judgments according
to the just decrees of the Almighty, Who gives salvation to
kings and brings about whatever He wills in heaven and on
earth and in every creature, because He is Lord of all, to
Whom 'every knee shall bow, of those that are in heaven, on
earth and under the earth,' 12 in Whose hand is every power in
heaven and on earth, 13 Who is the King of kings and the hope
of glory of those who rule justly and piously.
He who rules the passions of his soul and masters
The passing excitements of the flesh is justly called a king.
Even though in strength he surpasses the tawny lion,
11 The quotation comes from the second- or third-century scholiast Pom-
ponius Porphyrius: see Po111po11ii Porphyrionis Commentarii in Q. Horatium
F/accum, Ep. 1:1:62, ed. W. Meyer (Leipzig: Teubner, 1874). Isidore of
Seville reproduces it without attribution at Etymol. 9:3:4 (PL 82:342):
'Unde et apud veteres tale erat proverbium: "Rex eris, si recte facias; si
non facias, non eris." ' It seems likely that Isidore rather than Pomponius
Porphyrius is Sedulius's 'certain wise man.' See also J. Balogh, ' Rex a
Recte Regendo,' Speculirm 3:4 (1928), pp. 580-582.
12 Phil. 2:10.
13 Cf. Matt. 28:18.
62 De rectoribus Christianis
Rex teneat clarum laudis honore locum;
Sed plus est laudum fastus• calcare superbos,
lram ceu rabidam mitificare feram.
Magnus et ille cluit saevos qui triverit hostes,
Lauriger ac victor clara tropaea refert.
Gloria sed major comptum coelestibus armis
Hostes aereos vincere posse ducem.
Est magis imperium mentem frenare per artem
Quam si quis habeat triplicis orbis opes;
Nam templum Domini justi mens [regis]b fulget,
Fit thronus Excelsi Judicis ipsa Dei.
Comitur illa domus flavo speciosior auro,
Justitiae solem gaudet habere suum.
III
[Qua arte et industria momentaneum regnum stabiliri potest.}
Regnum hujus saeculi momentaneum volubilis rotae vertigini
sapientes esse consimile judicaverunt. Nam sicut, omnis rotae
vertigo, quae superiora habet modo dejicit et quae dejecta sunt
modo superius extollit, ita subito erectiones, subito elisiones
terrestris gloria regni sustinet. Unde nee veros, sed imaginarios
et citius fugitivos honores habet. Illud enim verum regnum est
quod in sempiternum perdurat; hoe autem quodc transitorium
est et caducum non veritatem sed quamdam mediocriter simili-
tudinem veri et permanentis semper regni ostendit. Sicut enim
arcus coeli varios pingens ornatus arcuato curvamine celeriter
refugit, ita nimirum saecularis gloriae dignitas, quamvis ad
praesens ornata, tamen est citius fugitiva.
a fastus) fastos M
b regis) regia HM
c quod) quia H
On Christian Rulers 63
Let the king hold a bright place in the dignity of merit;
But there is more merit in crushing the vanity of pride
And subduing anger as if it were a ravening beast.
He is esteemed great who has trodden down savage enemies,
The laurel-bearer and victor who brings back trophies bright.
But greater is the prince's glory who, adorned with celestial arms,
Can vanquish the enemies who dwell in air.
The empire of one who curbs the mind through art is greater
Than if he were to have the wealth of the threefold 14 world;
For the just king's mind reflects the temple of the Lord;
It is made the throne of Cod, the Heavenly Judge.
It is an ornament to that house more splendid than yellow gold,
And it rejoices to have its sun of justice. 15
3
By what art and industry a momentary kingdom can be made stable.
The wise have considered the momentary kingdom of this
world to be like the rotation of a turning wheel. 16 For just as,
with every turn of the wheel, what is at one point high is
brought low and what is at one point low is raised up, so the
glory of an earthly kingdom sustains sudden rises and sudden
falls. Hence it has no true honours, but imaginary and rapidly
fleeing ones. For the true kingdom is that which endures eter-
nally; but that which is transitory and perishable reveals not
the truth, but only as it were a slight semblance of the true
kingdom that remains for ever. 17 For just as the rainbow that
paints different ornaments with its arching curve quickly
fades, so without doubt the dignity of worldly glory, however
much adorned for the present, will nonetheless soon flee.
14 See p. 45, n.
15 Cf. Mai. 4:2.
16 Probably Sedulius has in mind Boethius, Consolatio philosophiae 2:2 (ed.
H.F. Stewart et al.; Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1973).
17 Cf. Augustine, De civ. Dei 2:21 (CCSL 47:55).
64 De rectoribus Christianis
Qua itaque arte, et quali industria, quantaque sollicitudine
haec instabilitas ad aliquam stabilitatis effigiem refrenatur?
Forte vero aut armorum violenta fortitudine, aut pacifica tran-
quillitatis concordia terrestre regnum stabilitatur? Sed rursus
in ipsis armis bellorumque fragoribus grandis instabilitas in-
esse cernitur. Quid enim incertius est magisque instabile belli-
cis eventibus, ubi nullus est certus laboriosi certaminis exitus,
nulla certa victoria, et saepe ab inferioribus sublimiores super-
antur; nonnunquam vero in alterutros vergentia mala eveniunt
coaequalia, et qui se praesumebant habituros esse victoriam,
utrique in fine non habent nisi calamitosam miseriam? Quanta
quoque mala sub ficto nomine pads proveniunt, quis explicare
potest, cum etiam ilia pax quae stabilis ac firma inter bonos
esse credebatur, interdum per prava malorum consilia in ex-
itiosas discordiarum tempestates transfertur? Uncle in armisa
instabilitas, in pace transitoriumb videtur.
Quid ergo aliud restat, nisi ut cor regis et tota spei fiducia
non in armorum hominumque fortitudine, neque in pads tran-
sitoriae fallacia, sed in Omnipotentis dementia figatur, qui
regnum quodc donavit sive in adversis sive in prosperis sta-
bilire novit? Cor itaque principis et fidelis in ministerii regimine
devotio ipsum non deserat a quo tantum beneficium et glori-
osum ministerium donatum fuit, ne forte ille Summus Rector
indignatus ab eo abstrahat beneficium quod dederat, si infi-
delem esse senserit quern tamquam fidelem ministrum ordi-
navit. Nam si rex terrenus a quolibet sibi homine infideli datam
auferre valet potestatem, aliique tribuit quern fideliorem
comperit esse,d quanto magis supernus universorum Donator,c
quern nullius perfidiae nubila fallere possunt, potens est a
a in armis] inormis H
b transitorium] transitoria H
c quod] nonM
d comperit esse] esse comperit H
e Donator] dominator H
On Christian Rulers 65
By what art, then, and what industry, and with how much
solicitude is this instability restrained by some form of stabil-
ity? Perhaps an earthly kingdom can be made stable by the
strength of arms or by the tranquil concord of peace? But,
then again, great instability is seen to be present in the arms
and clashes of war. For what is more uncertain and more un-
stable than the events of warfare, where there is no certain
outcome to the arduous struggle, no certain victory, and
where more exalted men are often overcome by inferior ones;
and where, indeed, the same turns of fortune sometimes be-
fall both sides, who both anticipate that they will have the
victory but in the end have nothing but ruinous misery? And
who can relate how many evils emerge under the false name
of peace, when even that peace that is believed among good
men to be steadfast and firm is sometimes transformed by the
vicious counsels of the wicked into the deadly tempests of
discord? Hence it seems that in arms there is instability and
in peace impermanence.
What else remains, therefore, except that the heart and en-
tire hope of the king should be fixed not in the strength of
arms and men, nor in the falsehood of a transitory peace, but
in the mercy of the Almighty, Who knows how to make firm
the kingdom that He has given, whether in adversity or in
prosperity? Thus, in the performance of his ministry, the
prince's heart and faithful devotion should not forsake Him
by Whom so great a benefit and a glorious ministry has been
given, lest perhaps, if He should perceive him to be unfaith-
ful whom He has ordained as a faithful minister, the Su-
preme Ruler should in anger withdraw from him the benefit
that He gave. For if an earthly king can remove from any un-
faithful man the power that he has given him and transfer it
to another whom he finds to be more faithful, how much
more can the Supreme Giver of all things, Whom the clouds
of no man's perfidy can deceive, withdraw His benefits from
66 De rectoribus Christianis
reprobis sua abstrahere beneficia, aliisque praestare quos
idoneos suae voluntatis ministros noverit esse? Unde et im-
pius ille Saul, rex Israel, privatus fuit regno et vita quoniam
neque fidelis minister exstitit coram Domino. At vero David
virum electum secundum cor suum Omnipotens invenit,
quem ob hoe in apicem regiae potestatis sublimavit, quia illum
fidelem fore ministrum praesciendo elegit. a
Itaque prudens rector cor suum in Excelsi gratia stabilire
studeat, si transitorium regnum quod est ei commissum ali-
quam stabilitatis habere similitudinem desiderat. Et quoniam
justus et misericors est Dominus, cui cordis affectu debet
inhaerere, opera misericordiae multipliciter exhibeat, b ut
multam mercedis gloriam metat. Justitiam diligat simul atque
custodiat, injusta vero atque maligna opera in subjectis repu-
diet, ac laudabili zelo qui est secundum scientiam corrigat. Qui
dum sit in divinis praeceptis stabilis, illius regnum magis
magisque in hoe saeculo stabilitur, et ad aetema stabilitatis
gaudia superno juvamine perducitur.
Ceu rotae cyclus celeri recursu
Volvitur, summas reprimitque ad ima
Quas rotat partes rapidum per axem
Mobilitate:
Regna sic mundi trifidum per orbem
Gloriae celsum stabilire culmen
Nesciunt lapsum, sed habere norunt
Aurea sceptra.
a praesciendo elegit] elegit praesciendo M
b misericordiae multipliciter exhibeat] multipliciter exhibeat miseri-
cordiae M
On Christian Rulers 67
base men and bestow them upon others whom He knows to
be suitable ministers of His will? Hence the ungodly Saul, the
king of Israel, was deprived of his kingdom and his life be-
cause he did not appear as a faithful minister before the
Lord. 111 On the other hand, the Lord found in David a man
chosen after His own heart, 19 and for this reason lifted him
up to the highest point of royal power, because He chose him
foreknowing that he would be a faithful minister.
If, then, he wishes the transitory kingdom committed to
him to have some semblance of stability, let the prudent ruler
strive to make his heart steadfast in the grace of the Most
High. And because the Lord, to Whom he must cleave with a
loving heart, 20 is just and merciful, let him exhibit many
works of mercy, that he may reap a great and glorious re-
ward. Let him both love and preserve justice and reject un-
just and wicked works in those subject to him, and let him
correct them with the praiseworthy zeal that is according to
wisdom. 21 For as long as he is steadfast in the divine pre-
cepts, his kingdom will be ever more steadfast in this world,
and with supernal help he is guided to the eternal joys of
stead fastness.
Just as the circle of a wheel rolls, rapidly recurring,
And bears into the depths the highest things,
Which it whirls around on its axle,
Ever moving,
So, throughout the threefold world,22 the kingdoms of the earth
Know not how to stand firm at the summit of glory
As it slips away, though they have learnt how to hold
Golden sceptres.
18 1 Sam. 15; 31.
19 1 Sam. 13:14; Acts 13:22.
20 Cf. Josh 23:8.
21 Cf. Rom. 10:2.
22 See p. 45, n.
68 De rectoribus Christianis On Christian Rulers 69
Inclytae plebis fuit Israelis The flowering splendour of the kingdom
Floridum regni decus adlevatum Of the renowned people of Israel was exalted
Quando servabat• sacrosancta legis When it preserved the sacred
Mystica jura. Mystic duties of the Law.
Unde pollebat Domini triumphis Hence it was strong in the triumphs of the Lord
Atque crudeles superabat hostes And prevailed over bitter enemies
Oum suam plebem pietas Tonantis For as long as the Thunderer's kindness glorified
Glorificabat. His people.
Rursus, heu! quantis premitur ruinis On the other hand, alas! with w hat ruin
Abrahae sanctum speciale patris, Was Father Abraham's own holy race overwhelmed
Oum creatori sua prona tempsit When it scorned to bow the neck
Subdere colla! To the Creator!
Una sed tantae medicina gentis But the only medicine for such a nation
Jam fuit votis rogitare Celsum, Was to petition with prayers the Most High,
Qui potens noscit stabilire regna Who alone knows how to establish kingdoms
Perpete nutu. By eternal command.
Principes terrae Domino potenti 0 princes of the earth, joyfully bear
Ferte gaudentes thymiama voti, The incense of prayer to the mighty Lord
Quern tremunt coeli proceres superni,
Before Whom the supernal chieftains of heaven tremble:
Magnificate!
Magnify Him!

IV
4
[De reKia potestate non tarn opibus et fiducia fortitudinis quam sapi-
That royal power ought to be adorned not so much by riches
entia cultuque pietatis perornanda.]
and the confidence of strength as by wisdom and the
Omnis autem regia potestas quae ad utilitatem rei publicae worship of godliness.
divinitus est constituta non tarn caducis operibus ac terrestri
Every royal power that has been divinely appointed for the
fortitudine quam sapientia cultuque divino est exornanda.
advantage of the commonwealth ought to be embellished not
Quoniam procul dubio tune populus providi arte consilii gu-
so much with perishable riches and earthly might as with wis-
bernabitur, adversarii Domino propitiante profligabuntur,
dom and divine worship. For it is beyond doubt that if the
provinciae regnumque conservabuntur,b si regia sublimitas
sublimity of the king is adorned with religion and wisdom the
religione et sapientia perornetur. Namque hominis naturam
people will then be governed by the art of prudent counsel,
a servabat)servabantM adversaries will be overthrown by the Lord's favour, and the
b conservabuntur) conservabitur H provinces and the kingdom will be preserved. For God has
70 De rectoribus Christianis
Deus hanc esse voluit, ut duarum rerum ipse homo cupidus
et appetens esset: religionis et sapientiae. Est autem religiosa
sapientia saluberrimum decus: devotarum lumen animarum,
coeleste donum et gaudium sine fine mansurum. Qui ergo
vult gloriose regere ac sapienter populum gubernare et ve-
hemens in consiliis esse, a Domino postulet sapientiam, qui
dat omnibus affluenter, et non improperat, ipsamque sapientiam
studiosoa labore simul et amore perquirat, quatenus ei con-
gruat illud quod scriptum est: Beatus est qui invenit sapien-
tiam, et qui affluit prudentia, caeteraque quae in laudibus
sapientiae describuntur.
Ille itaque rector vere beatus est celebrandus qui splendore
illuminatur sapientiae, quae est fons consiliorum, fons sacrae
religionis, corona principum, origo virtutum, in cujus compara-
tione omnes pretiosarum claritates gemmarum vilescunt. Haec
cautissima est in consiliis, mirabilis in eloquiis, magnifica in op-
eribus, fortis in adversis, temperans in prosperis, oculosa in ju-
diciis. Haec suos amatores coelesti gratia venustat, et tamquam
sidereum firmamentum eosdem clarificat, sicut scriptum est:
Justi ful~ebunt quasi stellae, et intelli~entes quasi firmamentum.
Haec Salomonem prae cunctis terrae regibus sublimavit, quia
illam dilexitb ab adolescentia sua, et amator factus est decoris
ejus. Unde sicut in Regnorum libris legitur, ipsi apparuit
Dominus Salomoni per somnium nocte dicens: Postula quod
vis, ut dem tibi. A quo cum Salomon, cum esset puer, cor do-
cibile postularet, ut judicare posset populum Domini et dis-
cernere inter malum et bonum, tale responsum a Domino
a studiosoJ studiose M
b dilexit) amavit M
On Christian Rulers 71
willed this to be the nature of man, that a man should long for
and desire two things: religion and wisdom. And religious
wisdom is a most wholesome virtue: the light of devout souls,
a heavenly gift and a joy that will remain without end. Who-
ever, therefore, wishes to rule gloriously, to govern a people
wisely and to be vigorous in counsels, let him ask wisdom of
the Lord, 'Who giveth to all men abundantly and upbraideth
not'; 23 and let him strive after wisdom with studious labour
and love combined, so that what is written, 'Blessed is the man
that findeth wisdom and is rich in prudence,' 24 may be
adapted to him, along with the other things that are written in
praise of wisdom.
For that blessed ruler must be truly honoured who is illu-
minated by the splendour of wisdom, which is the source of
counsels, the source of holy religion, the crown of princes
and the beginning of the virtues, compared to which all the
brightness of precious gems is made worthless. It is most cir-
cumspect in counsels, marvellous in eloquence, magnificent
in works, strong in adversity, temperate in prosperity, far-
sighted in judgments; it beautifies its lovers with heavenly
grace and makes them shine like the constellations of the fir-
mament, as is written: 'The just shall shine like the stars, and
they that are learned like the firmament.' 25 It exalted Solo-
mon before all the kings of the earth, because he loved it
from his youth and became a lover of its splendour. Hence,
as is recorded in the Book of Kings, the Lord appeared to
Samuel in a dream by night, saying: 'Ask what thou wilt that
I should give thee.' 26 When Solomon, when he was a boy,
asked for an understanding heart, to judge the people of the
Lord and discern between good and evil, he received this
23 James 1:5.
24 Prov. 3:13.
25 A conflation of Wisd. 3:7 and Dan. 12:3.
26 1 Kings 3:5.
72 De rectoribus Christianis
recepit:a Quia postulasti verbum hoe, bet non petisti tibi dies multos
nee divitias aut animas inimicorum tuorum, sed postulasti tibi sapi-
entiam ad discernendum judicium, ecce feci tibi secundum sermones
tuos, et dedi tibi cor sapiens et intelli~ens in tantum, ut nullus ante
te similis tibi fuerit, nee post te surrecturus sit. Sed et haec quae non
postulasti dedi tibi, divitias scilicet et ~loriam, ut nemo fuerit similis
tibi in re~ibus cunctis retro diebus. Si autem ambulaveris in viis
meis, et custodieris praecepta mea, et mandata mea, sicut ambulavitc
pater tuus, lon~os faciam dies tuos.
0 quam ineffabile est divinae largimentum gratiae! Quae si
recto corde et pia intentione poscitur, plus donat quam quod
rogatur. Ecce rex Salomon non aurum, non argentum,d non
alias opes terrenas, sed sapientiae gazas poposcit a Domino.
At qui simplum recte postulaverat, duplum accepit; nam non
solum ditatus est sapientia, sed et sublimatus est inclytac regni
gloria. Uncle regibus terrae egregium datur exemplum, quate-
nus spiritualia dona plus quam carnalia pio desiderio ab Om-
nipotenti exposcant, si diu et feliciter in hoe saeculo regnare
desiderant.
Decet igitur amabilem Deo principem discendi habere vol-
untatem desideriumque coelestium. Sic enim vere et cor habet
in manu Dei, et regnum cum pace multis annorum curriculis,
favente Domino, gubernabit.
Qui cupit rector probus esse judex,
Lance qui justi trutinaque gaudet,
Inhians pulchri terebrare falsa
Cuspide veri,
a recepit) percepit H
b hoe] 0111. H Of beauteous truth:
c ambulavit] ambulaverit H David add. HM
d non aurum, non argentum] non argentum, non aurum M
e inclyta) indita M
On Christian Rulers 73
answer of the Lord: 'Because thou hast asked this thing, and
hast not asked for thyself long life or riches, nor the lives of
thy enemies, but hast asked for thyself wisdom to discern
judgment, behold I have done for thee according to thy
words, and have given thee a wise and understanding heart,
insomuch that there hath been no one like thee before thee,
nor shall arise after thee. Yea and the things also which thou
didst not ask, I have given thee: to wit riches and glory, as
that no one hath been like thee among the kings in all days
heretofore. And if thou wilt walk in my ways, and keep my
precepts, and my commandments, as thy father David
walked, I will lengthen thy days.' 27
0 how ineffable is the bounty of divine grace! For if it is
sought with a righteous heart and godly intent it gives more
than is asked. Behold, King Solomon asked of the Lord neither
gold nor silver nor any earthly riches, but the treasures of wis-
dom. What is more, he who righteously sought a single gift
received a twofold one, for not only was he enriched with
wisdom; he was also raised up to the illustrious glory of a
kingdom. In this way a famous example is given to the kings
of the earth, inasmuch as they should with godly intention
seek from the Almighty spiritual gifts more than fleshly ones if
they desire to reign long and happily in this world.
It is fitting, then, that a prince worthy to be loved of God
should have a will to learn and a desire of heavenly things.
Thus he truly has a heart that is in the hand of God, and will
with the Lord' s favour govern the kingdom with peace
through the course of many years.
The ruler who longs to be an honest judge,
Who rejoices in the scale and balance of justice,
Yearning to pierce falsehoods with the blade
27 1 Kings 3:11- 14.
74 De rectoribus Christianis
Luminum patrem rutili creantem
Solis ac lunae nitidique cosmi
Poscat, ut sensis niteat coruscis
Luce sophiae.
Vota cognoscat Salomonis aequi
Quae volaverunt subito per aethram,
Ac penetrarunt Domini sabaoth
Aurea tecta.
Ipse percepit docilemque sensum?
Mente lustratus, sapiensque factus.
Insuper regni columen gubernat
Gentis Hebraeae?
Quid valet flavi nitor omnis auri,
Ostra quid prosunt rosei decoris,
Gloriae quid sunt Scythicaeque gemmae,
Quid diadema,
Orba si mentis acies hebescat,
Lumen ut verum nequeat tueri,
Unde discemat bona, prava, justa
Fasque nefasque?
Ergo rectori decus est amare
Te, Patris Verbum sapiensque lumen,
Christe, qui sceptris dominaris orbem
Celsaque regna,
Cujus in dextra requies beata
Constat, in laeva locuplesque gaza:
Gloriae Princeps, humiles coronans,
Tollis opimos.
28 Cf. James 1:17.
29 Cf. Luke 1:53.
On Christian Rulers 75
Let him petition the Father of Lights, 28 the Creator
Of the golden sun and moon and the shining cosmos,
That he may shine with thoughts made brilliant
By the light of wisdom.
Let him understand the prayers of the just Solomon
That flew through the air swiftly
And entered into the golden house
Of the Lord of Hosts.
Did he not receive a ready understanding?
Purified in mind, made wise,
Did he not govern upon the summit of the kingdom
Of the Hebrew nation?
What avails all the brightness of yellow gold,
Of what use are the purple dyes of rose-coloured beauty,
What are glories and the gems of Scythia,
What is a crown,
If acuteness of mind, being neglected, grows dull,
That it may not see the true light
By which it should discern the good, the wicked, the just
The righteous and unrighteous?
Therefore the ruler's glory is to love Thee,
Word of the Father and Wise Light,
Christ, Whose sceptre holds sway over the world
And the heavenly kingdoms,
In Whose right hand a blessed peace abides
And on Whose left are abundant treasures:
The Prince of glory, Who crowns the meek,
And sends the rich away.29
76 De rectoribus Christianis
V 5
[Quanta sacri moderaminis sollicitudo er~a uxorem et liberos pro-
priosque domesticos ab eodem est exhibenda.]
Rex pius et sapiens tribus modis regendi ministerium gerit.
Nam primo se ipsum, quomodo in superioribus ostendimus;
secundo, uxorem propriam et liberos suosque domesticos; ter-
tio, populum sibi commissum rationali et glorioso mod-
eramine regere debet. Bonum itaque principem non solum
sibimet dominari oportet, dum a malis declinet et quae bona
sunt eligat et firmiter teneat, sed etiam alios sibi conjunctiores,
uxorem videlicet liberos atque domesticos, provida sollicitu-
dine ac familiari charitate gubernet. Hoe autem faciens du-
plicem thesaurizat sibi gloriae palmam, ut dum in se bonus et
sanctus sit, alios sibi conjunctos bonos faciat et sanctos, juxta
Psalmistam, qui ait: Cum sancto sanctus eris, et cum viro inno-
cente innocens cris, et reliqua.
Non enim sufficit propriam habere honestatem nisi pudicae
et castae conjugis nee non etiam filiorum et comitum ac minis-
trorum pudore decoretur, dicente David: Ambulans in via im-
maculata, hie mihi ministrabat. Nam sicut )ilium agri aliorum
olerum ac violarum multiplici pulchritudine venustatur, et sicut
luna stellarum splendore circumstantium gratius emicat, ita
nimirum rex justus ac sapiens aliorum societate bonorum
perornetur.
Is ergo perspicaciter procuret ut non solum nobilem pul-
chram ac divitem, sed et castam, prudentem quoque atque in
On Christian Rulers 77
The great care for godly direction that ought to be exhibited by the ruler
towards his wife and his children and the members
of his own household.
A godly and wise king performs the ministry of ruling in three
ways. For with rational and conspicuous discipline he must
first rule himself, as we have shown in the above remarks; sec-
ond, his wife, children and the members of his household;
third, the people entrusted to him. Thus is it fitting for a good
prince to have lordship not only over himself, inasmuch as he
turns aside from evil and chooses those things that are good
and holds firmly to them; but let him also govern with provi-
dent care and familial love the others more closely conjoined
with him, namely, his wife, his children and the members of
his household. When he does this, he lays up for himself a
twofold palm of glory, in that, for as long as he himself is good
and holy, he makes the others conjoined with him good and
holy, according to the psalmist, who says: 'With the holy, thou
wilt be holy; and with the innocent man thou wilt be inno-
cent,'30 and so on.
For it is not enough to have his own honesty unless it is
adorned by a modest and chaste wife, and by the honour of
his sons and attendants and ministers also, as David says: 'The
man that walked in the perfect way, he served me.' 31 For just
as the lily of the field is made lovely by the many beauties of
the other plants and spring flowers, and just as the moon
shines more graciously in the splendour of the stars that stand
around her, so undoubtedly is a just and wise king adorned by
the society of other good men.
With careful choice, therefore, let the ruler arrange to have
a wife who is not only noble, beautiful and wealthy, but chaste
30 Psalm 18:26.
31 Psalm 101:6.
78 De rectoribus Christianis
sanctis virtutibus morigeram habeat conjugem. Nam quantum
conjux jure est conjunctior, tantum aut felle malitiae [sit]
noxia,a aut morum dulcedine mellea. Etenim mulier inepta
domus est ruina, divitiarum defectio, iniquorum saturatio,
omnium malorum et vitiorum commoratio, quae diversis su-
perstitionibus vultumb exterius ornans, interiora animae suae
nescit decorare. Quern diligit hodie, odit in crastino; et, sicut
quidam ait: NaufraKium rerum est mulier male fida marito. Ita e
contrario casta et prudens mulier, utilibus rebus disciplinabili-
ter intendens humili facie hilarique sermone, pacifice liberos et
familiam regit, proque viri salute, si necesse fuerit, suam ani-
mam opponit morti, ac divitias quae sunt mariti sui cum bona
fama custodit. Qui est amicus ejus heri, idem amicus ejus
hodie. Fit ergo ipsa divitiarum [inductio]' et domus confirma-
tio, viri jucunditas, familiae pulchritudo, omniumque virtu-
tum connexio.
Talem autem decet non solum viro suo casta copula esse
connexam et subditam, sed pietatis et sanctae conversationis
semper ostendere formam, ac prudentium consiliorum esse
repertricem. Sicut enim persuasione malae conjugis damnosa
nascentur pericula, ita prudentis uxoris consilio multa
proveniunt utilia quae sunt Omnipotenti beneplacita. Uncle et
Apostolus ait: Quoniam vir infidelis salvabitur per mulierem fi-
delem. d
Nee solum infideles sed etiam sancti et orthodoxi princi-
pes mirabilem saepe in uxoribus perpendunt et auscultant
a sit noxia) fit noxia H noxia fit M
b vultum] multum se M
c inductio) deductio HM
d Q11011ia111 ... fidelem.] sanctificatus est enim vir infidelis in muliere fideli
Vulg.
On Christian Rulers 79
and prudent and compliant in the holy virtues also. For to
such degree as she is more closely conjoined with him by the
law, in the same degree she may be either noxious with the
bitterness of malice or pleasing with sweetness of character.
For a foolish woman is the ruin of a house, 32 the disappearance
of wealth, replete with iniquities and the habitation of all evils
and vices, who adorns her outward appearance with various
superstitions but knows not how to add honour to the inward
beauty of her soul. Whom she loves today, she hates tomor-
row, and, as someone says: 'A woman faithless to her husband
is the shipwreck of things';33 whereas, by contrast, a chaste
and prudent woman, diligently attending to useful things with
a humble appearance and cheerful speech, peacefully rules her
children and family and, if necessary, sets her life in opposi-
tion to death for the welfare of her man, and guards her hus-
band's treasures with good repute. Who was her friend
yesterday, the same is her friend today. Therefore she becomes
the bringer of wealth and the consolation of a household, the
cheerfulness of a man, the beauty of a family, and the meeting-
point of all the virtues.
It is proper for such a wife not only to be united and sub-
dued to her man with a chaste bond, but to display always the
appearance of godliness and holy conversation and to be the
author of prudent counsels. For just as ruinous perils are born
of the persuasion of a bad spouse, so many advantages that
are pleasing to the Almighty come forth from the counsel of a
prudent wife. Hence the Apostle says: 'For the unbelieving
husband will be saved by the believing wife.' 34
Not only unbelievers but also pious and orthodox princes
often weigh and listen to the marvellous prudence that is in
32 C f. Prov. 14:1.
33 Disticha Cato11is, in Poetae Jati11i mit1ores, ed. E. Baehrens (Stuttgart: Teub-
ner, 1879-86), 3:237.
34 1 Cor. 7:14.
 80 De rectoribus Christianis
prudentiam , non sexum fragilem consideran tes sed fructus
bonorum consiliorum carpentes. Unde et de gloriosi impera-
toris Theodosii venerabili conjuge nomine Placilla refertur
quod ipse princeps, dum in se bonus et justus et sapiens erat,
habebat et aliam utilitatis occasionem per quam de bonis op-
eribus triumphare t. Conjux enim ejus divinas leges eum sa-
epius admoneba t, se ipsam tamen perfecte prius erudiens.
Non enim regni fastigiis elevata est, sed potius divino amore
succensa. Beneficii namque magnitudo majus ei desiderium
[benefactionis]" adhibebat; repente namque venit ad purpu-
ram. Claudorum atque debilium maximam habebat curam,
non servis, non aliis ministris utens, sed per semetipsam
agens, et ad eorum habitacula veniens, et unicuique quod
opus haberet praebens. Sic etiam per ecclesiarum xenodochi a
discurrens, suis manibus ministraba t infirmis, ollas eorum
tergens, jus gustans, offerens cochlearia, panem frangens ci-
bosque ministrans , calicem deluens, et alia cuncta faciens
quae servis et ministris mos est solemniter operari. His autem
qui earn de rebus talibusb nitebantur prohibere dicebat: Au-
rum distribuere opus imperii est; e;{o autem pro ipso Imperio hoe
opus offero, bona mihi omnia conferenti. Nam viro suo saepe
dicebat: Oportet te semper, marite, COJ{itare quid dudum fuisti,
quid modo sis. Haec si semper coKitaveris, invatus Benefactori non
eris, sed imperium quod suscepisti, leKaliter Kubernabis, et harum
rerum placabis auctorem. His ergo sermonibu s velut optimam
quamdam utilitatem virtutisque abundantia m conjugi suo
offerebat.
Rex pius et sapiens temo moderamin e regnat
Semet suosque subditos.
Gloria regnantis proba moribus eminet uxor,
a benefactionis) benefactoris HM
b de rebus talibus) talibus de rebus M
On Christian Rulers 81
their wives, not considering their frail sex but gathering the
fruit of their good counsels. Hence, it is reported 35 that in
Placilla, august wife of the glorious emperor Theodosius [I], the
prince, though he was good and just and wise in himself, had
yet another useful opportunity to triumph through good works.
For many times, having first studied them thoroughly herself,
his wife advised him concerning the divine laws. For she was
not lifted up by the dignities of the kingdom, but, rather, in-
flamed by divine love. Indeed, greatness of privilege all the
more called forth in her the desire to do good; and, indeed, she
came to the purple unexpectedly. She had the greatest care for
the halt and the lame, not making use of slaves or other ser-
vants, but acting in her own person and coming to their houses
and supplying to each what he needed. So too, visiting the hos-
pices of the churches, she ministered to the sick with her own
hands, cleaning their pots, tasting soup, offering spoonfuls,
breaking bread and serving food, washing the cups and doing
all the other things that by custom are properly performed by
slaves and servants. To those who tried to restrain her from
such things she said: 'It is the work of the emperor to distribute
gold; but I offer this work for the sake of that Emperor who has
conferred all good things upon me.' For she often said to her
husband: 'It is fitting, husband, for you to think of what you
once were and of what you now are. If you will think always of
these things you will not be ungrateful to your Benefactor, but
you will govern lawfully the empire that you have received,
and you will be pleasing to the Author of these things.' In say-
ing these things, therefore, it was as if she offered her husband
something of the greatest benefit and an abundance of virtue.
The godly and wise king rules with threefold government
Himself and those under him.
A wife honest in morals stands out as a ruler's glory
35 Cassiodorus 9:31 (PL 69:1147 1148).
82 De rectoribus Christianis On Christian Rulers 83
Sicut honesta vinea. Like an upright vine.
Illam nobilitas triplici virtute venustet Let nobility in threefold virtue beautify her
Rosis pudid pectoris. With the roses of a modest breast.
Lactea formoso niteant si colla decore, If milk-white necks shine with a handsome beauty,
Magis nitescat castitas. Let chastity shine the more.
Christus ut Ecclesiam sibi casto junxit amore, As Christ united the Church to Him with chaste love,
Uxor viro sic haereat; Let a wife cleave to a man;36
Mitis simplicitas in cujus mente redundet Let gentle simplicity overflow in her mind
Velut columbae gratia. Like the grace of a dove;
Quam decoret pietas, prudentia, sacra potestas, Let godliness, prudence and holy power adorn her
Esther ut alma floruit. As gentle Esther flowered.
Vincula pads ament rex et regina; duobus Let the king and queen love the bonds of peace; in both
Sit foedus et concordia. Let there be amity and concord.
lnvida non dirimat geminos discordia pads Let envious discord not divide the pair
Quos lex superna junxerat. Whom the supernal law of peace has joined.
Disdplina regat quorum praenobile germen Let discipline rule their illustrious offspring,
Rami decori floreant. That graceful branches may flourish.
Aridus ut·• viridi bene crescat in arbore palmes, As a withered shoot never thrives on a healthy tree,
Cultor bonus hoe providet. The good husbandman provides for this.
Princeps et rectrix populum si rite gubernant, If the prince and queen are to rule the people well,
Suam regant prosapiam. Let them rule their family;
Abrahae veluti generosa stirpe creatis With offspring begotten as if from Abraham's noble stock
Ornent polos nepotibus. Let them adorn the heavens.

VI 6
[Quates consiliarios et amicos bonum principem habere decet.]
What kind of counsellors and friends it is proper for the good prince
In humanis rebus nulla quidem ars, ut dicunt, difficilior est to have.
quam inter turbulentissimasb hujus saeculi procellas bene
As they say, there is in human affairs no art more difficult than
imperare et provide rem publicam gubernare. Sed haec ars
that of ruling well in the midst of the storms of this most tur-
tune ad finem perfectionis pervenit cum ipsa res publica
bulent world, and of providently governing a common-
wealth.37 But this art comes to its final perfection when the

a ut] haut H 36 Cf. Eph. 5:22-25.

b turbulentissimas] tempestatum add. H 37 Cf. Isidore, In E.xod11111 54 (PL 83:315).
84 De rectoribus Christianis
prudentes et optimos consiliarios habet. Trina autem regula
in consiliis est observanda; prima quidem ut divina consilia•
praeponantur humanis, cum obedire oporteatb Deo ma~is quam
hominibus. Si quis ergo navim rei publicae tamquam bonus
gubernator regere feliciter disponit et exoptat, optima
Domini consilia quae in sacris eloquiis sunt propalata non neg-
ligenter custodiat.
Secunda vero consiliorum est regula, quatenus providus
rector non tarn in suo quam in suorum prudentissimorum
innitatur consilio. Unde illa Antoninic imperatoris praecipua
semper in consiliis fuit sententia: Aequius est ut ego tot etd tal-
ium amicorum consilium sequar, quam ut tot et tales amici meam
unius voluntatem sequantur. Salomone quoque hoe ipsum attes-
tante, qui ait: Dissipantur cogitationes ubi non est consilium: ubi
vero plurimi c sunt consiliarii, confirmantur, et erit salus ubi multa
consilia sunt.l Nam prudens prudentes in consilium vocat, et
sine eorum consilio nihil facit. Stultus vero in semetipso cogi-
tat, et quod sine consilio aliorum cito vult facit.
Porro, tertia norma in consiliis est obtinenda, ne bonus rector
dolosos et perniciosos habeat consiliarios.s Quis enim debet in
a consilia] om. M
b vporteat] oportet Vulg.
c Antonini] Antonii H
d et] om. H
e plurimi) plures Vulg.
f erit ... s1111/) ubi non est gubernator populus corruet salus autem ubi
multa consilia Vulg.
g consiliarios) 0111. M
On Christian Rulers 85
commonwealth itself has prudent and excellent counsellors;
and three rules are to be observed in counsels. The first, in-
deed, is that divine counsels are to be put before human ones,
because 'We ought to obey God more than men.' 38 If, there-
fore, anyone proposes and desires to steer the ship of the
commonwealth happily as a good governor, let him not be
negligent in observing the excellent counsels of the Lord that
have been set forth in the divine eloquence.
The second rule of counsels is that the ruler, insofar as he
is a careful ruler, ought to lean not so much on his own coun-
sel as upon that of his most prudent counsellors. Hence the
distinguished opinion of the emperor Antoninus 39 in coun-
sels was always: 'It is more advantageous that I should fol-
low the counsel of so many friends of such quality than that
so many friends of such quality should follow my will alone.'
Solomon also bears witness to this, who says: 'Designs are
brought to nothing where there is no counsel: but where
there are many counsellors, they are established';40 and:
'There is safety where there is much counsel.' 41 For the pru-
dent man calls other prudent men into counsel and does
nothing without their counsel; but the fool takes thought
within himself and does what he has hastily willed without
the counsel of others.
Moreover, a third norm that should obtain in counsels is
that a good ruler ought not to have cunning and harmful
38 Acts 5:29.
39 The reference is not, as the reader might suppose, to Antoninus Pius
(imp. 138-161), but to Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus (imp. 121-
180). The transcriptional error that occurs in Hellmann's text (' Antonii'
for' Antonini') has complicated things further. For the quotation that fol-
lows see the biography of Marcus Aurelius at Scrip/ores historiae Aug11s-
tae, ed. E. Hohl, C. Samberger and W. Seyfahrth (Leipzig: Teubner, 1965-
90), 22:4.
40 Prov. 15:22.
41 Prov. 11:14.
86 De rectoribus Christianis
consiliis malignantium confidere? Nam sicut vallis per campos
et laquei in plateis et pedicae ubi non putantur pedes [viato-
rum]a retinent, ita impiorum consilia felle nequitiae permixta
justos et sanctosb in itineribus male impediunt. Sicut enim boni
consiliarii sursum erigunt rem publicam, c sic mali deorsumJ
ruinosa calamitate praecipitant. Tales ergo repudiandi sunt con-
siliarii atque omnimodis detestandi, quia nunquam circac prin-
cipem terrenum devoti erunt qui Dei praecepta male vivendof
contemnunt. Quis enim possunt esse boni, qui sibi sunt mali?
Sed sicut Omnipotentis Dei saluberrima divulganda sunt
consilia atque praecepta, ita nonnunquam prudentium recto-
rum abh hostibus sunt occultanda consilia. Siquidem in re
publica nulla sunt meliora consilia quam alia quae ignoraverit
adversarius. Etenim securum iter agitur quod agendum hostes
minime suspicantur. Duo vero maxime contraria sunt consilio:
festinatio et ira. Nam ira obcaecat animum ne utile videat con-
silium, et quomodo longa consilia poenitentiam non habent,
sic e contra festinata consiJiai plerumque labuntur.
Tune autem praecipue consilium ad prosperitatis eventum
perducitur cum regia fiducia in Omnipotentis auxilio figitur.
Unde vero, post Deum, bona prodeunt consilia nisi a fidelibus
et optimis amicis qui promerentur supema illustrari gratia, ut
non errent in consilio, quorum provida deliberatione, divina
inspirante dementia, saepe salubris consilii botrus carpitur?
Absit vero ut crudeles tyrannos tamquam infestos dracones
bonus habeat princeps amicos, quod pantheris exemplo
a viatorum] aliorum HM
b justos et sanctos] iustis et sanctis H
c erigunt rem publicam) rem erigunt publicam M
d deorsum) om. M
e circa) erga M
f vivendo) conversando H
g Qui) Cui H
h ab)om. M
poenitentiam ... consilia) om. M
On Christian Rulers 87
counsellors; for who should trust in the counsels of the
wicked? 42 For just as hollows in the fields and holes in the
streets and entanglements where they are not looked for hold
back the feet of travellers, so the counsels of the ungodly,
compounded of the bitterness of evil, impede the just and holy
in their paths. For just as good counsellors raise the common-
wealth up, so do wicked ones cast it down into ruinous calam-
ity. Such counsellors should therefore be rejected and in every
way detested, because those who despise the precepts of God
by living ill will never be devoted to an earthly prince. For
who can be good, who are bad to themselves?
But just as the most wholesome counsels and precepts of
Almighty God should be made known, so the counsels of
prudent rulers should sometimes be concealed from ene-
mies. 43 There are indeed no better counsels in the common-
wealth than those of which an adversary is ignorant. For that
march is executed safely that the enemy does not in the least
suspect is being executed. Two things, however, are especially
at odds with counsel: haste and anger. For anger blinds the
soul, so that it may not see advantageous counsel, and just as
lengthy counsels do not lead to repentance, so, on the other
hand, hasty counsels frequently go amiss.
But counsel is brought to a prosperous outcome especially
when the royal trust is fastened upon the aid of the Almighty.
From where, then, after God, do good counsels come forth, if
not from faithful and excellent friends who have deserved to
be enlightened by supernal grace, that they may not err in
counsel, and from whose provident deliberation, by the inspi-
ration of divine mercy, the grape of wholesome counsel is of-
ten gathered? God forbid, indeed, that the good prince should
have friends who are cruel tyrants, like dangerous serpents:
something that the panther demonstrates by example; for the
42 Prov. 12:5.
43 Cf. Prov. 12:23.
 88 De rectoribus Christianis
animalis astruitur. Siquidem panther, genus quadruped is, est,~
ut physici perhibent, omnium animalium amicus excepto dra-
cone. Illorum itaque amicitiam habeat quos probos esse cog-
noscit. Qui sunt autem boni amici nisi illi qui sunt sancti ac
venerabiles: non malitiosi, non furaces, non factiosi, non cal-
lidi, non ad malum consentientes, non bonorum inimici, non
libidinosi, neque crudeles, non circumventores sui principis;
sed sancti, continentes, religiosi, amatores principis sui, et qui
de illo nee ipsi rident nee risui esse volunt; qui neque mentiun-
tur neque fingunt, et nunquam decipiunt; sed veraces, sobrii,
prudentes atque in omnibus suo principi fideles? Talibus ita-
que personis salva efficitur res publica, piique regnatoris fama
crescit et gloria.
Absque gubernaculo navis ceu nutat in alto
Fluctibus, ac tumidis tunditur ilia notis,
Gloria sic regni praeclaraque sceptra labascunt,
In pessumque cadunt, heu! sine consilio.
Nam sunt nonnulli quorum fit mellea lingua
Aspidis at subtus tetra venena latent.
Qui delenificiis persuadent omnia verbis,
Quorum sermo strepit subdola ceu fovea.
Horum consilio res publica fulta videtur
Cum submersa ruat, 0 miseranda nimis!h
Ob hoe consilii praedukem carpere botrum"
Jam decet excelsum qui tenet imperium.
Dorcades ut vigili montis de vertice visu
Quo cito transfugiant cuncta pericla notant,
Sic ad versa cavet speculari lumine mentis
Dux bonus arte bona consiliisque probis.
Ceu margaritum bibulis praenobile conchis,
Quomodo dukifluo mel legiturque favo,
Sic et amicorum puro de fonte legendum
a est) et add. H
b Cum ... nimis] um. M
c botrum] Cum !.ubmersa ruat o miseranda nimis! add. M
On Christian Rulers 89
panther, of the genus of four-footed animals, is the friend of all
animals except the serpent, as natural philosophe rs report. 44
Thus, let him have the friendship of those whom he knows to
be honest men. But who are good friends if not those who are
holy and estimable: not malicious, not disposed to steal, not
factious, not cunning, not complicit in evil, not hostile to the
good, not lustful or cruel, not deceivers of their prince, but
holy, continent, religious men who love their prince and who
neither deride him themselves nor wish him to be derided;
who neither lie nor dissimulate and who never deceive, but
are truthful, sober, prudent and faithful to their prince in all
things? The wellbeing of the commonw ealth is secured by
such persons, and the fame and glory of the godly ruler is
multiplied.
Just as a ship without a rudder wanders on the deep
Driven about by swollen waves and winds,
So the glory and noble sceptres of a kingdom waver
And sink to the bottom, alas, without counsel.
For there are some beneath whose honeyed tongue
The vile venom of the asp lies hidden.
They urge all things with flattering words;
Their speech echoes like the treacherous pit.
The commonwe alth seems borne up by their counsel,
Yet it may sink into ruin, 0 too greatly to be deplored!
Hence it is fitting that he who now holds a noble empire
Should gather the sweet grape of counsel.
As gazelles on a mountainto p keep careful watch
And flee swiftly away when they perceive any dangers,
So let the good chieftain take care to seek out troubles
With the light of the mind, with good arts and wise counsels.
As the noble pearl is gathered from thirsty oysters
And honey from the sweetly-flowing honeycomb,
So too it is right and proper to draw
44 Cf. Isidore, Eymol. 12:2:8 (PL 82:435).
90 De rectoribus Christianis
Quoda decet et prodest utile consilium.
Verus amicitiae custos sine felle probatur,
Cui placet omne bonum, displicet omne malum.
Est est qui vere, seu 11011 11011 dicere norit,
Cui cor secretum consonat atque pium.
Olli finna fides vita fit charior ipsa,
Nescit harundineas texere mente strophas;
Non ilium nutare facit clangorque tubarum,
Anchora nam stabili corde manet fidei.
Talem nonqueb gazae, non auri pondera norunt
Fallere, ne laesa sit pretiosa fides.
VII
[Quae res malos principes faciat.]
Nunc autem ordo exposcit ut de malis etiam principibus ali-
qua nos breviter perstringamus, quoniam de bonis quaedam
utilia sceptris quaec rei publicae necessaria diximus. Ubi
primo quaeritur quae causa etiam ex bonis malos principes
faciat? Ad quod dicendum jam primum regalis licentia;
deinde rerum copia, cum ipsa abundantia rerum causa malo-
rum fiat; amid praeterea improbi, satellites detestandi, eunuchi
avarissimi, aulici vel stulti vel detestabiles, per quos omnes
etiam in illo dominatore qui videbatur bonus esse nascitur
oblivio mandatorum Dei; postremo, quod negari non potest,
rerum publicarum ignorantia. Hine colligunt se quatuor vel
quinque atque unum consilium ad decipiendum imperatorem
seu regem capiunt. Dicunt quid probandum sit; imperator,
qui domi clausus est, vera non novit; cogitur hoe tantum sci-
re" quod illi loquuntur; facit judices quos fieri non oportet;
amovet a re publica quos debeat obtinere. Unde etiam venditur
a Quod] Et M
b nonque] non M
c sceptris, quae] ~ceptrisque H
d scire] ()Ill. M
On Christian Rulers 91
Useful counsel from the pure font of friends.
Friendship's true guardian is shown to be without bitterness;
Every good thing pleases him, and evil displeases.
He knows truly how to say, Yea, yea, and Nay, nay 45
Whose inward heart and godly speech are one.
A firm faith is dearer to such a one than life itself;
He knows not how to weave cunning snares in his mind;
The noise of trumpets does not make him flinch,
For a firm anchor abides in a heart of faith.
Neither treasures nor masses of gold know how
To deceive such a man, lest his precious faith be harmed.
7
What may make princes wicked.
Because we have said some useful things concerning good rul-
ers and the things necessary to a commonwealth, order now
requires us to touch briefly upon bad princes also. The question
first asked here is: what is the cause that makes good princes
into bad ones? As to this, it must be said that the first is royal
licence; next, an abundance of things, because the abundance of
things becomes a cause of evil in itself; 46 third, wicked friends,
detestable followers, most greedy eunuchs, foolish or detestable
courtiers, through all of whom arises, even in that lord who
seemed to be good, forgetfulness of God's commandments; fi-
nally, what cannot be denied: ignorance of public affairs. Thus,
four or five people combine and fasten upon one counsel to de-
ceive the emperor or king. They declare what is to be approved;
the emperor, who is shut up in his house, does not know the
truth; he is compelled to believe what these people tell him; he
creates judges who are not suitable; he banishes from the com-
monwealth those to whom he ought to hold fast. Hence is
45 Cf. Matt. 5:37.
46 Cf. Augustine, De civ. Dei 2:18 (CCSL 47:48-50).
92 De rectoribus Christianis
bonus et cautus et optimus imperator, qui eo ipso miser effici-
tur cum apud ipsum vera reticeantur. Hine saepe tumultuosa
indisciplinatione et Dei cultrix pietas et veritas opprimitur,
cum multum derogatio praevaleat quando derogatores cre-
duntur fide digni, quos gemina pestis corrumpit acerbissima,
amor videlicet falsitatis et odium veritatis.
Tamquam• praecipitans turbo regentes
Subvertit nimium copia rerum.
Qui primumque boni regimine darent
Fiunt saepe mali fine profano.
Sacris qui fuerant moribus aurum
Mox plumbo similes viliter horrent,
Et qui vitis erant ubere laeti
Agrescunt veluti spreta labrusca.
Incautum dominum mente strophosa
Fallunt praecupidi sic et amid.
Multis unde dolis optimus ille
Anceps fit titubans sicut harundo,
Ignoratque miser figmina falsi.
Nee lucent domino lumina veri,
Nam caecant oculos regis honores,
Aurum, divitiae, nubila, mendae,
Vultus feminei blanda voluptas,
Chari falsidici, pompa, potestas.
VIII
[De avaris et impiis reKibus, et quanta per eosdem populum mala vel
ipsos ultio divina consequitur.]
Modo consequens esse videtur quatenus de impiis rectoribus
nos disseramus, ut agnita illorum malitia et pessimo in hoe
saeculo fine, perpetuaque damnatione,b qui prudens est rector
a Tamquam] Quam M
b perpetuaque damnatione) perpetua quadam ratione M
On Christian Rulers 93
betrayed even a good and cautious and excellent emperor, who
is made wretched in himself because in his presence truths are
left unspoken. Thus piety, the handmaid of God, and truth are
many times oppressed by turbulent disorder; for slander pre-
vails greatly when slanderers are believed worthy of trust,
whom a twofold and most bitter plague corrupts, namely love
of falsehood and hatred of truth.
Like a rushing whirlwind, too great
An abundance of things casts down rulers.
For good men who, at first, are bright in their rule
Are often made bad by an ungodly purpose.
Those who were pure gold in morals
Often basely assume the dreary appearance of lead,
And those who were rich with the abundance of the vine
Grow wild, like the despised wild grape.
Ill disposed and wanton friends
Deceive the mind of the incautious lord.
Hence by many treacheries the best of men
Is made uncertain, quivering like a reed,
A wretch ignorant of falsehood's tricks.
Nor do the lights of truth enlighten the lord,
For these things blind the king's eyes: honours,
Gold, riches, concealments, errors,
Delight in the charms of a woman's face,
The falsehoods of loved ones, pomp and power.
8
ConcerninK avaricious and unKodly kinis, and the ireat evils with
which, because of them, the divine venieance pursues both the people
and themselves.
It seems to follow at this point that we should treat of ungodly
rulers, so that, having understood their malice and most miser-
able end in this world, and eternal damnation, he who is a
94 De rectoribus Christianis
a malis operibus se abstinendo cautior et melior fiat, atque
Summo Benefactori placere magnopere procuret. Quid sunt
autem impii reges nisi majores terrarum latrones, feroces ut
leones, rabidi ut~ ursi? - sicut scriptum est de illo: 0 Leo rugiens,
et ursus esuriens, princeps impius super populum pauperem. Rex
siquidem impius, tamquam leonis personam habens, ad omne
responsum acriter verbum nequam sine prudentium consilio
cum omni malitia profert, bones humilians malosquec exal-
tans; cujus dies abbreviantur et ejus memoria cum sonitu
peribit. Peccavit enim plus quam potuit.
Tales itaque sunt amid malorum, inimici bonorum, servi li-
bidinis et avaritiae, servi totius nequitiae, ministri diaboli, sem-
per laborantes ac nihil facientes, gurgites, humani generis
miseriae, pabula aeternae gehennae, ut cedrus subito exaltati,
sed in profunda tartari praecipitati. Hine psalmista <licit: Vidi
impium superexaltatum et elevatum ut cedros Libani, et transivi et
ecce non erat, et quaesivi eum, et non est inventus locus ejus.d Florent
enim sicut olera et fenum agri, quod hodie cum speciositate
oritur et in crastino arescens non reperitur. De quibus per
prophetam dicitur: !psi regnaverunt, et non ex me; principes ex-
stiterunt, et ego ignoravi, qui neque recte et regia via sciunt seu
volunt incedere, sed ad dexteram sinistramque norunt decli-
nare. Quibus competit illud quod per Isaiam Dominus loqui-
tur, dicens: Dereliquerunt Dominum sabaoth, et ambulaverunt per
a ut) sicut H
b sicut ... illo) De quibus scriptum est H
c malosque] malos H
d Vidi ... ejus ) vidi impium robustum et fortissimum sicut indigenam
virentem, et transivi et ecce non erat et quaesivi eum et non est inventus
Vulg.
On Christian Rulers 95
prudent ruler may, by abstaining from evil deeds, be made
more cautious and good, and may strive with all his might to
please the Supreme Benefactor. But what are ungodly kings if
not great robbers of the earth, 47 ferocious as lions, wild as bears?
- as is written of them:' As a roaring lion, and a hungry bear, so
is a wicked prince over the poor people.' 48 For an ungodly king,
as having the character of a lion, brings forth a ferocious answer
to everything, with worthless speech lacking the counsel of pru-
dent men: with malice to all, humbling the good and exalting
the bad. His days are shortened, and his memory will perish
with a noise, 49 for he has been more sinful than able.
Such kings, then, are friends of the wicked, enemies of the
good, slaves of lust and avarice, slaves of every wickedness,
ministers of the devil, always toiling and producing nothing,
yawning chasms, the suffering of the human race, the fodder of
eternal Gehenna, suddenly lifted up like the cedar, but then cast
down into the depths of Tartarus. Hence the psalmist says: 'I
have seen the wicked highly exalted, and lifted up like the ce-
dars of Lebanon. And I passed by, and lo, he was not, and I
sought him and his place was not found.' 50 For they flower like
the green plants and herbs of the field, that spring up in beauty
today and tomorrow wither and are not found. 51 Of them it is
said through the prophet: 'They have reigned, but not by me:
they have been princes, and I knew it not.' 52 They do not know
how to advance along the righteous and royal road, 53 nor do
they wish to, but they understand how to tum aside to right
and left. That applies to them which the Lord spoke through
Isaiah, saying: 'They have forsaken the Lord of Hosts, and they
47 Cf. Augustine, De civ. Dei 4:4 (CCSL 47:101).
48 Prov. 28:15.
49 Cf. Psalm 9:7.
50 Psalm 37:35-36.
51 Psalm 37:2.
52 Hosea 8:4.
53 Cf. Augustine, De civ. Dei 10:32 (CCSL 47:309).
96
De rectoribus Christianis
Vias distortas. Dolosi in consiliis, atroces et mendosi in verbis,
maligni in operibus, quorum finis erit secundum opera eorum.
De quibus per eumdem prophetam dicitur: Dominus exerci-
tuum co~itavit hoe,• ut detraheret superbiam omnis ~loriae, et ad
~~nominiam deduceretb inclytos terrae. Sed et beatus Job: Laus,
mquit, impiorumc brevis est, et ~loriad hypocritae estc instar
puncti. Haec etenim vita temporalis in comparatione aeternita-
tis minimo puncto comparatur; vae autem illis qui pro parvo
puncto praesentis felicitatis vendunt gloriam aetemae beatitu-
dinis! 1
Quanta vero vel eosdem subditos mala vel ipsos rectores
ultio divina consequatur non est nostrae facultatis enarrare,
sed pauca demultis placet in manifestum propalare. Regis
Pharaonis impietas, quae ex cordis duritia inoleverat, sibi
Suisque Aegyptiis decem plagas intulit, atque insuper Rubro
Mari tartareique Acherontis imo ipsum suosque submersit. An-
tiochum et Herodem ac Pontium Pilatum, quis nescitg quanta
districti Judicis ultio perculit? Quid dicam de Nerone, Aegeah et
a ltor] 0111. M
b ~educeret] uni versos add. Vulg.
c 1111P10rum] imperium M
d gloria] gaudium Vulg.
e est) ad Vulg.
f gloriam aetemae beatitudinis] aetemae beatitudmis gloriam H
g nescit] nesciat H
h Aegea] Seen. 62, opposite.
On Christian Rulers 97
have walked by distorted paths.'So6 Cunning in counsels, savage
and untruthful in speech, malign in deeds, their end will be ac-
cording to their works. Of them it is said by the same prophet:
'The Lord of hosts hath designed it, to pull down the pride of all
glory, and bring to disgrace all the glorious ones of the earth.' 55
But also the blessed Job says: 'The praise of the wicked is short,
and the joy of the hypocrite but for a moment.' 56 For this tem-
poral life compared to eternity is likened to the smallest mo-
ment; and woe to those who sell the glory of eternal blessedness
for a little moment of present happiness!
In truth, we do not have the skill to relate how many evils
overtake either their subjects or the rulers themselves by divine
retribution, but it is well to bring a few of the many out into the
open. The ungodliness of King Pharaoh, which had sprung
from hardness of heart, brought down ten plagues upon him
and the Egyptians51 and, above all, plunged him and his army
under the Red Sea and into the depth of hellish Acheron.58
Who does not know how great was the vengeance of the strict
Judge Who struck down AntiochusS9 and Herod 00 and Pontius
Pilate? 61 What shall I say of Nero, Aegea61 and the most
54 Seemingly a conflation of Isa. 1:4 and Prov. 2:13.
55 Isa. 23:9.
56 Job 20:5.
57 Exod. 7- 12.
58 Exod. 14:23- 28.
59 2 Mace. 9:5-28.
60 Josephus, Bellmn ludaicum, ed. H. St J. Thackeray et al. (Cambridge, MA:
Harvard University Press, 1926-1965), 1:33.
61 Cf. the apocryphal Mors Pilati of the sixth or seventh century: J.K. Elliott,
The Apocryphal New Testament (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994), p. 216.
62 'Aegea' seems meaningless. Hellman suggests that Sedulius here has in
mind Augustine, Contra litteras Petiliani 2:92:202: 'Ut relinquam Ner-
onem, qui primus est persecutus Christianos; Domitianum similiter
Neronis maximam partem, Traianum, Getam, Decium, Valerianum, Dio-
cletianum .. .'. 'Aegea' or 'Egea' is not inconceivable as a scribal error for
'Geta': i.e. Publius Septimius Geta (imp. 209-211).
98 De rectoribus Christianis
impiissimo Juliano aliisque eorum in nequitia consimilibus?
Nonne omnes cum suis sequacibus post mortem pessimam
os inferni devoravit?
Sed ut innumeros praeteream, Theodorici crudelissimi re-
gis de hoe saeculo exitum infelicem explicabo, qui, cum esset
Arianae sectator perfidiaea ac bonorum insecutor Chris-
tianorum, postremo, sicuti cuidam sancto viro revelaturn
fuerat, inter Joannem papam et Symmachum patricium
discinctus atque discalciatus et vinctis manibus deductus in
vulcani ollam jactatus est. Nam quia Joannem papam affli-
gendo in custodia occidit, Symrnachurn quoque patricium
ferro trucidavit, ab illis in ignem immissus apparuit, quos in
hac vita injuste judicavit. 0 quam districta et justa sunt Om-
nipotentis judicia, cujus disponente nutu digna ultio im-
mitern secuta est tyrannum! Nam qui servis Domini injuste
transitoriam mortem intulit, duplici morte corporis et animae
juste disperiit.b Qui alios praesenti vita spoliaverat, ipse tarn
rnornentanea quam aeterna vita spoliatus fuit. Idem itaque
geminum peregit rninisteriurn; narn sibi gehennae sup-
plicium ubi cruciabitur in saecula saeculorum, sanctis vero
supernae gloriae palmarn administravit. Injuste judicati fiunt
repente coronati atque judices a Domino contrac crudelem
tyrannum transrnissi, at vero injuste judicans fit subito judi-
catus atque aeternae damnationis flammis addictus. Qua in
re nimis terribile exemplum proponitur, ne terrae potentes
a perfidiae] invid1ae M
b disperiit] deperit M
c contra] in M
On Christian Rulers 99
ungodly Julian63 and of the others similar to them in wickedness?
Has not the mouth of hell devoured all of them with their fol-
lowers after the worst of deaths?
But, to pass over uncounted examples, I will explain the un-
happy departure from this world of Theodoric, the cruellest of
kings. Because he was a follower of the Arian treachery and a
persecutor of good Christians, finally, as was revealed to acer-
tain holy man, he was led between Pope John and the Patrician
Symmachus, unclothed, barefoot and with his hands bound,
and cast into the crater of a volcano. For, because he had slain
Pope John in custody by torture and butchered the Patrician
Symmachus with the sword, it appeared that he was sent into
the fire by those whom he judged unjustly in this life. 64 0 how
strict and just are the judgments of the Almighty, Whose fitting
vengeance was sent forth against the tyrant by the disposition
of His will! For he who unjustly brought down a transitory
death upon the servants of the Lord justly perished by the two-
fold death of body and soul. He who stripped others of this pre-
sent life was himself stripped of life both passing and eternal.
Thus he has accomplished a twofold ministry; for he has be-
stowed upon himself the suffering of hell, where he will be tor-
tured for ever and ever, and upon the saints the palm of
supernal glory. Suddenly the unjustly judged are crowned and
sent forth as judges by the Lord against the cruel tyrant;
whereas he who judged unjustly is swiftly judged and sen-
tenced to the flames of eternal damnation. In this instance a ter-
rible example is displayed, lest the mighty of the earth
63 See eh. 17, below.
64 The body of the Arian Theodoric ' the Great' (454-526) disappeared from
his mausoleum at Ravenna shortly after his death, probably removed
and destroyed by orthodox Catholic monks. The story of the 'holy man's'
vision of the soul of Theodoric being cast into the crater of Stromboli by
his earthly opponents seems to be a myth associated with this event. It is
told by Gregory the Great (Dialogr 4:30 (PL 77:369)), writing some sev-
enty years after Theodoric's death.
100 De rectoribus Christianis
servos Domini persequantur, quos valido virtutis suae
brachio Deus Omnipotens ulciscitur.
Sed haec de reprobis dicta sint rectoribus; nunc ad potiora
stylo consequenti transeamus.
Reges terrae quos male gesta
Dedecorant, similesne videntur
Apris, ursis tigridibusque?
Hi majores suntne latrones
Terrigenum, rabidive leones,
Unguibus accipitresque rapaces?
Contigit Antiocho eta Pharaoni,
Herodi miseroque Pilato
Momentanea perdere regna,
Cum sociis Acheronta subire.
Sic semper reprobos mala damna
Affligunt nimis hie et in aevum.
Quid floretis tempora frondeb
Ardentes ostroque decori,
Quos exspectat clibanum ignis
Quern nee laedet roscidus imber?
Qui Dominum lucis nee amatis,
In tenebras vos exteriores
Ibitis; illic gloria vestra
Arens rnarcebit sine fine.
Justos vero celsa corona
Glorificabit luxque beata.
IX
[De rege pacifico atque clementi; vel quibus danda sunt beneficia.]
Septem speciosiora sunt aliis creaturis Dei, ut sapientes
ferunt: coelum innubiale quando argenteo colori mirabili
a et) om. H
b fronde l proles M
On Christian Rulers 101
persecute the Lord's servants, whom Almighty God avenges
with the strong arm of His power.
But these things have been said concerning wicked rulers;
now, in what follows, let us pass to a more important theme.
Do not kings of the earth who by evil deeds
Are dishonoured seem like
Boars and bears and tigers?
Are these not the greatest thieves
Born of earth, or raging lions
And grasping hawks with talons?
It befell Antiochus and Pharaoh
And Herod and the wretched Pilate
To lose their brief kingdoms
And to pass with their fellows into Acheron.
Ever thus do harsh judgments
Afflict the reprobate, here and for all time.
Why do you adorn your brow with a garland
And deck yourself with robes of shining purple
When an oven of fire awaits you
That even the dewy rain will not put out?
You who do not love the Lord of Light:
You will go into the outer darkness;65
There, your withered glory
Will waste away, world without end.
But a lofty crown and a blessed light
Will glorify the just.
9
Concernin~ the peaceful and clement kin~; or those to whom benefits
should be given.
As the wise relate, seven things are more splendid than the
other creatures of God: a cloudless sky, when it wondrously
65 Cf. Matt. 8:12; 22:13; 25:30.
102 De rectoribus Christianis
similitudine comparatur; sol in virtute sua, quando reciprocis
cursibus in splendore gloriae suae habitatores mundi illumi-
nat; luna in integritate nudataque fade nubibus recedentibus,
quando proprio cursu solis vestigia investigat; ager fructuo-
sus, quando diversis floribus nodisque crispantibus depingi-
tur; varietas maris, quando serenitas coeli nubiumque
placidis fluctibus in littoribus personansa pulcherrime osten-
ditur; chorus justorum in una fide habitantium; rex pacificus
in gloria regni sui, quando in aula regia ostensis muneribus
donisque traditis multa beneficia praestat. Rex etenim justus
et pacificus laeta fade bona dividit et uniuscujusque causam
diligenter meditatur, et infirmos et pauperes populi non des-
piciens, cum seniorum et prudentiumb consilio et judicio vera
judicia loquitur, malos humilians bonosque exaltans. Dies
ejus cum gloria extendentur, et ejus memoria in aeternum
manebit.
Princeps pacificus tamquam florid us et fertilis est in proximo
paradisus, et quasi vinea honesta copioso abundans fructu, c
omnem a splendore conspectus sui conturbans discordiam, qui
dum pacem in aula suae mentis amplectitur, procul dubio man-
sionem praeparat Christo; quia Christus pax est, et in pace re-
quiescere cupit. Porro, ubi pax est, in disputationibus veritas et
in operibus justitia invenitur. Sicut ergo providus gubernator
procellosi maris pericula arridente temporis serenitate evadere
nititur, sic rector pacificus serena mentis tranquillitate ac pads
a personans] 0111. M
b prudentium) prudentiorum M
c copioso abundans fructu] copiosum abundans fructum H
On Christian Rulers 103
takes on the likeness of the colour of silver; the sun in its
power, when, moving to and fro on its journeys, it lights
those who dwell in the world with the splendour of its glory;
the moon in its fullness and with face laid bare by the depart-
ing clouds, when on its own journey it seeks out the footsteps
of the sun; a fruitful field, when it is painted with divers
flowers and trembling buds; the changing of the sea, when
the serenity of the sky and clouds is most beautifully dis-
played in the placid waves breaking on the shores; a com-
pany of just men dwelling in one faith; and a peaceful king in
the glory of his kingdom, when in the royal palace he be-
stows many benefits by displaying gifts and distributing
grants. 66 For a just and peaceful king divides his goods with
joyous countenance and ponders the cause of each man dili-
gently, not despising the sick and the poor among the people
and, in judging, speaking true judgments with the counsel of
elders and prudent men, humbling the wicked and exalting
the good. His days will be lengthened with glory, and his
memory will remain for ever.
The peaceful prince is like a flowering and fertile paradise
close at hand, 67 and like an upright vine laden with abundant
fruit, confounding all discord by the splendour of his coun-
tenance, who, for as long as he embraces peace in the royal
palace of his mind, beyond doubt prepares a mansion for
Christ; for Christ is peace, and longs to dwell in peace. More-
over, where there is peace there is found truth in disputa-
tions and justice in works. Therefore, just as the provident
steersman endeavours to elude the perils of a boisterous sea
by [making use of] the favourable calm of the season, so does
the peaceful ruler with careful deliberation consider how to
66 er. Sedulius, Proverbia graecorum, ed. S. Hellmann (Quellen und U11ter-
s11ch1mgen zur /ateimschen Philologie des Mille/alters, ed. L. Traube; Erster
Band, erstes Heft) (Munich: Beck'sche Verlagsbuchhandlung, 1906), p. 130.
67 Cf. Isa. 5:1.
104 De rectoribus Christianis
concordia impetus discordiarum sedula deliberatione compe-
scere meditatur.
Quern trinam pads regulam conservare oportet, hoe est su-
pra se, in se, juxta se; quia erga Deum et in se ipso et circa
proximos debet esse pacificus. Tantum est enim pads bonum
ut etiam in rebus terrenis atque mortalibus nihil gratius soleat
audiri, nihil desiderabilius concupisci, nihil postremo melius
inveniri. Fructus autem pacificae rnentis est erga subjectos et
amicos benignam ostendere misericordiam simul et clemen-
tiam, quibus virtutibus tarn pius regnator quam ejus regnum
gloriose conservatur; testante Salomone, qui ait: Misericordia et
veritas custodiunt re~em, et roborabitura dementia thronus ejus.
Non enirn quidquam est quod bonum rectorem melius
populo favorabilem atque amabilem commendet quam
dementia et pacifica serenitas. Haec, ut alios causa brevitatis
omittam, Augustum Caesarem fecit celeberrimum; haec An-
toninos, b magnum quoque Constantinum, Theodosios caet-
erosque magnificos principes sublimiter beatificavit. Eadem
quoque magnum Carolum inter caetera virtutum insignia in
sacratissimum prae caeteris terrarum principibus Augustum
dedicavit. Haec Ludovicum piissimum adordinavit impera-
torem; et quid plura referam? Certe serenissima pietatis
dementia gloriosos principes et glorificavit in terra et con-
sortes sanctorum collocavit in coelo quippe, qui non solum sua
sed et totos semetipsos Omnipotenti dederunt.
Nihil autem ab justo et pio rege donandum est nisi quod sit
beneficium. Beneficium autem, si ad aliquam mercedis remu-
nerationem in hoe saeculo refertur, interit atque finitur, nee
a roborabit11r] roborator Vulg.
b Antoninos] Antonios H
On Christian Rulers 105
contain the violence of discords by calm tranquillity of mind
and the concord of peace.
It is fitting for him to preserve a threefold rule of peace:
that is, above himself, in himself and close to himself; for he
should be peaceful towards God, and in himself, and to-
wards his neighbours. For so great is the good of peace that
even in earthly and mortal things nothing more pleasing is
usually to be heard, nothing more desirable is longed for,
and, finally, nothing better is found. And the fruit of the
peaceful mind is to show bounteous mercy, together also
with clemency towards subjects and friends, by which vir-
tues both the godly ruler and his kingdom may be gloriously
preserved, as Solomon bears witness, who says: 'Mercy and
truth preserve the king, and his throne is strengthened by
clemency.' 68 For there is not anything that better commends a
good ruler to the people as worthy to be favoured and loved
than clemency and peaceful serenity. This clemency - for the
sake of brevity I shall leave aside the other virtues - caused
Augustus Caesar to be most highly honoured; it sublimely
blessed also the Antonines, Constantine the Great, the Theo-
dosii and other magnificent princes. Among other marks of
virtue, the same clemency also distinguished Charles the
Great, the emperor most hallowed before the rest of the
princes of the earth. This virtue adorned the most pious em-
peror Louis; and how many more examples might I give?
Certainly the most serene clemency of godliness has both
glorified illustrious princes on earth and established them as
companions of the saints in heaven, who have clearly given
to the Almighty not only their goods but even their entire
selves.
Nothing should be given by a just and godly king unless it
is a benefit; but a benefit is ruined and ended if it is given in
exchange for the payment of some reward in this world, nor
68 Prov. 20:28.
106 De rectoribus Christianis
enim possumus id habere integrum cujus pretium nobis perso-
lutum est. Unde non tarn beneficium sed potius commercium
dicenda est talis largitio. Danda sunt vero beneficia quae data
boni principis famam pietatemque et justitiam non laedunt,
juxta dignitates personarum et utilitates rerum, non secundum
cupiditates accipientium, qui facile sibimet denegant, quia
quod difficile aut impossibile est improbe atque atrociter ex-
poscunt. Unde Nerva imperator dicebat: Amici cum se mereri
omnia praesumunt; si quidquam non extorserint, atrociores fiunt.
In omnibus itaque largitionibus temporalibus servanda est
mensura rectaque in donationea intentio, ut pro salute rei pub-
licae et sanctae utilitate Ecclesiae proque coelestis indeptione
gloriae bonis melioribus optimis cuncta per sereni principis
munificentiam distribuantur.
Conditor supernus orbis, Imperator omnium,
Ipse cuncta quae creavit pulchra fecit Artifex.
Inter haec creata, septem pulchriora praeeminent:
Picta coeli sphaera lucis emicante gratia;
Alma solis inter astra candidansque gloria;
Ac referta post bicome luna stemma lumine;
Fructuosus et virescens hortus flore germinum;
Thetyos serenitas quaeb visa mulcet omnium;
Sanctus ac• chorus piorum te Deum colentium;
Gloriosus atque rector optimus per omnia.
Liberalis et serenus, sanctitate praeditus,
Aequitate, puritate cordis ille praeminet.
Quern tremit superborumque reproburnque caecitas;d
a donatione] donatore H
b serenitas quae) serenitasque H
c ac]etM
d superborumque reprobumque caecitas] superbaque reprobum celsitas M
On Christian Rulers 107
can we have the thing entire [nor can we have the whole
merit of giving it} if we are paid a price for it. Hence such
generosity is more to be called commerce than benefit. Bene-
fits should be granted that, when given, do not damage the
reputation and godliness and justice of the good prince, and
according to the merits of persons and the advantages of
things, not according to the greed of the recipients, who do
not readily deny themselves, because they truculently and
violently demand what is difficult or impossible. Hence the
emperor Nerva said: 'Friends assume that they deserve to
have everything for themselves, and if there is something
that they have not succeeded in extracting they become more
violent.' 69
Thus in every distribution of temporal things, measure
and righteous intention are to be preserved in giving, so that
for the sake of the health of the commonwealth, the advan-
tage of Holy Church and the attainment of heavenly glory, all
things may be distributed through the munificence of a se-
rene prince to the good, the better and the best.
The Supernal Founder of the world, the Emperor of all
Is an Artist who has made beautiful all that He created.
Among these creations, seven are more outstanding in beauty:
The coloured sphere of heaven appearing in the grace of light;
The tender and bright glory of the sun among the stars;
The moon filled with light behind a crescent garland;
A fruitful and verdant garden of budding flowers;
The serenity of Tethys, gracing the appearance of all things;
A holy assembly of the godly worshipping thee, 0 God;
And a ruler glorious and excellent in all things.
Liberal and serene, gifted with sanctity,
He excels in equity and purity of heart.
Before him trembles the blindness of the proud and base;
69 Cf. Aurelius Victor, Epitome de ,aesaribus, ed. Pierre Dufraigne (Paris:
Collection Bude, 1975), c. 24.
108 De rectoribus Christianis
Qui bonos honorat sponte largitate regia.
Pacifer et beatus ille fit honesta• vinea;
Trinitatis est imago digna sorte coelitum.
X
[Quot columnis regnum justi regis sustentatur.]
Sed inter haec aliud quod est sciendum,b quoniam, ut sapientes
perhibent, sunt octo columnae quae fortiter regnum justi regis
sustentant. Prima columna veritas est in omnibus rebus regali-
bus. Secunda columna patientia in omni negotio. Tertia, largitas
in muneribus. Quarta, persuasibilitas seu affabilitas in verbis.
Quinta, malorum correctio atque contritio. Sexta, bonorurn
amicitia atque exaltatio. Septima columna levitas tributi in
populos. Octava, aequitas judicii inter divites et pauperes. Haec
sunt itaque octo columnae quae regnurn justi principis et in hoe
saeculo stabilitant atque ad aeternae stabilitatem gloriae perdu-
cunt.
Fabrica nulla tenet stabilem per tempora formam
Si non fulturis nixa sit ilia suis.
Nee stabilire queunt splendentia lumine templa,
Aula nee et regum his sine firma potest.
Justi rectoris propriis sic stare columnis
Publica res poscit propitiante Deo.
Prima columna micat veri speciosa decore,
At patiens regimen rite secunda tenet.
Tertia largiflua meritis dat munera dextra,
Quartaque, blandiloquax, dulcia verba sonat.
Quin ta malos reprimit, miro zeloque coruscat.
Gaudet sexta potens magnificare bonos.
Septima clernenter populi levigatque tributum.
a honesta] sicuti M
b aliud quod est sciendum] illud quoque sciendum est H
c Hae] HaecH
On Christian Rulers 109
Of his own will he honours the good with royal bounty.
Blessed bearer of peace, he is made like the upright vine;
He is an image of the Trinity, worthy of a heavenly lot.
10
The many pillars by which the just king's kingdom is supported.
But, as well as these things, there is something else that must
be known; for, as the wise hold, there are eight pillars that
firmly support the just king's kingdom. The first pillar is truth
in all royal affairs; the second pillar is patience in every matter;
the third, liberality in bestowing gifts; the fourth, persuasive-
ness or affability in speech; the fifth, the correction and dis-
comfiture of the wicked; the sixth, the friendship and
exaltation of the good; the seventh pillar is the lightness of
tribute imposed upon peoples; the eighth, fairness of judg-
ment as between rich and poor. Thus there are eight pillars
that both support the just king's kingdom in this world and
lead him to the steadfastness of eternal glory .7°
No building remains steadfast in form throughout time
If it cannot rely on its supports.
These can sustain temples resplendent with light,
But without them not even the palace of kings can be firm.
Thus, to stand upon its own pillars of a just ruler
The commonwealth calls upon the favour of God.
The first pillar shines gloriously with the splendour of truth,
Whereas patient rule is properly the second;
The third gives gifts to the worthy with a lavish right hand
And the fourth, pleasing speech, speaks sweet words.
The fifth reproves the wicked, flashing with marvellous zeal;
The sixth rejoices mightily to magnify the good;
The seventh mercifully lightens the tribute of the people,
- - - - - - - - - ---
70 See Introduction, pp. 17- 18.
110 De rectoribus Christianis
Ast octava regit justitiae trutinam.
Nititur his solidis res publica fulta columnis,
Sicuti mons Sion his stabilisque manet.
XI
[De eo quod bonus princeps ecclesiasticis causis benivola intentaque
sollicitudine favere debeat; et synodalibus conventibus.]
Cum itaque his octo columnis regiae potestatis eminentia ful-
ciatur, decet amabilem Deo rectorem causam sui personalem
utilitatibus postponere ecclesiasticis, ut in quantum memor
est beneficiorum Dei quae illi superna gratia concessit, in tan-
tum beneficii largitorem honoret.
Tune vero honorare Altissimum bonus princeps cognosci-
tur cum illorum qui laborant in agro Dominico, tamquam
magni regis dispensator,a adjutor et protector efficitur. Cer-
tum namque est quod tanto propitius causas terreni principis
Omnipotens sua pietate disponet quanto de sua, sanctae vi-
delicet Ecclesiae, causa illum sollicitum esse viderit. Haque
providus rector studeat facere quae Deo sunt beneplacita, si
ipse desiderat ut Deus faciat quae sunt illi prospera et glori-
osa.
Isque diligenti cura solerter provideat quatenus synodales
conventus per singulos annos bis vel ter fieri jubeat, ut quod ad
verum Dei cultum pertinet, quod ad ecclesiarum ipsius reveren-
tiam etb ad honorem pertinere cognoscitur sacerdotum, vel
quid contra mandata Domini gestum sit, in ipso reverendo
atque unanimo discutiatur conventu, ut quidquid bene sit ac-
tum· corroboretur, si qua vero sunt male gesta in melius
a dispensator] dispensatorum H
b et) quod add. H
c bene sit actum] bene actum sit M
On Christian Rulers 111
But the eighth rules with the scales of justice.
Thus sustained, the commonwealth rests upon these sound pillars
As upon Mount Zion, and remains steadfast upon them 11
11
Why the ~ood prince should support ecclesiastical causes with be-
nevolent and earnest care; and concerning synodal assemblies.
Because the eminence of royal power is supported by these
eight pillars, it is fitting for a ruler worthy to be loved of God to
disregard his own personal case in favour of the advantages of
the Church, so that, insofar as he is mindful of the blessings that
the supernal grace of God has conferred upon him, he may to
that extent honour the Giver of those blessings.
The good prince is understood to honour the Most High
when, like the steward of a great king, he becomes the helper
and protector of those who labour in the Lord's field. 72 For it is
certain that the Almighty will in His kindness dispose the cause
of the earthly prince more propitiously insofar as He sees that
he is careful of His - that is, of Holy Church's - cause. Thus let
the provident ruler take care to do those things that are pleasing
to God, if he desires that God should do those things that are
prosperous and glorious to him.
And let him wisely make provision in this regard, with dili-
gent care: let him command that synods be convened two or
three times in each year, so that what is known to pertain to the
worship of God, the reverence of His churches and the honour
of His priests, or whatever has been done contrary to the Lord's
commandments, may be discussed in that reverend and united
assembly, so that anything that has been well done may be con-
firmed and, if anything has been ill done, it may be corrected
71 Cf. Psalm 87:1- 2.
72 Cf. Matt. 20:8.
112 De rectoribus Christianis
corrigantur. Ubi et ipsi ecclesiaruma praepositi oportet ut inves-
tigentur qualiter suis ministeriis fungantur, vel quomodo ple-
bem sibi commissam tarn coelesti informent doctrina, quam
sanctae conversationis imbuant exemplo. Quae omnia si cum
pads unanimitate et canonica justitia subtiliter pertractentur,
fructuosa utilitas sanctae Ecclesiae gignitur, ac reverendi rec-
toris cujus benevola deliberatione simulh et auctoritate haec
aguntur, magni seminarium propagatur meriti.
Nam pretiosa religiosi principis est corona sanctum episco-
porum concilium, in quo famosissimus magnus videlicet Con-
stantinus imperator, exsultans in Domino, gloriabatur, qui
collectos ex omnibus fere gentibus quae sub coelo sunt, quibus
Christi praedicatum eratc Evangelium, viros sacratissimos plus
quam trecentos episcopos tarn doctrina quam miraculis corus-
cantes, propter catholicae discussionem fidei in unum, hoe est
Nicaenum, congregavit concilium. Uncle et hue usque mos
Christianus inolevit ut apud omnes orthodoxos Ecclesiarum
principes synodales fieri conventus decernatur, propter neces-
sarias sanctae Ecclesiae utilitates, quae non nisi synodalibus
investigari conciliis atque canonicis definiri sanctionibus de-
bent. Uncle cautum et humilem et valde circumspectum opor-
tet esse regem nee quidquam de negotiis ecclesiasticis judicare
praesumat antequam synodalia statuta cognoscat. Siquidem
ecclesiastica judicia valde sunt coram Deo periculosa nisi cum
maxima proferantur justitia, praecipue si per calumniosos ac-
cusatores et mendosos testes qui innocentes sunt examinentur
absentes, quod est Christianitatis alienum. Unde et illud in
Evangelio legitur: Nunquid Jex nostra judicat hominem, nisi aud-
ierit ab ipso prius et co8noverit quid faciat?
Pius itaque rector, tamquam luminosa pupilla, primo quod
justum et legitimum est secundum canonicas sanctorum
a ecdesiarum] 0111. M
b simul] scilicet M
c erat] est H
On Christian Rulers 113
for the better. It is fitting also that those who are set over
churches should be examined there as to how they have dis-
charged their ministries, or how they both instruct the folk en-
trusted to them in heavenly doctrine and imbue them with the
example of holy conversation. If all these things are minutely
discussed with the unanimity of peace and canonical justice, the
fruitful advantage of Holy Church is begotten and, for the rev-
erend ruler by whose benevolent consideration and authority
these things are done, a seedbed of great merit is propagated.
For a holy council of bishops is the precious crown of a reli-
gious prince, in which the most renowned emperor, that is,
Constantine the Great, rejoicing in the Lord, gloried, who as•
sembled the most holy men from almost all the nations under
heaven to whom the gospel of Christ was preached - more than
three hundred bishops, glittering with both doctrine and mira-
cles - to discuss the Catholic faith in one assembly: that is, the
Council of Nicaea. From this, indeed, the Christian custom has
grown so widespread that it is agreed among all orthodox
princes of the churches that synods should be convened for the
sake of the necessary usages of Holy Church, which should not
be examined except by synodal councils and defined by canoni-
cal ordinances. Hence it is fitting that a king be cautious and
humble and greatly circumspect, that he not presume to judge
of any ecclesiastical affairs before he has become acquainted
with the synodal statutes. For, indeed, ecclesiastical judgments
are especially perilous before God if they are not brought for-
ward with the greatest justice, especially if the innocent were to
be examined in their absence by slanderous accusers and false
witnesses, which is contrary to Christianity. Hence it is read in
the Gospel: 'Doth our law judge any man, unless it first hear
him and know what he doth?' 73
Like a bright pupil [of the eye], then, let the godly ruler first
attend observantly to what is just and lawful according to the
73 John 7:51.
114 De rectoribus Christianis
episcoporum sanctiones perspicaciter attendat; dehinc consen-
sum atque auctoritatis adminiculum his quae sunt vera et justa
adhibeat. Per se vero nullatenus de talibus praejudicium faciat,
ne forte errando ante conspectum Domini culpam aliquam de-
testabilem incurrat.
Uncle venerabilis memoriae Valentinianus imperator, cum
a sanctis episcopis rogaretur quatenus dignaretur ad emenda-
tionem sacri dogmatis interesse, Mihi, inquit, rnm minimus de
populo sim, fas non est talia perscrutari; verum sacerdotes, quibus
liaec cura est, apud semetipsos congregentur ubi voluerint. Et haec
quidem dicebat imperator tarn virtute humilitatis praeditus
quam Dei timore munitus, ne forte offenderet Altissimum si
suam propriam potioribus praetulisseta sententiam.
Hoe ipsum fecit, ut praedixi, magnificus et sapientissimus
imperator Constantinus, non in sua sed in sanctorum prudentia
sapientiaque episcoporum confidens. Hoe beatus Jovianus,b
Deo amabilis princeps, fide inconcussa servavit, qui, dum
hostis esset Arianae perfidiae atque sectator Nicaeni decreto-
rum concilii, ex momentaneo terrestris imperii fastigio
aeterni sibi gloriam regni comparavit. Quid referam de
duobus sacratissimis divina praestante gratia imperatoribus
a potioribus praetulisset) praetulisset potioribus M
b Jovianus] Jovinianus M
On Christian Rulers 115
canonical ordinances of the holy bishops, and let him thereafter
apply the consent and support of authority to those that are true
and just. But let him by no means himself judge these things in
advance, lest perhaps by erring he incur some detestable blame
in the sight of the Lord.
Hence the emperor Valentinian of venerable memory, when
asked by the holy bishops to what extent he would deign to
take part in the correction of sacred dogma, said: 'Because I am
the least of people, it is not proper for me to scrutinise such
things; rather let the priests, whose care this is, assemble them-
selves where they shall choose.' 74 And the emperor indeed said
these things fortified by both the virtue of humility and the fear
of God, lest perhaps he might offend the Most High if he should
prefer his own judgment to greater ones.
As I said before, the magnificent and most wise emperor
Constantine also did this, trusting not in himself but in the pru-
dence and wisdom of the holy bishops. The blessed Jovian, a
prince worthy to be loved of God, preserved this principle with
unshaken faith, who, forasmuch he was an enemy of the Arian
treachery and a follower of the decrees of the Council of Ni-
caea, acquired for himself from the brief summit of an earthly
empire 75 the glory of an eternal kingdom. 76 What, with God's
grace assisting, might I recall concerning two most hallowed
74 Cassiodorus 7:12 (Pl 69:1079).
75 Jovian - Flavius Jovianus - was acclaimed by the army as emperor on 27
June 363, the day after the death of his predecessor, Julian 'the Apostate.'
Jovian occupied the 'brief summit of an earthly empire' only until Febru-
ary 364. According to Christian hagiography, during a principate of
some eight months he restored Christianity as the official religion of
the empire, reversing the brief revival of paganism that had occurred
under the patronage of Julian. It is said also that he befriended Athana-
sius. It is impossible here to sort out fact from Christian embellishment
and wishful thinking, but the story found in Cassiodorus (see the fol-
lowing note) of Jovian's having issued an edict of toleration seems
unlikely to be true.
76 Cassiodorus 7:3 (Pl 69:1067-1069).
116 De rectoribus Christianis
Theodosiis? qui in tantum Omnipotenti placuerunt, ut regias
purpuras, sceptra quoque et apicem imperatoriae dignitatis
divinis praeceptis et canonicis institutis Domino inspirante
subderent, ac pium zelum erga Dei ecclesias indefessa chari-
tate semper haberent. Uncle illos universorum Dominus sub-
limavit in terris, et post praesentis gloriam felicitatis
tamquam dilectos sibi ministros in aeternum beatificat in
coelis.
Sed si quis est tantorum aemulus gloriae principum, si
quis Christianus rector feliciter et gloriose in hoe saeculo
regnare desiderat et ad palmam sempiternae beatitudinis
pervenire contendit, illorum fidelissimam erga cultum Om-
nipotentis imitetur devotionem, seque benevolum,
clementem, in judiciis districtum, in cordis humilitate man-
suetum, in visceribus misericordiae compatientem, in largi-
tate munificum, in zelo qui secundum Deum est fulmineum
circa Dei Ecclesiam solerter exhibeat, si consortio super-
norum civium cum sanctis et justis rectoribus regnare peren-
niter procurat.
Princeps magnificus quern Deus extulit
Ut praesit populo sceptriger indytus,
Debet Celsithrono se bene subdere,
Cedros qui Libani conditor edidit,
Montes qui superos vertice sublevat,
Qui gemmare facit ruraque floribus,
Pinxit quique polos sideribus Pater.
Qui coeli cherubim rex supereminet
Reges terrigenas malignos is ordinat;
Ob hoe provideat rector honoribus
Excellens superis• quos Deus attulit,
Olli quo placeat qui regit omnia.
a superis] superum H
On Christian Rulers 117
emperors, the Theodosii? So greatly pleasing were they to the
Almighty that, the Lord inspiring them, they subdued the pur-
ple robes of royalty and their sceptres and the pinnacle of impe-
rial dignity to the canonical precepts and decrees and, with
unwearied love, had always a godly zeal towards the churches
of God. Hence the Lord of all things lifted them up on earth
and, after the glory of present felicity, blesses them eternally in
heaven as His beloved ministers.
But if anyone is emulous of the glory of such great princes,
if any Christian ruler desires to reign happily and gloriously
in this world and to reach out towards the palm of eternal
blessedness, if he wishes to reign for ever with holy and just
rulers in fellowship with the citizens of heaven, let him re-
sourcefully imitate their most faithful devotion towards the
worship of the Almighty, and let him show himself benevo-
lent, clement, strict in judgments, meek in humility of heart,
compassionate with the bowels of mercy, 77 munificent in
bounty, and shining with a zeal for the Church of God, ac-
cording to His will.
The magnificent prince whom God has raised up
To hold sway over the people, the illustrious sceptre-bearer,
Must duly submit himself to the Throne on High,
To the Establisher who brought forth the cedars of Lebanon,
Who lifts up on high the greatest mountains,
Who makes the fields bud with flowers,
And the Father who painted the skies with stars.
The great King of Heaven Who overtops the Cherubim
Ordains the kings born of earth;
Thus let the ruler take care that, excelling
In the high honours that God has conferred,
He may be pleasing to Him, Who rules all things.
77 Cf. 1 John 3:17.
118 De rectoribus Christianis
Regnum qui tribuit maximus arbiter
Ilium magnificat quisquis eum colit
Verbo, corde pio, regimine, moribus,
Christi quique volens Ecclesiae favet.
Servator canonum, ductor et optimus,
Claret justitiae stemmate fulgidus;
Rex est jure sacer qui sacra dogmata
Ac decreta Patrum servat in omnibus.
Ilium clarificat pontificum chorus,
Ceu gemmae radiant in diademate,
Ut campum decorant violae ac lilia,
Illustrantque polum fulgida sidera.
XII
[De eo quod saluberrimis antistitum admonitionibus et correptioni-
bus pio rectori obtemperare sit gloriosum.]
Oportet autem modestum dominatorem pondere humilitatis et
obedientiae virtute fieri praeditum, ut virtutes, humilitatem vi-
delicet atque obedientiam, quam ipse in subjectis diligit in se
ipso recognoscat. Itaque si contigerit ut a prudentibus repre-
hendatur, se quidem reprehensibilem esse acriter doleat, ac
protinus ad poenitentiae medicamenta currere festinet; et qui
libenter peccaverat, virgam correctionis libenter atque gratanter
accipiat; et priusquam Creator manum suam ad feriendum ex-
cutiat, de correctione commissi sceleris summopere studeat, ne
tarn postmodum acrius destrictus judex feriat, quantum diutius
et clementer exspectat.
Praeoccupet faciem Domini in confessione si quis regni gu-
bernator in abscondito peccavit vel publico, quomodo de
sancto rege et propheta David legitur, qui cum post stuprum
Bethsabee et homicidium commissum in Uriam Hethaeum per
On Christian Rulers 119
The great Lord who distributes kingdoms
Magnifies whoever worships Him
In word, with a godly heart, by his rule, in morals,
And who is willing to befriend the Church of Christ.
The preserver of the canons, the excellent commander,
Let him shine forth, radiant with the garland of justice;
He is a king by right, the holy one who in all things
Preserves the sacred dogmas and decrees of the Fathers.
The company of the bishops makes him illustrious
Like jewels that sparkle in a crown,
As the milk-white lilies decorate a field
And shining stars light up the heavens.
12
Why it is ~lorious for a ~odly ruler to comply with the most whole-
some admonitions and corrections of the bishops.
It is fitting that a modest lord be imbued with the weight of
humility and the virtue of obedience, that he may recognise in
himself the virtues, namely humility and obedience, that he
himself loves in his subjects. Thus, if it should come to pass
that he is rebuked by prudent men, let him grieve bitterly that
he is indeed worthy of rebuke, and let him at once make haste
to run to the remedies of penance. Let him who has freely
sinned freely and gratefully receive the rod of correction, and
before the Creator stretches forth His hand to strike let him try
with all his might to correct the offence that he has committed
lest, thereafter, the strict Judge strike as much more sharply as
He has waited long and mercifully.
If any governor of a kingdom has sinned in secret or in
public, let him come before the Lord's presence in confession,
just as is read of the holy king and prophet David who, after
his dishonour of Bathsheba and the murder of Uriah the
120 De rectoribus Christianis
Nathan reprehenderetur prophetam, non erat reprehensori
indignatus, sed sibimet, recognoscens suuma peccatum, jam
fuerat iratus; et qui post culpam hilarescebat perpetratam, se
ipsum per amaram deflevit poenitentiam. Hine lacrymis ve-
niam promeruit qui coram Domino gravia scelera commisit, et
ex fonte lacrymarum venit ad manipulumb gaudiorum, sicut
ipse alibi <licit: Qui seminant in lacrymis, in exsultatione metent,
et reliqua.
Sed et illud quod de gloriosi principis Theodosii ad-
miranda humilitate atque poenitentia traditur nee praetere-
undum esse videtur, qui cum post injustam multorum
millium necem Mediolanum venisset, et solemniter in sacrum
voluisset intrare templum, ei sanctus Ambrosius, hujusmodi
cladem plenam valde gemitibus audiens, occurrit foris ad
januas et ingredientem his sermonibus a sacri liminis in-
gressu prohibuit: Nescis, imperator, perpetratae a te necis quanta
sit magnitudo? Neque post causam tanti furoris mens tua molem
praesumptionis agnoscit? Sed forte recognitionem peccati prohibet
potestas imperii. Quibus igitur oculis aspicies communis Domini
templum? Quibus calcabisc pedibus sanctum illius pavimentum?
Quomodo manus extendes de quibus adhuc sanguis stillat injustus?
Quomodo hujusmodi manibus suscipies sanctum DominiJ corpus?
Qua praesumptione ore tuo poculum pretiosi sanguinis percipies,
dum furore sermonum tantus injuste sit sanguis effusus? Recede
igitur, recede, nee secundo peccato priorem nequitiam augere con-
tendas. Suscipe vinculum quo tee omnium Dominus nunc ligavit.
Est enim medicina maxima sanitatis.
a recognoscens suum] suum recognoscens H
b manipulum] manipulos H
c ca/cabis] palpabis H
d Domini) Dei H
e te] 0111. H
On Christian Rulers 121
Hittite, when he was rebuked by the prophet Nathan, was
not indignant at his accuser, but, acknowledging his sin, was
at once angry with himself; and he who was joyful after the
wrong was committed now wept for himself with bitter peni-
tence. 78 In this way, he who committed such grave offences
before the Lord obtained pardon by his tears, and from the
font of tears came to the company of the joyful, as he himself
says elsewhere: 'They that sow in tears shall reap in joy,' 79 and
so forth.
But it seems that what is recorded also of the admirable
humility and penance of the glorious prince Theodosius [I]
ought not to be neglected. 80 When, after the unjust slaughter of
many thousands, he had come to Milan and wished to enter
with due ceremony into the sacred temple, St Ambrose, hear-
ing of such a calamity, so full of groans, hastened to meet him
outside the doors and, as he approached, forbade him to enter
the sacred precincts with these words: 'Do you not know, 0
emperor, how great is the magnitude of what has been perpe-
trated by you? After a case of such great fury, does your mind
not acknowledge the mass of its presumption? But perhaps
imperial power forbids the recognition of sin. With what eyes,
then, will you gaze upon the temple of the Universal Lord?
With what feet will you tread its holy pavement? How will
you stretch forth the hands from which even now unjust blood
is dripping? How will you receive the sacred Body of the Lord
into such hands? With what presumption will you feel the cup
of the Precious Blood at your mouth when so much blood has
been unjustly shed by the fury of its speech? Withdraw, then:
withdraw, lest to your former wickedness you hasten to add a
second sin. Receive the bond with which the Lord of All has
now bound you, for it is the greatest remedy for health.'
78 2 Sam. 11- 12.
79 Psalm 126:5.
80 Cassiodorus 9:30 (PL 69:1144-1147).
122 De rectoribus Christianis
His sermonibus obediens, erat enim divinis eruditionibus
enutritus, et aperte sciens quae sunt propria sacerdotum, quae
regum, gemens et deflens ad regalia remeavit. Cumque octo
mensium continuaa transissent tempora, propinquavit nativi-
tatis Salvatoris nostri festivitas. lmperator autem lamentation-
ibus assiduis in palatio residens, continuas lacrymas
incessabiliter expendebat. Ingressus autem Rufinus, tune [min-
ister]b et singularem apud principem fiduciam habens, et
videns principem in lamentatione prostratum, accessit ut
lacrymarum causas inquireret. At ille amarissime ingemiscens
et vehementius lacrymas fundens, Tu, inquit, Ru.fine, ludis et
mala mea non sentis; ego autem lamentor et gemo calamitatem
meam, quia quidem servisc et mendicantibus aperta sunt templa Dei,
et proprium Dominum ingredientesd libenter exorant, mihi vero in-
gressus ad eum non est. Insuper etiam clausi sunt coeli. Haec
dicens, verba singula singultibus irrumpebat.
Quern cum idem Rufinus beato reconciliare Ambrosio per-
suaderet, neque tamen potuit, c haec imperator in media jam
platea cognoscens, Pergo, inquit, et justas in Jacie suscipio contu-
melias. Cumque ad sacra limina pervenisset, in sanctam quidem
basilicam non praesumpsit intrare, sed veniens ad antistitem, et
inveniens eum in salutatorio residentem, supplicabat ut ejus
vincula resolveret. At ille tyrannicam dicebat ejus praesentiam,
et contra Deum vesanire Theodosium ejusque calcare leges.
Verum imperator, Non, inquit, insurgo adversus ecclesiasticas
sanctiones, nee inique ingredi limina sacra contendo, sed te solvere
vincula mea deposco, et communis Domini pro me exorare clemen-
tiam, nee mihi januam claudi, quam cunctis poenitentiam agentibus
Dominus noster aperuit. Tune antistes, Quam, inquit, poenitentiam
ostendisti post tantas iniquitates? Quibus medicaminibus incurabilia
a continua] continuo M
b minister] magister HM
c quidem servis) servis quidem H
d i11gredientes) 0111. M With what remedies have you treated incurable wounds and
e potuit) potuisset M
On Christian Rulers 123
Obeying these words, for he was nourished with divine
teachings, and knowing clearly what things are proper to
priests and what to kings, he returned groaning and weeping to
the royal apartments. And when a continuous period of eight
months had gone by, the festival of our Saviour's Nativity ap-
proached; but the emperor, remaining in the palace in unremit-
ting lamentation, shed continuous tears without ceasing.
Rufinus, then a minister having a position of singular trust with
the prince, entered and, seeing the prince prostrate in lamenta-
tion, approached, that he might ask the cause of his tears.
Groaning most bitterly and the more vehemently pouring forth
tears, he said: 'You, 0 Rufinus, make light of it and do not feel
my ills; but it is for me to lament and groan at my calamity; for
the temples of God are open even to slaves and beggars, and
gladly do they go in and entreat their Lord, but it is not for me
to go in unto Him; above all, even the heavens are closed.' In
saying these things, he interrupted every word with sobs.
When the same Rufinus tried to persuade the blessed
Ambrose to restore him, he was still unable to do so. Already in
the middle of the street when he learnt this, the emperor said: 'I
am on my way to receive just reproaches face to face.' And
when he had reached the sacred precincts, he did not, indeed,
presume to enter the holy basilica, but coming to the bishop and
finding him seated in the room where visitors are received, he
implored him to loose his bonds; whereas Ambrose declared
Theodosius to be present as a tyrant and to be raging against
God and trampling on His laws. 'Truly,' the emperor said, 'I do
not rise up against ecclesiastical sanctions, nor do I demand to
enter the sacred precincts unrighteously; but I beseech you to
loose my bonds and to entreat for me the mercy of the Univer-
sal Lord, lest the door be dosed to me that our Lord has
opened to all who do penance.' Then the bishop asked: 'What
sort of penitence have you shown after such great iniquities?
124 De rectoribus Christianis
vulnera plagasque curasti? At imperator, Tuum, inquit, opus est et
docere et medicamina temperare, meum vero oblata suscipere. Quibus
verbis imperatoris auditis, quae illius humilitatem atque ipsum
spontaneam poenitentiae suscipere afflictionem monstrabant,
sanctus Ambrosius salutarem ei medicinam tantorum vulnerum
apposuit; qua percepta imperator magnas gratias referebat.
Tali ergo tantaque et praesul et imperator virtute claresce-
bant, • quorum opus valde fuit admirabile, illius fiducia, hujusb
obedientia, illius zeli fervor, hujus autemc fidei puritas. Porro,
regulas pietatis quas a magno sacerdote percepit etiam rever-
sus in Constantinopolitanam urbemd servavit. Nam dum fes-
tivitatis tempore ad ecclesiam processisset, oblatis in altari
muneribus, mox egressus est. Cumque Nectarius praesul ec-
clesiae mandasset cur intus stare noluisset, mandavit princeps:
Vix, inquit, potui discere quae differentia sit imperatoris et sacer-
dotis; vix enim veritatis inveni magistrum; Ambrosium namque
so/um novi vocari digne pontificem. Tantum itaque prodest in-
crepatio a viro virtutisc prolata.
Unde perspicuum est quod decet bonos et pios rectores
salubres antistitum, quasi spiritualium medicorum, humiliter
et libenter auscultare correctiones, testante Salomone, qui ait:
Inauris aurea et margaritumf fulgens, qui arguit sapientem et
aurem obedientem. Melius est enim a sapiente corripi quam
stultorum adulatione decipi. Nam si nostrorum vulnera cor-
porum a medicis sanandas vehementer desideramus, et in
praesentia medicorum eadem ostendere non erubescimus, et
in dolore medicinae spe salutis oblectamur, quanto magis de
a clarescebant] clarebant H
b huius] autem add. H
c autem] 0111. H
d Constantinopolitanam urbem] Constantinopolitana urbe H
e virtutis] virtutibis florente H
111argarit11m) margarita M
g sananda] sanari M
On Christian Rulers 125
injuries?' Whereupon the emperor said: 'It is your task to teach
and devise remedies, and mine to receive what you have im-
posed.' When he heard the words of the emperor that showed
his humility and willingness to receive the imposition of pen-
ance, St Ambrose applied to him the saving remedy for such
wounds, having received which the emperor returned great
thanks.
Therefore both prelate and emperor, whose deeds were wor-
thy of much admiration, shone with great and manifold vir-
tue: the faith of the former, the obedience of the latter; the
fervour of the farmer's zeal, the purity of the latter's faith.
Moreover, he preserved the rules of godliness that he re-
ceived from the great priest even after he returned to the city
of Constantinople. For when he had processed to the Church
at the time of the feast, having offered his gifts upon the altar,
he immediately went outside. And when Nectarius the prel-
ate of the church had sent to know why he was not willing to
remain inside, the prince replied and said: 'I have only just
been able to learn what the difference is between an emperor
and a priest, for I have only just found a master of truth; for I
have discovered that Ambrose alone is worthily called a
bishop.' Of such profit, then, is a rebuke administered by a
man of virtue.
Hence it is clear that it is proper for good and godly princes
to listen humbly and gladly to the wholesome corrections of
the bishops, as of spiritual physicians, as Solomon bears wit-
ness, who says: 'As an earring of gold and a bright pearl, so is
he that reproveth the wise, and the obedient ear.'t11 For it is
better to be rebuked by a wise man than deceived by the adu-
lation of fools. For if we vehemently desire that the wounds of
our bodies be healed by physicians, and do not blush to reveal
them in the presence of physicians, and in the pain of treat-
ment are consoled by the hope of health, how much more
81 Prov. 25:12.
126 De rectoribus Christianis
vulneribus et plagis animarum nostrarum nos majorem
habere curam oportet, quousque spiritualis medicus, quam-
vis acerrimam medelam adhibeat, per quam spes certa
nostrae sanationis fiat? Sicut enim scalpellus medici non ob
hoe malus est quod resecet vulnera et putridas amputet
carnes, sic et correctio salubris.
Quam lux rutilo nova coelo
Fit grata habitantibus orbem
Post nubila noctis opacae
Phoebi radiante corona;
Quam ros sitientibus arvis
Post torrida caumata Cancri,
Boreae post frigora saeva
Ver florigerumque serenum:
Sic praeveniente piaclo
Animae fit chara medela.
Morbis medicantur anhelis
Jam quisque salubribus herbis
Tulerint quo corporis aegra.
Cura vigilante sagaci,
Famulae si tanta rependunt
Fragili medicamina cami,
Cur non potior medicina
Dominam [medicetur]• honoram,
Simulandob jura creantis
Animam deitate beandam?
Quis vulnera tollere culpae
Medico potest sine docto?
Caveant igitur dominantes,
Vitiis si mente Iabascunt;
a medicetur] medicatur HM
b Simulando] Simulanti H
On Christian Rulers 127
fitting is it to have care for the wounds and injuries of our
souls until a spiritual physician apply the remedy, however
bitter, through which there may be a certain hope of health? 82
For just as the physician's knife is not evil because it cuts out
wounds and amputates putrid flesh, so is it also with whole-
some correction.
As new light in the ruddy heaven
Coming from Phoebus' s shining crown
Is welcome to those who dwell on earth
After the dark clouds of night;
Like a shower to the thirsty soil
After the parched heat of summer
And flower-bearing, tranquil s pring
After Boreas' s cruel frosts:
So a timely offering
Is a precious salve for the soul.
If those who now treat breath-stealing sickness
With the wholesome herbs
By which they take away the body's sicknesses
With vigilant and skilful care,
If they weigh out such medicines
To fragile flesh, the servant,
Why should a more powerful medicine
Not cure its honourable mistress
By urging her to the duties that make
A soul pleasing to the Deity?
Who can take away the wounds of guilt
Without a learned physician?
Let lords beware, then,
If they have yielded in their mind to vices,
82 Cf. Matt. 9:12; Mark 2:17; Luke 5:31.
128 De rectoribus Christianis On Christian Rulers 129
Adeant medicosque peritos - And let them approach skilled physicians -
Christi pietate ministros Ministers of Christ's goodness,
Quis discant subdere colla• - To whom let them learn to bow the neck -
Qui possunt pellere morbos Who can banish diseases
Oleo vinoque salubri. With oil and the wine of salvation,
Nee non coelestibus herbis And, with heavenly herbs
Paradisi flore creatis Sprung from the garden of Paradise,
Exstinguunt <lira venena. Extinguish dire poisons.
Revocant animas et ab imis These recall souls even from the depths
Verbo virgaque potenti, With a word and a mighty rod,
Quas sancta coelitus arte And with holy, heavenly art
Revehunt ad pascua vitae. Lead them back to the pastures of life.

XIII
13
(De zelo boni rectoris rationabili ac pietate permixto.]
Concerning the zeal of the ~ood ruler, combining
Non est facile hominibus universas vitare hostis insidias. Nam reason and piety.
dum quispiam libidinis effugerit passionem, incurrit in
It is not easy for men to avoid the universal assaults of the En-
avaritiam; qua declinata, invidiae fovea praeparatur; hanc si
emy. For while someone is in flight from the passion of lust he
transcenderit, vitium furoris incurrit, et alios plurimos laqueos
encounters avarice, having turned aside from which the pit of
ponit inimicus, quo capere possit incautos. Et corpus quidem
envy is prepared; if he has stepped over this, he incurs the sin
passiones habet facile ministrantes, ut animam possit occidere;
of anger; and the Foe sets out many other snares by which he
sed mens divino solatio vigilans machinationum ejus destruit
can catch the incautious.83 And, indeed, he easily finds minis-
argumenta.
ters in the bodily passions, that he may slay the soul. But, with
Humanam naturam participatus Theodosius praefatus
divine solace, the vigilant mind destroys the tricks of his de-
imperator, habuit passionum quoque communionem, jus-
vices.
toque furori immensamb permiscens crudelitatem, injustam
As a sharer in human nature, the aforesaid emperor Theo-
operatus est passionem; quam rem narrare necessarium est
dosius had also a share of the passions, and, by mingling just
propterc utilitatem legentium. Thessalonica civitas est grandis
wrath with immense cruelty, became the instrument of an un-
just passion. It is necessary to tell the story for the benefit of
a Christi pietate ministros/Quis discant subdere colla] Quis discant sub-
readers. The city of Thessalonica is great and populous; in
dere colla,/Christi pietati ministros H
b immensam] 0111. H
c propter) pro H 83 Cf. Isa. 24:17-18; Jerem. 48:43-44; Luke 10:18-19.
130 De rectoribus Christianis
et populosa, in qua, durn fuisset orta seditio, quidarn judicum
lapidati sunt atque tracti. Hine indignatus Theodosius non re-
frenavit infirmitatem iracundiae,• sed jussit injustos gladios
super omnes evaginari, et una cum nocentibus innocentes in-
terimi. Septem millia etenim hominum, sicut fertur, occisi
sunt, non praecedente judicio, sed tarnquam in rnessibus om-
nes simul incisi sunt. Quam ob rem, ut diximus,b beatus Am-
brosius praefatum imperatorem sancto zelo succensus graviter
redarguit, ac furorem principis irrationabilem et scelus nefan-
dum severa invectione detestatus fuit.
Unde bonus et prudens rei publicae gubemator aptum est ut
illud praecaveat, ne durn suarn suorurnve injuriam ulcisci supra
modum disponit, irrationabilis reatum furoris incidat; sed pro-
priam iram refrenare non negligat, et justi furoris stimulos af-
fectu pietatis removeat, ne forte si plus justo desaeviat in
subjectos, incurrat rabiem leoninae ferocitatis. Unde scriptum
est: Noli esse sicut leo in domo tua, subvertensc domesticos tuos, et
opprimens subjectos tibi. Nam sicut debellare superbos, ita et
parcere subjectis, justum et misericordem dominum oportet.
Unde et Antoninus imperator dicebat malle se unum civem
servare quam mille hostes occidere. In corrigendis itaque
criminibus rniscenda est lenitas cum severitate; faciendum ex
utraque temperamentum, ut neque multa asperitate exulceren-
tur subditi, neque nimia benignitate solvantur.
Nee ullad correctionis seu vindictae habeat modum nisi
recte praecedat judicium. Nee decet serenum rectorem furore
iracundiae,c tamquam felle amaritudinis, esse perturbatum, si
justum vult proferre judicium, cum nimis irascentium caeca
a non ... iracundiae] iracundiae non refrenavit infirmitatem H
b diximus] praediximus H
c subvertens) evertens Vulg.
d ulla] culpa add. H
e iracundiae) quae add. H
On Christian Rulers 131
which, when sedition had arisen, certain judges were stoned
and dragged away. Indignant at this, Theodosius did not re-
strain the infirmity of anger but commanded unjust swords to
be drawn upon everyone, and the innocent were slain along
with the guilty. For, as it is reported, seven thousand men
were cut down, not having been judged beforehand, but all
together, like a harvest. For this reason, as we have said, the
blessed Ambrose, kindled with holy zeal, gravely rebuked the
aforementioned emperor and castigated the anger and the
abominable act of the prince in plain terms.
Hence it is proper that the good and prudent ruler of a
commonwealth should beware lest he fall into the guilt of un-
reasonable fury when he resolves to avenge beyond the proper
measure an injury to himself or his people. Rather, let him not
neglect to curb his own anger, and let him turn aside the goads
of just wrath with godly affection, lest perhaps, if he should
vent his anger on his subjects beyond what is just, he take on
the rage of a ferocious lion. Hence it is written: 'Be not as a
lion in thy house, terrifying them of thy household, and op-
pressing them that are under thee.' 84 For it is as much fitting
for a just and merciful lord to spare his subjects as to subdue
the proud. Hence also the emperor Antoninus said that he
would rather spare one citizen than slay a thousand enemies. ss
Thus, in correcting crimes, let lenity be mingled with severity,
and from both let a middle way be fashioned, so that subjects
are neither chafed by much harshness nor made complacent
by excessive kindness.
Nor should anything have the character of correction or
vengeance unless a proper judgment precedes it. Nor is it
proper for a serene ruler, if he wishes to deliver a just judg-
ment, to be disturbed by the fury of wrath like the venom of
bitterness; for the judgments of those who are excessively
84 Ecdus. 4:35.
85 Scriptores historiae A11g11stae: Antoni1111s Pius 9:10.
132 De rectoribus Christianis
sint judicia. Non enim potest serenum lumen justitiae ac veri-
tatis cernere, qui caligine obnubilatur iracundiae. Opponatur
itaque fortis patientiae dypeus contra irrationabilis impetum
furoris. Nam, sicut scriptum est, Melior est patiens viro forte, et
qui dominatur animo suo expuRnatore urbium. Fortior enim esta
qui violentiam et in se ipso indusam feram superat iracun-
diam quam qui leonem perimit.
Quanta vero mala per subitaneum furorem et impatientiae
vitium eveniant, quis explicare potest? Rex Saul, furoris im-
petum non refrenans, immani saevitia sacerdotes Domini tru-
cidavit. Salomon quoque, quamvis splendore sapientiae fuerat
illuminatus, tamen furoris passione repletus, suum fratrem
interfici praecepit, pietatem tyrannidi postponens. Quid ref-
eram de reprobis Judaeis, qui dum zelum sed non secundum
scientiam habuerunt, in Filium Dei et sanctos ejus discipulos
homicidae exstiterunt? At patientis virtute mansuetudinis
sanctus David praeditus, etiam inimicis suis saepe pietatis af-
fectu pepercit, nonnunquam vero Dei zelo stimulatus inimicos
Domini usque ad mortis exitium protrivit.
Decet enim dilectum Deo principem contra hostes et blas-
phemos Christiani nominis fulmineum frequenter habere
zelum. Nam si Nabuchodonosor, rex alienigena, ne blasphema-
retur Deus Israel in tantum saevit ut tale decretum firmaret,
dicens: Quicunque dixerit blasphemiam in Deum Sidrac, Misac et
AbdenaRo, ipsi in interitum erunt, et domus eorum in perditionemb -
a enim est] est enim H
b Quicunque ... perditio11e111] quaecumque locuta fuerit blasphemiam contra
Deum Sidrach Misach et Abdenago dispereat et domus eius vastetur
Vulg.
On Christian Rulers 133
angry are blind. For he who is clouded by the darkness of wrath
cannot discern the calm light of justice and truth. Thus let the
strong shield of patience be set up against the onset of unrea-
sonable anger. For, as it is written: 'The patient man is better
than the valiant, and he that ruleth his spirit than he that taketh
cities.'116 For he who overcomes the violence and savage wrath
enclosed within himself is stronger than he who destroys a lion.
Who can tell how many evils come about through sudden
rage and the vice of impatience? Not curbing his violent fury,
King Saul slew the priests of the Lord with dreadful cruelty. 87
Solomon also, however much enlightened by the splendour of
wisdom, nonetheless, when filled with the passion of rage, or-
dered his own brother to be slain, setting aside godliness in
favour of tyranny.118 What shall I say of the wickedness of the
Jews? While they had zeal, it was not according to wisdom,89
and they came forth as murderers against the Son of God and
His holy disciples. By contrast, the holy David, gifted with the
virtue of gentleness, often spared even his own enemies by
the affection of godliness,90 though sometimes, fired by the
zeal of God, he oppressed the enemies of the Lord even unto
the destruction of death.
Thus it is proper for the prince beloved of God frequently
to have a burning zeal against the enemies and blasphemers of
the name of Christian. For if Nebuchadnezzar, king of a for-
eign nation, was so enraged lest the God of Israel be blas-
phemed that he established this decree, saying: 'Whoever shall
speak blasphemy against the God of Shadrach, Misach, and
Abednego shall be destroyed, and their houses laid waste' 91 -
86 Prov. 16:32.
87 1 Sam. 22:17-23.
88 1 Kings 2:12-25.
89 Cf. Rom. 10:2.
90 Cf. 1 Sam. 26:7-12.
91 Dan. 3:29.
134 De rectoribus Christianis
quanto magis orthodoxos rectores contra inimicos Christianae
fidei et doctrinae atque religionis zelare oportet, quatenus Om-
nipotenti, cujus ministri gratia sunt ordinati, tanto magis
placeant quanto ferventius ea quae Christi sunt laudabili zelo•
satagere anhelant?
Post inclytos labores
Ac laurea tropaea,
Toga candente pacis
Et regia corona
Lectis micante gemmis
Auroque compta flavo;
Cum purpura coruscatb
Aulae decorus ordo,
Feliciter regentem
Cum sors beata comat:
Quam saepe mentis aulam
Perturbat ira praeceps,
Ac zelus ardet intus
Caeco furore cretus!
Aenea fervet olla,
Nee sic furens in astra,
Ceu principis severa
Cor saevit ut leaena.
Nolens modum tenere
lnfecta mens veneno.
Miscat tus< ergo menti
FlagransJ adore pacis
Dux fiat, ac serenus
Grato nitente vultu.
a laudabili zelo] zelo laudabili H
b coruscatJ coruscet H
c Miscat tus] Misceatur M
d Flagrans] Flagransque M
On Christian Rulers 135
how much more fitting is it that orthodox rulers should be
zealous against the enemies of the Christian faith and doctrine
and religion, so that the more fervently they pant with praise-
worthy zeal to concern themselves with the things that belong
to Christ, the more pleasing they may be to the Almighty
Whose grace has ordained them as ministers? 92
After glorious labours
And laurel trophies,
When the pure white toga of peace
And a royal crown
Sparkling with choice gems
And fashioned with yellow gold
Happily adorns the ruler
With blessed fortune
And the noble order of the palace
Is glittering with purple robes,
How often does headlong anger
Disturb the palace of the mind
And, within it, jealousy burns,
Born of blind fury!
A brazen pot does not seethe,
Nor is there fury in the heavens,
Like the stern mind of a prince
Corrupted with poison.
Unwilling to hold a middle course
His heart rages like a lioness.
Let him therefore mingle in his mind
Incense burning with the fragrance of peace;
And let the chieftain be serene,
Shining with a pleasant countenance;
92 Rom. 13:4.
136 De rectoribus Christianis
Nee judicans sit ante
Quam veritas patescat.
Nam notione nocte
Cor splendet ut lucema.
XIV
[Deduce Christiano, ut non in sua et suorum fortitudine, sed in
Domino confidat.]
Sed dum boni rectores fastum superbiae tyrannidis in adver-
sariis debellare student, non in se nee in suorum fortitudine,
sed in Altissimi virtute et gratia totam confidentiam stabilire
debent, quia ipse est solus et potens protector omnium in ipso
fiducialiter sperantium. Unde per Psalmistam dicitur: Bonum
est sperarea in Domino, quam sperareb in principibus. Bonum est
confiderec in Domino, quam confidered in homine. Et alibi: Nolite
confidere in principibus neque in filiis hominum, in quibus non est
salus. Exietc spiritus ejus et revertetur in terram suam, et reliqua.
Cui etiam Jeremias concinit dicens: Domine, omnes qui te dere-
linquunt, confundentur; recedentes a te,f in terra scribentur;
quoniam dereliquerunt venam aquarum viventium Dominum.
Maledictus homo qui confidit in homine, et ponit carnem brachium
suum, et a Domino recedit cor ejus, et reliqua.
Nullus ergo debet confidere in homine, aut praesumere de
potentia quod nemos ei possit resistere. Praesumebat et silu-
rus piscis quod hamum sibi nemo jaceret, nemo tenderet
retia; et si incidisset, omniah disrumperet, et tamen fuscinam
a sperare) confidere Vulg.
b sperare] confidere Vulg.
c confidere] sperare Vulg.
d confidere) sperare Vulg.
e Exiet) Exibit
f ate] om. Vulg.
g de potentia quod nemo] quod nullus M
h omnia) universa H
On Christian Rulers 137
Let him not judge before
The truth has been revealed.
For when knowledge has been found
The heart shines like a lantern.
14
ConcerninK the Christian commander, that he should trust neither in
his own strenKth nor in that of his people,
but in the Lord.
But when good rulers endeavour to subdue the haughty pride of
tyranny in their adversaries, they must repose total confidence
not in themselves nor in the fortitude of their people, but in the
strength and grace of the Most High, for He is the only and
mighty Protector of all who confidently trust in Him. Hence
through the Psalmist it is said: 'It is good to confide in the Lord,
rather than to have confidence in man. It is good to trust in the
Lord, rather than to trust in princes.' 93 And elsewhere: 'Put not
your trust in princes: in the children of men, in whom there is no
salvation. His spirit shall go forth, and he shall return into his
earth,' 94 and so on; in which the prophet Jeremiah concurs, say-
ing: 'O Lord, all that forsake Thee shall be confounded; they
that depart from Thee, shall be written in the earth, because
they have forsaken the Lord, the vein of living waters. Cursed
be the man that trusteth in man, and maketh flesh his arm, and
whose heart departeth from the Lord,' 95 and so on.
No one, therefore, should trust in man or presume on the
strength of his power that no one may be able resist him. The
Silurus fish indeed presumed that no one would cast a hook at
him, no one would spread nets, and that if such things hap-
pened, he would break them all apart, yet nonetheless he did
93 Psalm 118:8-9, but with the order of the verses transposed.
94 Psalm 146:3-4.
95 A conflation of Jerem. 17:13 and 17:5.
138 De rectoribus Christianis
non evasit. Quod si quis singulari fortitudine excellens ob hoe
singulos non timeat, idem multos necesse est ut caveat. Nam
qui ab uno vinci non potest interdum a multis vincitur. Ele-
phans grandis est, et occiditur; leo fortis est, et perimitur;• ti-
gris fortis est, et occiditur. Prudentis autem rectoris est etiam
metuere vel praecavere inferiores, cum saepe ab inferioribus
superioresb superentur. Quam immanis est crocodilus et den-
tibus atque unguibus intolerabilis qui tamen ab [enhydro]c
bestiola ventre perimitur. Monoceron elephantem cornu per-
forat; formidabilis elephantus murem timet; leo rex ferarum
exiguo scorpionis aculeo occiditur. Nemo itaque in suis viri-
bus temere praesumat.
Sed neque.i in suorum fortitudine ac numerositate confidat.
Xerxes, rex Persarum, bellum adversus Graeciam a patre sus-
ceptum per quinquennium instruxit; qui, videlicet Xerxes,
septingentosc millia armatorum de regno, et trecentosf millias
de auxiliis, rostratas etiam navesh mille ducentas, onerarias
tria millia numero habuisse narratur; ut merito inopinato exer-
citui, immensaeque classi vix ad potum flumina, vix terras ad
ingressum, vix maria ad cursum suffecisse memoratum sit.
Sed Leonidas rex Spartanorum cum quatuor millibus homi-
num contra mille millia armatorum ejusdem Xerxis in bellum
processit, ac, deletis Persarum copiis, victor et bello claris-
simus cum suis paucis pro amore liberandae' patriae occubuit.
a et perimitur] 0111. M
b superiores] atque fortiores add. H
c enhydro] enidro H enideo M
d neque] ne quis H
e septingentos] DCC HM
f trecentos] CCC HM
g milliaj om. H
h naves] 0111. M
liberandae] deliberandae H
On Christian Rulers 139
not escape the trident. 96 But if there is anyone excelling in re-
markable fortitude who for this reason does not fear individual
men, it is still necessary for him to be on his guard against
many, for he whom one man cannot defeat is sometimes de-
feated by many. The elephant is large, yet he is slain; the lion is
strong, yet he is destroyed; the tiger is strong, yet he is slain. It is
for the prudent ruler also to fear and guard against lesser men,
for the greater are often overthrown by the lesser. How vast and
irresistible is the crocodile, with his teeth and claws, who is
nonetheless destroyed by a little creature in his stomach, the
enhydris. 97 The unicorn pierces the elephant with his hom;98 the
formidable elephant fears the mouse; the lion, king of the
beasts, is slain by the little sting of the scorpion. 99 Thus let no
one venture to rely on his own powers.
But nor should he trust in the strength and numerousness of
his soldiers. Xerxes, king of the Persians, spent five years pre-
paring for the war against the Greeks begun by his father. He -
that is, Xerxes - is said to have had seven hundred thousand
armed men of his kingdom and three hundred thousand of his
allies, and also twelve hundred beaked ships [ships equipped
with rams], and transports to the number of three thousand, so
that it is with good reason observed that for so amazing an
army and so vast a navy there were hardly enough rivers to
drink, lands to occupy and seas to cross. 100 But Leonidas, king
of the Spartans, went forth to war with four thousand men
against Xerxes's thousands upon thousands of soldiers; and,
having destroyed large numbers of the Persians, Leonidas, a
victor most glorious in war, lay dead with a few of his men for
the love of delivering the fatherland.
96 Isidore, Hexam. 5:5:14 (CSEL 32(1):150); Cf. Pliny, Historia naluralis, ed.
H. Rackham (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1938), 9:15.
97 Isidore, Etymol. 12:2:36 (PL 82:439); 12:6:19 (PL 82:452).
98 Isidore, Etymol. 12:2:12 (PL 82:435).
99 Isidore, Hexam. 6:6:37 (CSEL 32(1):228).
100 Orosius, Historiar advers11111 paganos 2:9 (PL 31:765-767).
140 De rectoribus Christianis
Xerxes vero, hello in Graecia infeliciter gesto contemptibilis
suis foetus, in regia circumventus occiditur. Nam saecularis glo-
riae et incurvabilis superbiae pedisequa est ignominia. Hine per
prophetam• dicitur: Dominus exercituum hoe coiitavit ut detra-
heret superbiam omnis iloriae, et ad i~nominiam deduceret omnes
inclytos terrae. Non ergo glorietur fortisb in fortitudine sua, nee
dives in divitiis suis. Nam si eruca parvusque vermiculus for-
tior homine est, utquid se jactat terra et cinis, et elata per super-
biam, cum ex humo sit, humana contemnit? Itaque qui ~loriatur,
in Domino ilorietur, qui arcum potentium infirmat, et infirrnos
robore accingit; cujus adinventiones sunt ut superbi cadant et
humiles surgant; cui omnis potestas a Patre data est in coelo et
in terra, et omnia subjecta sunt sub pedibus ejus; in quo, si quis
fiducialiter anchoram spei fixerit, misericordia circumdabitur,
sicut scriptum est: Qui sperat in Domino, sublevabitur.
Exspectatio justorum laetitia, Psalmista attestante, qui ait: Con-
fidentemc autem in Domino misericordia circumdabit. Et iterum:
Beatus vir cujus est nomen Domini spes ejus.d Quis enim speravit
in Domino et confusus est? Quis permansit inmandatis ejus et
derelictus est? Quis invocavit Dominum et despectus est?
Quoniam pius et misericors estc Dominus.
a prophetam] Salomonem M
b glorietur fortis] fortis glorietur H
c Co11fide11te111] sperantem H Sperantes M
d Beatus ... ejus] Beatus vir qui posuit Dominum confidentiam suam Vulg.
e est] 0111. M
On Christian Rulers 141
Because he was made contemptible to his own people by the
unfortunate outcome of the war in Greece, Xerxes was circum-
vented in the kingdom and slain; for disgrace follows in the
footsteps of worldly glory and inflexible pride. Hence it is said
by the prophet: 'The Lord of hosts hath designed it, to pull
down the pride of all glory, and bring to disgrace all the glori-
ous ones of the earth.' 101 Therefore let not the strong man glory
in his strength, nor the rich in his riches. For if a caterpillar and
a little worm are stronger than a man, why does a thing of
earth and ashes boast and, lifted up with pride, despise human
things though he is from earth himself? Thus: 'He that glo-
rieth, let him glory in the Lord,' 102 Who weakens the bow of
the mighty and girds the weak with strength; 103 Whose de-
signs are that the proud should fall and the humble rise; to
Whom the Father has given all power in heaven and on earth,
and set all things under His feet; 104 in Whom, if anyone has the
anchor of hope fixed trustingly in his heart, he will be encom-
passed with mercy, as it is written: 'He that trusteth in the Lord
shall be set on high.' 1()'j
'The expectation of the just is joy,' 106 as the Psalmist bears
witness, who says: 'Mercy shall encompass him that hopeth in
the Lord.' 107 And again: 'Blessed is the man whose hope is in
the name of the Lord.' 108 For who has hoped in the Lord and
been confounded? Who has abided in His commandments and
been forsaken? Who has called upon the Lord and been de-
spised? For the Lord 'is compassionate and merciful.' 109
101 Isa. 23:9.
102 1 Cor. 1:31.
103 Cf. 1 Sam. 2:4.
104 Cf. Matt. 28:18; 1 Cor. 15:25, 27.
105 Prov. 29:25.
106 Prov. 10:28.
107 Psalm 32:10.
108 Psalm 40:4.
109 Ecclus. 2:13.
142 De rectoribus Christianis
Quisquis bellipotens saevis confidit in armis,
In se sive suis spem male fidus habens,
lnstabili tremulans folio simulabitur ille
Grando quod excussit, quod notus atque movet.
Cujus loricae textura rigente metallo
Ut fragilis telae nu tat araneolae.
Plumbeus ut pugio gladius lentescit acutus,
Nee fidus dominum protegit et clypeus.
Quern galeae tutela premit ceu lanea cassis,
Lancea vulnipotens sicut harundo valet.
Talibus horrendus jactabat saepea Golias,
Quern funda missus stravit ab hoste lapis.
Ilium non juvitb clypeus, non arma tremenda,
Nonque minax sermo profuit allophylo.
Sileo, si tigris, perimuntur,c si crocodilus,
Ingens si murem trux elephasque timet;
Ergo nee in propriis fidendum viribus ulli
Belligero, quamvis aenea membra gerat.
In Domino potius vivo spes tota locetur,
Qui regit altithronus numine regna Deus.
Qui dat et Omnipotens ducibus sperare supema,
Virtutem valida vincere posse manu.
xv
[De eo quod imminentibus hostilium bellorum fra~oribus divinum
sit implorandum auxilium.]
Unde si quando bellici rumores crebrescant, non tarn in armis
corporalibus et fortitudine confidendum quam assiduis ad
Dominum orationibus est insistendum, Deique sunt im-
ploranda auxilia,d cujus in manibus consistit salus, pax atque
victoria; qui si pia devotione invocatus fuerit, nunquam
a saepe) sene H
b juvit) vicit M
c perimuntur) perimitur M
d auxilia) suffragia H
On Christian Rulers 143
Whoever, being mighty in war, trusts in cruel weapons,
Vainly having confident hope in himself or his soldiers,
Will be like the inconstant trembling leaf
That the hail shakes off and the wind disturbs.
Though made of stout metal, the web of his mail
Yields like the frail web of the spider.
The sharp sword becomes soft like a leaden dagger,
Nor does even his trusty shield protect the lord.
The protecting helmet covers him like useless wool;
The mighty wounding spear is as strong as a reed.
Oft did the frightful Goliath boast in such things,
Yet a stone hurled from the sling of his foe laid him low.
A shield did not protect him, nor did tremendous arms
And threatening speech avail the foreigner.
If the lion, if the tiger, if the crocodile are destroyed,
If the vast and savage elephant fears the mouse,
Therefore let no warrior trust in his own powers
Though he have limbs of bronze; rather
Let him place all hope in the living Lord, Who rules kingdoms
By divine will: in the Power by which they may conquer
With a mighty hand - in Almighty God high-throned,
Who indeed grants to chieftains hope in heavenly things.
15
Why divine aid should be sought against the threatening noises of
hostile wars.
Hence if at any time rumours of war 110 are noised abroad, let
confidence be placed not so much in the strength of bodily
arms as reposed in the Lord, with unremitting prayers; and
let the help of God be implored, in Whose hand salvation,
peace and victory rest, Who, if called upon with godly
110 Cf. Matt. 24:6; Mark 13:7.
144 De rectoribus Christianis
se invocantes deserit, sed eisdem misericorditer adjutor in
[tribulationibus]a assistit. Nam cum suorum electorum manus
et voces ad Patrem misericordiarum elevantur, hostium feroci-
tas annihilatur, ac nonnunquam hostibus subitanea ignominia
mortisque fovea, piis vero inopina victoria disponitur. Oum
pii viam desperatae salutis impii autem decipulam insperatae
mortis intrant. Sed quod dicimus evidentibus exemplis nos
approbemus.
Moyses legislator cum manus suas in oratione elevabat ad
Dominum, vincebat Israel; cum autemb paululum remittebat,
vincebat Amalec. Sic et rege Ezechia non corporalibus arrnis
pugnante, sed cum lacrymis exorante, angelus Domini centum
octoginta quinque millia Assyriorum una nocte interfecit. Jos-
aphat rex laudes Domino personabat, et Dominus pro lau-
dante hostes superabat, ita ut reverteretc hostium insidias in
semetipsos, etd mutuis caderent vulneribus. Israelitae vero in-
gentem praedam de spoliis occisorum tollentes, ita onusti sunt
ut omnia portare non possent, nee per tres dies spolia auferre
prae praedae magnitudine.
Quid referram de Machabaeis qui divino freti adjutorio
saepe victores fuerunt? Unde et famosissimus ille Judasc atque
in bellis Domini invictissimus, ad plebem formidantem ac
dicentem: Quomodo poterimus pauci pugnare adversusf multitu-
dinem tantam ets tarn fortem, et nos fatigati sumus jejunio hodie?
respondit: Facile est concludi multos in manus paucorum; et non
a tribulationibus] importunitatibus H opportunitatibus M
b autem] om. M
c reverteret] converteret M
d et] vel M
e famosissimus ille Judas] Judas ille famosissimus H
f adversus] ad Vulg.
g et] om. Vulg.
On Christian Rulers 145
devotion, never forsakes those who call upon Him but merci-
fully assists them as a help in time of troubles. 111 For when
the hands and voices of His chosen people are lifted up to the
Father of mercies, the ferocity of the enemy is brought to
nothing, and sometimes sudden disgrace and the pit of death
is prepared for enemies, and for the godly an unexpected vic-
tory. While the godly enter upon the road of safety of which
they had despaired, the ungodly fall into the snare of unfore-
seen death. But let us prove what we say with evident exam-
ples.
When Moses the legislator lifted up his hands in prayer to
the Lord, Israel prevailed; when he relaxed them even a little,
Amalek prevailed. m So too, when King Hezekiah did not
fight with bodily arms but entreated with tears, the angel of
the Lord destroyed one hundred and eighty-five thousand of
the Assyrians in one night. m King Jehoshaphat sang praises
to the Lord and, in return for that praise, the Lord overcame
his enemies, so that He turned the ambushments of the en-
emy upon themselves and they fell with wounds inflicted
upon one another. 114 Indeed, the Israelites, taking away the
enormous booty from the spoils of the slain, were so laden
that they could not carry everything, nor in three days could
they take away the spoils, so great was the booty.
What shall I say of the Maccabees who, trusting in divine
assistance, were many times victors? Hence, when the fearful
people asked: 'How shall we, being few, be able to fight
against so great a multitude and so strong, and we are ready
to faint with fasting this day?', Judas, most famous and unde-
feated in the wars of the Lord, answered: 'It is an easy matter
for many to be shut up in the hands of a few, and there is no
111 Cf. Psalm 46:1.
112 Exod. 17:11.
113 2 Kings 19.
114 2 Chron. 20.
146 De rectoribus Christianis
est differentia in conspectu Dei coeli liberare in multis vel• in pau-
cis, quia non in multitudine exercitus victoria belli, sed de coelo
fortitudo est. Ipsi veniunt ad nos in multitudine contumaci et su-
perba, ut disperdant nos et uxores nostras et filios nostros, et ut
spolient nos; nos vero pugnernush pro animabus nostris et legibus
nostris, et ipse Domin us conteret eos ante faciem vestram. c Vos
autem ne timueritis eos. Sicque irrumpens in hostes, contrivit
eos, et victoriam accepit de inimicis suis.
Nee solum in Veteri Testamento haec facta sunt, sed etiam
in Novo his similia contigerunt. Uncle historiae tradunt quod
Constantinus imperator cruce Christi pro vexillo utens uni-
versos hostes suos superavit.d Similiter et Theodosius Augus-
tus magis orando quam bellando quosdam tyrannos
eorumque exercitus prostravit; cui Dominus tempestates,
fulgura et tonitrua in auxilium contra adversarios misit, et
eos vindicta coelesti protrivit, de quo quidam eleganter poeta
sic ait:
0 nimis dilecte Deo, tibi militat aether,
Et conjurati veniunt ad classica venti.
Quid autem mirum si per magna elementa magnus Domi-
nus magnalia operetur, cum etiam in minutis volatilibus stu-
penda miracula ipse facere praedicetur? Ecclesiastica namque
a vel) et Vulg.
b p11g11e11111s) pugnabimus Vulg.
c vestra111) nostram Vulg.
d superavit) superaverit H
On Christian Rulers 147
difference in the sight of the God of heaven to deliver with a
great multitude, or with a small company, for the success of
war is not in the multitude of the army, but strength cometh
from heaven. They come against us with an insolent multi-
tude, and with pride, to destroy us, and our wives, and our
children, and to take our spoils. But we will fight for our lives
and our laws, and the Lord Himself will overthrow them be-
fore our face. But as for you, fear them not.' 115 Thus, rushing
against the enemy, he crushed them, and seized the victory
over his foes.
Not only were these things done in the Old Testament, but
similar things have come to pass also in the New. Thus histo-
ries teach that the emperor Constantine overcame all his ene-
mies by using the Cross of Christ as his standard. 116 Similarly
again, Theodosius Augustus laid low certain tyrants and
their armies more by praying than by making war, for the
Lord sent tempests, lightning and thunder to him in aid
against his adversaries, and he crushed them with heaven's
vengeance. 117 Of him a certain poet elegantly speaks thus:
0 greatly beloved of God, the sky fights for you
And the leagued winds come at the war-trumpet's call. 11B
But how is it a wonder if the great Lord performs great
works through great elements when it is proclaimed that he
performs astonishing miracles even in little flying things? For
115 1 Mace. 3:17- 22.
116 Cassiodorus 1:5 (PL 69:888-889).
117 Augustine, De crv. Dci 5:26 (CCSL 47:161-162); Orosius, Historiar11111
libri septem 7:35 (PL 31:1153-1154).
118 The 'certain poet,' quoted inaccurately by Augustine and Orosius, is
Claudian, De tertio co11sulat11 Honorii pa11egyricus, ed. M. Platnauer
(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1922) 3:96-98:
0 nimium dilecte deo, cui fundit ab antris
Aeolus armatas hiemes, cui militat aether
Et coniurati veniunt ad classica venti.
148 De rectoribus Christianis
refert historia quod tempore [Constantini]• imperatoris rex
Persarum, Sapores nomine, Nisibin civitatem, quam quidam
Antiochiam Mygdoniam vocant, multis cum millibus obside-
bat, cujus urbis episcopus atque rector et dux erat sanctus
Jacobus, apostolicae gratiae radiis illustratus. Per idem ergo
tempus Ephraim, vir mirabilis et conscriptor egregius apud
Syros, sacratissimo Jacobo supplicabat ut veniret ad muros et,
videns barbaros, maledictionis jacula contra eos emitteret.
Flexus ergo venerabilis homo ascendit in turrim,b et cum mil-
lia millium videret exercitus, aliam maledictionem eis non
petiit nisi sciniphes et culices, ut per parva animalia supernam
virtutem potuissent agnoscere. Orationem vero secutae sunt
nebulae sciniphum et culicum et elephantorum quidem pro-
boscidas,c cum sint cavae, equorum vero aliorumque jumento-
rum aures simul et nares impleverunt.d At illi ferre vim
parvorum animalium non valentes, sessores suos ductoresque
excussos dorsis projecerunt, et disruptas acies confuderunt,
exercitumque relinquentes, summo impetu fugiebant. Hoe
modo territus imperator parvam clementemque correptionern
in se cognoscens factam a Deo habente providentiam anima-
rum eum pie colentium, suum exinde reduxit exercitum, con-
fusionem non victoriam ex ilia obsidione percipiens.
Legimus et alios sanctos viros quos contigit aliquando
cum Christiano populo in expeditionem exercitus esse, magis
oratione contra hostes quam armis saecularibus pugnasse;
quomodo sanctus Germanus Antissiodorensis episcopus
fecisse legitur, qui cum beato Lupo, episcopo Tricassinae
a Constantini] Constantii HM
b turrim] murum M
c proboscidas] promuscidas H
d impleverunt] implerunt M
On Christian Rulers 149
ecclesiastical history relates that in the time of the emperor
Constantine, a king of the Persians, by name Sapor, besieged
the city of Nisibis, which some call Mesopotamian Antioch,
with many thousands. 119 The bishop and ruler and leader of
the town was St James, enlightened by the rays of apostolic
grace. At the same time, Ephraim, a marvellous man and a
distinguished author among the Syrians, entreated the most
holy James to come to the walls that, seeing the barbarians,
he might send forth shafts of malediction against them. Per-
suaded, therefore, the venerable man ascended into a turret
and, when he saw the thousands and thousands of the army,
he directed no curse at them apart from stinging insects and
midges, so that through these tiny creatures they might ac-
knowledge the power of heaven. Truly, clouds of stinging
insects and midges followed upon his prayer and, indeed,
filled the trunks of the elephants, which are hollow, and, at
the same time, the ears and noses of the horses and other
beasts of burden. Unable to endure the violence of the tiny
creatures, they shook off their riders and leaders and threw
them from their backs; they brought disorder to the shattered
battle-line and, abandoning the army, fled with the greatest
impetus. Recognising in this way the small and clement cor-
rection wrought in him by the God Who has foreknowledge
of the souls of those who piously worship Him, the fright-
ened emperor thereupon led his army away, receiving from
that siege confusion, not victory.
We read also of other holy men whom it befell at some
time to be with a Christian people on a military expedition and
to have fought against enemies more by prayer than by worldly
arms, as St Germanus, bishop of Auxerre, is reported to have
done, who was sent into Britain with the blessed Lupus, bishop
119 Cassiodorus 5:45 (PL 69:1024-1025); 'Mesopotamian Antioch' because
the school at Nisibis was notorious as a centre of Antiochene (Nes-
torian) theology.
150 De rectoribus Christianis
civitatis, in Britanniam ad exstirpandam Pelagianam haeresim
missus fuerat, quo tempore necessitas belli Britonibus contra
Pictos et Saxones imminebat, quia Picti et Saxones, confi-
dentes in multitudine exercitus sui, Britones opprimere dis-
ponebant, quos eadem necessitas in castra contraxerat. Et cum
trepidi partes suas impares judicarent, sanctorum antistitum
auxilium petierunt. Itaque apostolicis ducibus Christus milita-
bat in castris. Aderant etiam Quadragesimae venerabiles dies,
quos religiosiores reddebat praesentia sacerdotum in tantum ut,
quotidianis praedicationibus instituti, certatim populi ad gra-
tiam baptismatis convolarent. Nam maxima exercitus multitudo
undam lavacri salutaris expetiit. Ecclesia ad diem resurrectionis
Dominicae frondibus contexta componitur, atque in expeditione
campestri instar civitatis aptatur.
Madidus baptismate, procedit exercitus. Fides fervet in
populo, et, contempto armorum praesidio, divinitatis exspec-
tatur auxilium. Tune Germanus ducem se praelii profitetur,
eligit expeditos, et e regione qua hostium sperabatur adventus,
vallem circumdatam editis• montibus intuetur, quo in loco
novum componit exercitum ipse dux agminis. Et jam aderat
ferox multitudo hostium, quam cum appropinquare intuerentur
in insidiis constituti, tuncb subito Germanus signifer universos
admonet, et praedicat ut voci suae uno damore respondeant;
securisque hostibus, qui se insperatos adesse confiderent, Alle-
luia jamc tertio repetitam sacerdotes exclamabant. Sequitur una
vox omnium, et elatum clamorem repercusso aere montium
conclusa multiplicant. Hostile agmen terrore prosternitur, et
a editis] mediis H
b tune] tum H
c jam] 0111. H
On Christian Rulers 151
of the city of Troyes, to root out the Pelagian heresy at a time
when the necessity of war by the Britons against the Picts and
Saxons was imminent. 12° For the Picts and Saxons, trusting in
the multitude of their army, were preparing to crush the
Britons, whom the same necessity had brought together into
a camp. And because the anxious [Britons] judged their
forces to be unequal, they besought the aid of the holy bish-
ops. Thus, with these apostolic leaders, Christ himself served
as soldier in the camp. Also, the venerable days of Lent were
come, which the presence of the priests made the more holy
inasmuch as the people, instructed by daily preaching,
flocked eagerly to the grace of baptism. For a great multitude
of the army asked for the bath of the water of salvation. A
church of woven branches was built for the day of the Lord's
Resurrection, and in the military camp the likeness of a city
was prepared.
Wet with baptism, the army went forth. Faith was fervent
in the people and, the protection of arms being despised, the
aid of Divinity was looked for. Germanus then declared him-
self the commander of the battle, chose lightly armed sol-
diers, and spied out a valley surrounded with high hills in
the direction from which the enemy's advance was expected,
where he arranged a fresh army with himself as leader of the
force. And now came the ferocious multitude of the enemy,
the approach of which was observed by those placed in am-
bush; whereupon Germanus the standard-bearer urged and
exhorted them to answer with their voices in one shout. The
priests now cried out 'Alleluia' three times at the heedless
enemy, who were confident that their approach was unex-
pected. The united voice of all the men followed, and the sur-
rounding hills multiplied the uplifted shout with an echo.
The hostile army was prostrated with terror, and they
120 Bede, Historia Ecclesiastiet1 Gentis A11gloru111, ed. B. Colgrave and R.A.B.
Mynors (Oxford, Clarendon Press, repr. 1992), 1:17; 1:20.
152 De rectoribus Christianis
super se non solum rupes circumstantes, sed etiam ipsam coeli
machinam contremiscunt, trepidationique injectae vix suffi-
cere pedum pernicitas credebatur. Passim fugiunt, arma pro-
jiciunt, gaudentes vel nuda corpora eripuisse discrimini.
Plures etiam timore praecipites flumen quod transierant
devoravit. Ultionem suam innocens exercitus intuetur, et vic-
toriae concessae otiosus spectator efficitur. Spolia colliguntur
exposita, et coelestis palmae gaudia miles religiosus amplecti-
tur. Triumphant pontifices, hostibus fusis sine sanguine; tri-
umphat• victoria, fide obtenta non viribus.
His itaque et talibus exemplis evidenter ostenditur quod
magis homines sanctis orationibus ac divino auxilio quam
armis saecularibus a periculo mortis protegantur, unde au-
tern solatia praesentis vitae, et defensio contra universa peri-
cula, et victoria de hostibus maxime quaerenda sit, ipse
Dominus in veteri lege priorem populum instruens ita osten-
dit, dicens: Si in praeceptis meis ambulaveritis, et mandata mea
custodieritis, et feceritis ea, dabo vobis pluviam inb temporibus
suis, et terra gignet fructumc suum, et pomis arbores replebuntur.
Apprehendet messium tritura vindemiam, et vindemia occupabit
sementem, et comedetis panem vestrum in saturitatem, d et absque
pavore habitabitis in terra vestra. Dabo pacem in finibus vestris;
dormietis, et non erit qui exterreat. Auferam malas bestias, et >tla-
dius non transibit terminos vestros. Persequemini inimicos vestros,
et corruent coram vobis. Persequentur quinque de vestris centum
alienos, et centum ex vobis decem millia. Cadent inimici vestri in
conspectu vestro. Gladio" respiciam vos, et crescere Jaciam, multi-
plicabimini. Et firmabo pactum meum vobiscum. Ponam taber-
naculum meum in medio vestri, et non abjiciet vos anima mea.
a triumphat] triumphant H
b i11J 0111. Vulg.
c fructum] germen Vulg.
d saturitatem] saturitate Vulg.
e gladio] gaudio M
On Christian Rulers 153
quaked not only at the surrounding cliffs but even at the
vault of the sky over them, and, stricken with fear, they be-
lieved the swiftness of their feet hardly sufficient. They fled
here and there, they threw away their arms, rejoicing to get
back to their own lines even with naked bodies; many also,
rushing headlong in fear, were swallowed up as they crossed
a river. The virtuous army observed its vengeance and be-
came an idle spectator of the victory granted to it. The aban-
doned spoils were collected, and the pious soldiers embraced
the joys of a heavenly palm. The pontiffs triumphed over
enemies routed without blood; they triumphed in a victory
obtained by faith, not might.
It is thus evidently shown by these and other such exam-
ples that men are protected from the peril of death more by
holy prayers and divine aid than by worldly arms, from
which solace in this present life and defence against all perils
and victory over enemies is above all to be sought, as the
Lord Himself shows in the Old Testament, instructing a for-
mer people, saying: 'If you walk in my precepts, and keep
my commandments, and do them, I will give you rain in due
seasons. And the ground shall bring forth its increase, and
the trees shall be filled with fruit. The threshing of your har-
vest shall reach unto the vintage, and the vintage shall reach
unto the sowing time, and you shall eat your bread to the
full, and dwell in your land without fear. I will give peace in
your coasts; you shall sleep, and there shall be none to make
you afraid. I will take away evil beasts, and the sword shall
not pass through your quarters. You shall pursue your ene-
mies, and they shall fall before you. Five of yours shall pur-
sue a hundred others, and a hundred of you ten thousand;
your enemies shall fall before you by the sword. I will look
on you, and make you increase; you shall be multiplied, and I
will establish my covenant with you. I will set my tabernacle
in the midst of you, and my soul shall not cast you off. I will
154 De rectoribus Christianis
Ambulabo inter vos, et ero vester Deus, vosque eritis populus meus.
E8o Dominus Deus vester. Quod si non audieritis me, nee feceritis
omnia mandala mea, si spreveritis lexes meas, et ;udicia mea con-
tempseritis, ut non faciatis ea quae a me constituta sunt, et ad irri-
tum perducatis pactum meum, e8o quoque haec faciam vobis:
visitabo vos in e8estate et ardore, qui conficiat oculos vestros et con-
sumat animas vestras. ~ Frustra seretis sementem, quae ab hostibus
devorabitur. Ponam faciem meam contra vos, et corruetis coram
hostibus vestris, et subjiciemimini his qui oderunt vos. Fuxietis, ne-
mine persequente. Quod si nee sic volueritis recipere disciplinam, sed
ambulaveritis ex adverso mihi, e8o quoque contra vos adversus ince-
dam; et percutiam vos septies propter peccata vestra, inducamque
super vos xtadium ultorem foederis mei. Cumque confu:?eritis in ur-
bes, mittam pestilentiam in [medio) I> vestri, et trademini inc hostium
manus; et reliqua.
Haec ergo licet priori populo, qui terrena bona ambiebat,
per legislatorem dicta sint, tamen Christiano nunc populo
convenienter aptari possunt, cui a Domino suo in praesenti
tribulatione consulitur, et insuper bona futura in coelis prae-
mittuntur. Huie ergo optime convenit ut mandata Domini sui
servet et totam spem suam in eo constituat, qui potens est ab
omnibus adversis in se sperantes eripere atque ad prosperita-
tis eventum et hie et in futuro suos electos transferre.
Ventosa cum desaeviat
Euri procella perstrepens,
Altitonansd de montibus
Cum nubilosa grandine,
a vestras] om. Vulg.
b medio) medium HM
c in) om. Vulg.
d Altitonans] Altis tonans H
On Christian Rulers 155
walk among you, and will be your God, and you shall be my
people. I am the Lord your God. But if you will not hear me,
nor do all my commandments, if you despise my laws, and
contemn my judgments so as not to do those things which
are appointed by me, and to make void my covenant: I also
will do these things to you. I will quickly visit you with pov-
erty, and burning heat, which shall waste your eyes, and con-
sume your lives. You shall sow your seed in vain, which shall
be devoured by your enemies. I will set my face against you,
and you shall fall down before your enemies, and shall be
made subject to them that hate you, you shall flee when no
man pursueth you. And if even so you will not amend, but
will walk contrary to me: I also will walk contrary to you,
and will strike you seven times for your sins. And I will bring
in upon you the sword that shall avenge my covenant. And
when you shall flee into the cities, I will send the pestilence
in the midst of you, and you shall be delivered into the hands
of your enemies,' 121 and so on.
Though these things were spoken by the legislator [Moses)
to a former people, who embraced earthly goods, they can
nonetheless now be applied appropriately to the Christian
people, for whom counsel is taken by their Lord in present
tribulation and to whom, above all, future goods are prom-
ised in heaven. Hence therefore it behoves them above all to
keep the Lord's commandments and to place all their hope in
Him, Who is mighty to save those who hope in Him from all
adversity and to convey His chosen people to the success of
prosperity both here and in time to come.
When the fickle gale
Of the east wind rages, howling,
Thundering on high from the hills
With cloudy hail,
121 A conflation and condensation of Levit. 26:3-17 and 26:23-25.
156 De rectoribus Christianis
Sylvae ruantque protinus,
Turbetur et actus maris,
Minas et astris inferat
Ventus crepanti fulmine;
Ferit pavor mortalium
Tune corda contrementium,
Ne sternal ira coelitus
Propaginern terrestrium.
Quisquis sapit pericula
Vitare corde provido,
Fugit, tirnens haec omnia,
Tutum capessat ut locurn.
Sic ingruente rnaximo
Adversitatum turbine
Totis petenda viribus
Celsitonantis dextera.
Beatus ille praerninet
Qui tune volante praepete
Oratione machinam
Poli penetrat arduam.
Alas habet haec aureas
Volucris ore lucida.
Laevam regit jejunium,
Dextrarn tenetque largitas.
Hane noscit ordo coelitum;
Gaudens salutat advenam,
Offert eamque gloriae
Tribunal ante principis.
Votiva [meritis}• xenia
Tune prendit, ipsa lactea
Poli revisit climata,
Donisque onustab gratiae.
a meritis) mentis HM
b onusta] omnia M
On Christian Rulers 157
And trees fall without ceasing,
And the motion of the sea is disturbed,
And the wind hurls threats at the stars
With crackling lightning:
Then panic strikes the hearts
Of quaking mortals
Lest heavenly wrath scatter
The children of earth.
Anyone with sense to shun
perils with a provident heart,
Flees, fearing all these things,
To seize upon a place of safety.
So when the great whirlwind
Of adversity makes onslaught,
Let us with all our powers call upon
The Heavenly Thunderer's right hand.
He is blessed above all
Who then, with swift-flying prayer,
Pierces the towering vault
Of the heavens.
This bird bright with prayer
Has wings of gold:
Fasting rules the left,
Liberality supports the right.
The heavenly order knows it;
Rejoicing, it salutes the newcomer
And offers it up before the tribunal
Of the Prince of Glory.
Then with merit that milk-white bird
Receives votive gifts
And returns to the regions of the sky
Laden with graces.
158 De rectoribus Christianis
XVI
[De adversis, si forte contigerint.]
At vero si bene regentibus et praecepta Dei custodientibus ali-
qua in hoe mundo adversa contigerint, nee mox debent con-
tristati ab eo refugere atque de ejus auxilio desperare, sed
fiducialiter agere ac de Dei bonitate pleniter confidere.
Siquidem haec transitoria vita est justo tentatio tota, in qua
plus interdum nocent prospera quam adversa; quia Dei electos
prospera dejiciunt, adversa vero erudiunt. Ut enim sapientes
perhibent, quinque temporum varietatibus regnum terrenum
consistit. Nam primum tempus laboris est, quando per
fragores hostium et bella contenditur. Secundum vero quando
ipsum regnum suis incrementis ut luna usque ad plenitudi-
nem tendit. Tertium tempus est ipsius plenitudinis, quando
undique ab omnibus non offenditur, sed in plenitudine gloriae
suae tamquam plenilunii claritas nobilitatur. Quartum tempus
est in quo ipsius regni sublimitas instar lunae decrescere in-
cipit. Porro quintum, quod est novissimum, tempus est colluc-
tationis et contradictionis, quando rei publicae quasi turris
Siloa summa corruit, ac nullus ad ipsam rem publicam sta-
biliendam quidquam boni facere vult.
Uncle colligendum est quam mobilis et quam variabilis sit
terreni regni gloria, quae nunquam in eodem statu perseverat,
sed sicut luna ut per momenta crescit in prosperis, ita et decre-
scit in adversis. At vero gloria sine mobilitatea nequaquam in
terrestri, sed in coelesti regno invenitur. In momentanea enim
hujus saeculi potestate, et confusa rerum transibilium incon-
stantia, quomodo saepe ex procellis adversitatum serenitas
a mobilitate] mutabilitat~ H
On Christian Rulers 159
16
Concerning adversities, if perhaps they should come to pass.
If any adversities befall those who rule well and keep the
precepts of God in this world, those afflicted should not at
once flee from Him and despair of His aid, but go on confi-
dently and trust fully in God's goodness. For the whole of
this transitory life is a temptation to the just, in which propi-
tious things sometimes do more harm than adverse ones, be-
cause the propitious ones bring down God's chosen ones
whereas the adverse ones instruct them. For, as the wise
hold, an earthly kingdom consists of five periods of
change. 122 For the first is a time of toil, when it is beset by the
crash of enemies and war. The second is when, like the moon,
the kingdom itself approaches by its increments towards full-
ness. The third period is its fullness, when it is untroubled by
all men everywhere, but is ennobled in the fullness of its
glory like the brightness of the full moon. The fourth period
is that in which the sublimity of that kingdom begins to
wane, in the likeness of the moon. In turn, the fifth, which is
the latest, is a time of struggle and contradiction, when the
summit of the commonwealth falls like the tower of Siloam 123
and no one is willing to do anything of good by way of
steadying that commonwealth.
Hence it must be understood how fickle and how variable
is the glory of an earthly kingdom, which never endures in the
same condition but, like the moon, increases for a while in
prosperity and then, in adversity, decreases, whereas glory
without fickleness is by no means found in an earthly king-
dom, but only in the heavenly. For in the momentary power of
this world and in the troubled inconstancy of things that can
pass away, just as tranquillity is often restored after storms of
122 Cf. Sedulius, Proverbia graecorum, ed. cit. pp. 129- 130.
123 Luke 13:4.
160 De rectoribus Christianis
redditur, ita rursum• in procellas serena mutantur. Itaque si
aliqua contigerint adversa, qui providus est rei publicae guber-
nator non1:> statim talibus tempestatum turbinibus infringatur,
sed e contra valida mentis fortitudine in Domino confortetur,
atque Omnipotenti gratias in adversis referat, qui in prosperis
successibus de Domini sui dementia grates agebat.
Parum est enim quando in Dei beneficiis quae nobis ac-
cidunt gratulamur, nam et hoe gentilis facit et Judaeus et pub-
licanus et ethnicus. Christianorum propria virtus est etiam in
iis quae adversa putantur referre gratias Creatori, ut in Dei
praeconium mens laeta prorumpat, dicamusque: Nudus exivic
de utero matris meae, nudus et redeam. d Sicut placuit Domino, ita
factum est; sit nomen Domini benedictum. Quoties enim aliqua
tribulatio in mundo evenerit, qui boni sunt, velut vasa sancta,
gratias agunt Deo qui eos castigare dignatur. Illi vero qui sunt
superbi vel luxuriosi vel cupidi blasphemant contra Deum et
murmurant, dicentes: 0 Deus, quidc tan tum mali fecimus ut talia
patiamur? At vero de bonis tribulatis ita in Job legitur: Beatus
homo qui corripitur a Domino! Increpationem er~o Domini ne
reprobes, quia ipse vulnerat et medetur, percutitf et manus ejus
sanabunt. Nam fomentis lenibus quibus nos Deus saepe conso-
laturg saepe etiam mordacissimum medicamentum tribula-
tionis adjungit, et quasi clementissimus medicus incidere
cupiens putridas carnes et cariosa vulnera adurere, cauterio
non parcit, ut parcat,h nee• miseretur, ut magis misereatur.
Interdum vero plus nobis utilia sunt bella et quaelibet ad-
versa quam pax et otium, quia pax delicates et remissos facit
a rursum) om. M
b non) necH
c exivi] egressus sum Vulg.
d 1111d11s et redeam] et nudus revertar illuc Vulg.
e quid) quod M
f percutit) percutiet H
g saepe consolatur] consolatur saepe M
h ut parcat] 0111. M
nee) non M
On Christian Rulers 161
adversity, so tranquil times are again changed into storms.
Thus if any unfavourable things arise, let the provident gover-
nor of a commonwealth not be at once disheartened by such a
whirling of storms but, on the contrary, let him with powerful
fortitude of mind take courage in the Lord, and let him who in
times of prosperous success gave thanks for his Lord's clem-
ency return thanks to the Almighty in adversities.
For it is not enough when we rejoice in the blessings of God
that descend upon us; for even the gentiles do this, and the
Jew and the publican and the heathen. It is the peculiar virtue
of Christians to return thanks to the Creator even in those
things that are deemed unfavourable, so that a joyful mind
may break out in celebration of God and we may say: 'Naked
came I out of my mother's womb, and naked shall I return
thither. As it hath pleased the Lord, so is it done. Blessed be
the name of the Lord.' 124 For as often as some tribulation oc-
curs in the world, those good men who are like sacred vessels
give thanks to the God Who deigns to chastise them, whereas
those who are proud or luxurious or greedy blaspheme
against God and murmur: 'O God, what great evil have we
done, that we should suffer such things?' Of the good who are
troubled, on the other hand, this is read in Job: 'Blessed is the
man whom the Lord correcteth. Refuse not therefore the chas-
tising of the Lord, for He woundeth, and cureth; He striketh,
and His hands shall heal.' 125 For to the gentle healing with
which God often consoles us He often adds even the most bit-
ter medicine of tribulation, and like the most gentle physician
wishing to cut into putrid flesh and burn rotten wounds with
an iron, He does not spare, that He may spare, nor does He
have mercy, that He may have greater mercy.
Sometimes, indeed, wars and adversities of some kind are
more advantageous to us than peace and idleness, because
124 Job 1:21.
125 Job 5:17- 18.
162 De rectoribus Christianis
ac timidos; porro bellum et mentem acuit et praesentia quasi
transeuntia contemnere persuadet. Ac saepe superna dispo-
nente gratia dulcissimos fructus majoris pads et concordiae
progenerat. Unde et Constantinus imperator, Suaviores, inquit,
sunt amicitiae post inimicitiarum causas ad concordiam restitutae.
Quisquis vero bonus et justus rector spirituales et carnales
hostes nee non quaelibet adversa vel evadere vel triumphaliter
vincere desiderat, armamentis spiritualibus munitus atque
ordinatus fiat, juxta Apostolum indutus lorica justitiae, galea
spei nee non clypeo fidei protectus ac divini sermonis gladio
coruscus emineat. His enim et talibus armis sanctos atque
clarissimos terrarum reges fuisse munitos, et superasse adver-
sarios, et ampla tropaea de hostibus retulisse, atque inclyta
regna diu et feliciter gubernasse, multis Scripturarum ina locis
saepissime legimus. Quomodo sanctus David, ut alios causa
brevitatis omittam, armis spiritualibus praeditus, quia Deum
verum toto corde timebat et amabat, multa evaserat pericula,
atque hostes Domini digna saepe perculit ultione.
Ut globus lunae modo luce crescit,
Ductus in sphaeram radiis coruscam,
Nuncque decrescit variante motu
Comiger orbis:
Regna sic terrae bifido tenore
Gloria creseunt modo prosperante,
Nunc et adversis minuuntur ortis
Aulica sceptra.
a in)om. M
On Christian Rulers 163
peace makes us delicate, remiss and timid, whereas war both
sharpens the mind and persuades it to despise present things
as transient. 126 Also, by the disposition of supernal grace, war
often produces the most sweet fruits of greater peace and con-
cord. Hence the emperor Constantine says: 'Friendships are
more agreeable that have been restored to concord after causes
of hostility.' 127 Truly, if any good and just ruler desires to
avoid spiritual and carnal enemies or triumphantly vanquish
them, let him be defended and equipped with spiritual arms.
Let him stand forth like the Apostle, clothed with the breast-
plate of justice and protected also by the helmet of hope and
the shield of faith and the bright sword of the divine word. 128
For very often, in many places in the Scriptures, we read that
the holy and brightest kings of the earth were indeed de-
fended by such arms and overcame their adversaries and
brought back ample trophies from their enemies and governed
glorious kingdoms long and happily. The holy David - let me
omit others for the sake of brevity - gifted with spiritual arms
because he feared and loved the true God with all his heart,
escaped many dangers and many times struck down the
enemies of the Lord with righteous vengeance.
As the globe of the moon presently grows bright,
Formed into a shining sphere of rays,
Yet now with changing motion
The horned orb wanes;
So the kingdoms of the earth, with course divided,
Presently increase, prospering in glory,
Yet now, by rising adversities,
Royal sceptres are diminished.
126 For this essentially Augustinian theme, see Dyson, St Augustine of
Hippo: the Christian Tra11sfor111atio11 of Political Philosophy, eh. 4.
127 Cassiodorus 1:19 (PL 69:819).
128 Cf. Eph. 6:13-17.
164 De rectoribus Christianis
Res quid humanas querimur fugaces
Esse ceu fumus fluviusque praeceps?
Nonne sic mundi variant recursum
Haec elementa?
Post diem claram tenebrae sequuntur,
Post serenatas placidas et auras,
Illico surgit nebulis opacis
Saeva procella.
Taliter dulcem sequiturque pacem
Litium gurges subitae ruinae,
Unde marcescit hominum propago
Flos velut agri.
At pius princeps Domino potenti
Corde contrito hilarique• vultu
Gratias, postquam nova damna sentit,
Taliter offert:
Patris excelsi be11edicta proles,
Qui creas totum renovasque mundum,
Nu11c tuae grates ferimus salubri
Nos medicinae.
Tune castigas medicanfe virga,
Nos vole11s salvos nitidos ut agnos
In tui sacra f,(regis esse caula,
Optime pastor.
Unde myrrhati calicem liquoris
Quem pie nobis tua dextra por[.(it,
Simus ut salvi, bibimus libenter
D011a salutis.
Nosque lorica renitente justi,
Ac spei tuta galea, flagrante
Ense sermonis, fideique scuto
Quaesumus arma.
a hilarique) hilaroque H
On Christian Rulers 165
Why do we complain that fleeting human things
Are like smoke and a headlong river?
Do not these elements thus mark out
The world's recurring course?
After the bright day, darkness follows,
After serene and placid breezes,
In that very place a fierce gale arises
With dark clouds.
In the same manner, after sweet peace
A flood of strife and sudden disaster comes,
And so the generation of men wither
Like flowers of the field.
But the godly prince,
After he has felt new losses,
With contrite heart and joyous countenance
Offers thanks to the Mighty Lord thus:
'O Blessed Offspring of the Father on High,
Who creates the whole world and makes it new,
To You we now bring thanksgivings
For your wholesome medicine.
Do you not chastise us with a healing rod,
Wishing us to be saved, bright like lambs
In the sacred sheepfold of Your flock,
0 Supreme Shepherd?
Hence from the liquid cup of myrrh
That Your gentle right hand extends to us
We willingly drink the gifts of salvation,
That we may be healed.
And with the strong breastplate of justice
And the protecting bright helmet of hope,
The sword of the word, and the shield of faith,
We ask to be armed.
166 De rectoribus Christianis On Christian Rulers 167
Et crucis signo radiante cornu And by the radiant sign of the mighty Cross
Exhibe votis populi precantis Grant to the prayers of a suppliant people
Hostium cunctos superare fastus To overcome all the pride of their enemies
Te dominante. With You as their Lord.'

XVII
17
[De non superbiendo post oblatam etiam ab hostibus pacem, seu
Concernin~ the avoidance of pride after peace has been offered even
prostratos hastes.]
by enemies, or when enemies have been laid low.
Qui bonus est princeps multis virtutum praeconiis adornatur,
He who is a good prince is adorned with many celebrated vir-
maxime vero dementia, mansuetudine, animae tranquillitate,
tues, but above all with clemency, gentleness and tranquillity
nunquam recipiens tempestatem, sed pads concordiam q~am
of soul, never allowing disorder but, as far as he can, always
fieri potest semper amplexans, non solum erga suos, s~d et~am
cherishing the concord of peace not only towards his own
circa inimicos; quos exemplo patientiae atque clemenhae pmm
people but in relation also to his foes, whom it is fitting for the
et magnanimum rectorem vincere oportet, testante Psalmista,
godly and magnanimous ruler to conquer by the example of
qui ait: Cum his qui oderunt pacem eram pacificus.a
patience and clemency, as the Psalmist bears witness, who
Prudens igitur dominator per pads connexionem studet
says: 'With them that hate peace I was peaceable.' 129
semper amplificare, ordinare atque gubemare imperium, cum
Thus the prudent lord strives always to enlarge, order and
pax sit omnium rerum tranquillitas ordinis et connexio et in-
govern the empire through the bond of peace, since the peace
crementum regiae potestatis. Ut enim discordia maximae res
of all things is the tranquillity of order and the unity and in-
Jabuntur, ita concordia pads etiam minimae resb crescunt.
crease of royal power. 130 For as the greatest things perish
Unde Publio Scipione interrogante qua ope res publica Nu-
through discord, so through concord peace increases even in
mantiaec prius invicta durasset aut post fuisset eversa, the smallest things. Hence when Publius Scipio enquired by
Tyrseus, quidam Numantinus, respondit: Concordia, invicta; what power the commonwealth of Numantia at first remained
discordia, exitio Juit. Siquidem Numantia civitas per annos quat-
unconquered yet subsequently was overthrown, Tyrseus, a
tuordecim, <1 solis quattuorc millibus suorum, quadraginta'
certain Numantian, replied: 'With concord, she was uncon-
millia Romanorum non solum sustinuit, sed etiam vicit.
querable; with discord, she was ruined.' 131 For fourteen years,
indeed, the city of Numantia, with only four thousand men of
its own, not only held back but even vanquished forty thou-
a pacificus] cum odientibus pacem ego pacifica Vulg.
C11111 ...
sand of the Romans.
b minimae res) minima M
c res publica Numantiae] res Numantia H
d quattuordecim] XIV HM 129 Psalm 120:7.
e quattuor] IV HM 130 Cf. Augustine, De civ. Dei 19:13 (CCSL 48:678-680).
f quadraginta] XL HM 131 Orosius 5:8 (Pl 31:935).
168 De rectoribus Christianis
Concordia dissensiones reprimit, aspera ad lenitatem, ad-
versa in prosperitatem, inimicitias ad amicitiarum tranquilli-
tatem reducit; amabilis inter amicos, inexpugnabilis ab
adversariis, desiderabilis etiam ab inimicis. Haec serena est
domi, victrix in praelio; licet neque bellis velit esse implicata,
nisi cum pernecessaria et justissima exegerit causa.
Sed sunt nonnulli qui successu terrenae felicitatis et tumore
superbiae in tantum existunt elati, ut pacem ab hostibus ob-
latam spernere, et injusta bella suscipere non pertimescant; et,
quod est gravius, duobus forte bellis impliciti, tamquam Spar-
tanorum furore, tertium non recusent. Sed saepe tales virga
divinae ultionis juste intereunt, quoniam pads donum sibi ob-
latum suscipere nolunt. Quomodo Amasiae regi Judae contig-
isse legimus, qui misit nuntios ad Joas filium Joachaz filii Jehu
regis Israel dicens: Veni et videamus nos. a Remisitque Joas rex Is-
rael ad Amasiam regem Judah dicens: Carduus Libani misit ad
cedrum quae est in Libano, dicens, Da filiam tuam filio meo uxorem.
Transieruntque bestiae saltus qui sunt in Libano, et conculcaverunt
carduum. Percutiens invaluisti super Edom, et sublevavit te cor
tuum. Contentus esto gloria, et sede in domo tua. Quare provocas
malum, utc cadas tu et Judad tecum? Et non acquievit Amasias. As-
cenditque Joas rex Israel, et viderunt se ipse et Amasias rex Judac in
Bethsames oppido Judae; percussusque est Juda 1 coram Israel.
Libet etiam in hoe loco~ commemorare quod de impioh Juli-
ano principe in historia refertur ecdesiastica, qui multos vicos
castraque detinens, jam etiam civitates Persarum capiebat.
a nos] mutuo add. H
b Juda] Judae M
c ut] et H
d Juda) Judas M
e J11da]Judae M
f Juda) om. M
g in hoe loco] 0111. M
h impio] ipso M
On Christian Rulers 169
Concord restrains dissensions; she reduces bitter things to
gentleness, unfavourable things to prosperity, enmities to the
tranquillity of friendship; she is loved among friends, uncon-
querable by adversaries, desirable even by foes. She is serene at
home, victorious in battle, though not willing to be involved in
war except when a very necessary and most just cause arises.
But there are some who become so exalted by the approach
of earthly felicity and the swelling of pride that they do not at
all fear to spurn an offer of peace by their enemies and under-
take unjust wars; and, what is more grievous, having by chance
become embroiled in two wars, as with the fury of the
Spartans, 132 they do not refuse a third. But such persons often
perish justly by the rod of divine vengeance, because they re-
fuse to receive the gift of peace offered to them. We read how
this befell Amaziah, king of Judah, who 'sent messengers to Je-
hoash son of Jehoahaz, son of Jehu king of Israel, saying: Come
let us see one another. And Jehoash king of Israel sent again to
Amaziah king of Judah, saying: A thistle of Lebanon sent to a
cedar tree, which is in Lebanon, saying: Give thy daughter to
my son to wife. And the beasts of the forest, that are in Leba-
non, passed and trod down the thistle. Thou hast beaten and
prevailed over Edom, and thy heart hath lifted thee up: be con-
tent with the glory, and sit at home. Why provokest thou evil,
that thou shouldst fall, and Judah with thee? But Amaziah did
not rest satisfied. So Jehoash king of Israel went up, and he and
Amaziah king of Judah saw one another in Bethshemesh, a
town in Judah. And Judah was put to the worst before Israel.' 133
It is as well at this point to call to mind also what is recorded
in ecclesiastical history concerning the ungodly prince Julian,
who, having occupied many villages and fortresses, was now
seizing even the cities of the Persians.134 And when he had come
132 Cf. Orosius 1:21 (PL 31:742).
133 2 Kings 14:8-12.
134 Cassiodorus 6:46-47 (PL 69:1061- 1062).
170 De rectoribus Christianis
Cumque venisset Ctesiphontem civitatem, in tantum obsedit
regem ut crebris legationibus uteretur, offerens dare suae pa-
triae partem si solutus• bello discederet; quod Julianus noluit,
neque supplicantibus est misertus, neque mente percepit quia
vincere quidem bonum est, supervincere nimis invidiosum,
credens utique magicis artibus, et falsa spe victoriae prae-
sumens; qui dum fueratb in equo et exercitum confortabat
[inarmis,]< certum sperans triumphum, contra illum jaculum
repente delatum, discurrens per brachium in ejus latus immer-
sum est. Ex hoe vulnere suscepit terminum vitae. Qui vero jus-
tissimum intulit vulnus hactenus ignoratur; sed alii quemdam
invisibilium hoe intulisse ferunt, alii verod unum pastorem
Ishmaelitarum, alii militem fame et itinere fatigatum. Sed sive
homo sive angelus fuerit, palam est quia divinis jussionibus
ministravit. Aiunt enim quia dum fuisset vulneratus, mox
manum sanguine suo compleverit et in aerem projecerit
dicens: Galilaee, vicisti! Et in eo ipso confessus cum blasphemia
victoriam.
Nullus ergo pacis gratiam fastu temerario debet spernere,
aut post hostes prostratos elato corde superbire, quomodo
praefatus Amasias et Julianus fecerunt. Unde scriptum est:
Non laeteris super inimici tui interitum, ne forte superveni-
ant in te similia. Et iterum: Cum ceciderit inimicus tuus, ne
gaudeas, et in ruina ejus ne exsultet cor tuum; nam Deo displicet
quisquis exaltat se in malis alterius. Unde beatus David de
suorum interitu inimicorum non solum non erat laetatus, sed
vehementer fuerat contristatus, affectu charitatis plangens
fortes Israel a Philisthaeis fuisse prostratos, et dicens: Inclyti
Israel super montes suosc interfecti sunt. Quomodo ceciderunt
a solutusj soluto M
b fuerat] erat H
c inarmis] inermis H 0111. M
d vero] 0111. H
e suos} tuos Vulg.
On Christian Rulers 171
to the city of Ctesiphon, he beset the king so sorely that he [the
king} made use of frequent embassies, offering to give him part
of the country if he might withdraw unimpeded from the war;
which Julian refused, nor did he show mercy to the supplicants;
nor did he perceive in his mind that it is indeed good to con-
quer but odious to conquer to excess, believing moreover in
magic arts and presuming upon a false hope of victory. While
he was on a horse and encouraging the army, wearing no ar-
mour and hoping for certain triumph, a javelin suddenly deliv-
ered against him, passing through his arm, was plunged into
his side, from which wound he received the end of life. To be
sure, it is to this day unknown who inflicted the most just
wound, but some believe that a certain one of the invisible spir-
its inflicted it, others one of the shepherds of the Ishmaelites,
others a soldier exhausted with hunger and marching. But
whether it was a man or an angel, it is obvious that he acted by
divine commands. For they say that when he [Julian] was
wounded, he at once filled his hand with his own blood and
flung it into the air, saying: 'Thou has conquered, 0 Galilean!'
And thus with blasphemy was victory conceded.
No one, therefore, should spurn the grace of peace with reck-
less pride, nor, after his enemies have been laid low, show dis-
dain with an exalted heart in the way that the aforementioned
Amaziah and Julian did. Hence it is written: 'Rejoice not at the
destruction of thy enemy,' 135 lest perhaps similar things over-
take you. And again: 'When thy enemy shall fall, be not glad,
and in his ruin let not thy heart rejoice,' 136 for whoever exalts
himself in the misfortunes of another is displeasing to God.
Hence not only did the blessed David not rejoice at the death of
his enemies, but he was exceedingly sorrowful, mourning with
the affection of charity the mighty men of Israel laid low by the
Philistines and saying: 'The illustrious of Israel are slain upon
135 Ecdus. 8:8; but quoted very inaccurately.
136 Prov. 24:17.
172 De rectoribus Christianis
fortes? Nolite annuntiare in Geth, neque annuntietis in compitis
Ascalonis, ne forte laetentur filii• Philisthiim, ne exsultent filiae in-
circumcisorum, et caetera. Quibus evidenter ostenditur quan-
tum pietatis affectum sanctus David etiam erga inimicos
habebat.
0 quam pacificos Cunctipotens amat!
Quis regnum Solymae perpetis annuit.
Illos angelici gratia schematis
Omans clarificat pectore vultibus.
Quorum simplicitas cordibus insita,
Sicut mos avibus felle carentibus.
Hae gaudet soboleb celsithronus Pater,
Haeredesque suos hos Deus eligit.
Pacem qui sequitur, splendidus enitet,
Et verbis redolet mel velut Atticum.
Qui pacem renuit, in tenebris manet,
Et caecus gradiens in foveam cadit.
Nam discors animi turbida motio
Expers consilii naufraga parturit
lncautis ducibus saepe pericula,
Quam mortis sequitur mox violentia.
Pax vero medicans dissona glutinat;
Pax lites reprimens gaudia seminat;
Pax jungit populos perpete foedere,
Regnum pace regit rector et optimus.
Quis charisma placet pacis aromate
Virtutum redolent sicut olivifer
Mons pinguis Domini, quo fluit affatim
Lac mel Christicolis nectaris ubere.
a filii] filiae Vulg.
b sobole) sobolem H
On Christian Rulers 173
thy mountains: how are the mighty fallen? Tell it not in Gath,
publish it not in the streets of Ascalon, lest the daughters of
the Philistines rejoice, lest the daughters of the uncircumcised
triumph.' 137 It is evidently shown by these things how much of
the sentiment of pity the holy David had even towards ene-
mies.
0 how the All Powerful loves men of peace!
To them He grants the kingdom of eternal Jerusalem. 1)s
Adorning them with the gift of angelic form,
He causes them to shine in bosom and countenance.
Their hearts, in which simplicity is implanted,
Are like birds, free from all bitterness.
The Father enthroned on high rejoices in this generation,
And God chooses them to be His heirs.
He who follows peace is conspicuous in splendour
And in speech fragrant like the honey of Athens.
He who refuses peace remains in darkness
And, advancing blindly, falls into a pit.
For a discordant and unruly motion of a soul
Lacking counsel often brings forth the perils
Of shipwreck for reckless chieftains,
After which soon comes the violence of death.
But healing peace joins dissonant things together;
Peace, restraining quarrels, sows rejoicings;
Peace unites peoples in unbroken alliance,
And in peace the best ruler rules his kingdom.
He whom the gift of peace pleases is fragrant
With the virtues, like the olive-bearing, fruitful
Mount of the Lord, from which flows to Christians
Milk and honey in abundance, and the richness of nectar.
137 2 Sam. 1:19-20.
138 Cf. Rev. 3:12.
174 De rectoribus Christianis
XVIII
[Gratiarum actiones• ac benivola vota post pacem seu victoriam Deo
reddenda.]
Gloriosi principes et reges atque duces, timorem Altissimi
ante oculos habentes, neque de pacis tranquillitate neque de
triumphis victoriae sibimet arrogabant, sed totum Omnipo-
tentis gratiae deputantes, dignas gratulationes sacraque vota,
seu pro statu pads, seu pro transacta victoria, Domino per-
solvebant, qui dat salutem et gloriam regibusb in ipso fidu-
ciam spei habentibus, qui voluntatem diligentiumc se faciet,
et orationes eorum exaudiet, salvosqued faciet eos; quia cus- 0
todit Dominus1 omnes diligentes se, et omnes peccatores dis-
perdet; Sapientia quoque hoe ipsum attestante atque dicente:
Qui timetis Dominum,g sperate in ilium, et in oblectatione veniet
vobis misericordia. Unde per Joel prophetam dicitur: Dominus
spes populi sui, et fortitudo filiorum Israel.
Quern pro multitudine misericordiarum suarum, et abun-
dantia consolationum, et largitate beneficiorum, quibus hu-
mano generi ineffabili bonitate consulit, admirari et
praeconiorum laudibus ac benignis devotionibus exaltari et
honorarih oportet; Psalmista nos exhortante atque dicente:
Confiteantur Domino misericordiae ejus, et mirabilia ejus filiis homi-
num; cui et illud concinit quod in Deuteronomio legitur: Ipse
est Jaus tua et Deus tuus, qui fecit tibi haec maK71alia et terribilia,
quae viderunt oculi tui. Uncle et populus Israeli duce Moyse
a actiones) 0111. M
b salutem et gloriam regibus) salutem regibus et gloriam H
c diligentium] timentium H
d salvosque] et salvos H
e quia] qui H
f Dominus) om. H
g D0111i1111111) Deum Vulg.
h exaltari et honorari] exaltare et honorare H
populus Israel] Israel populus M
On Christian Rulers 175
18
That, after peace or victory, acts of thanks~ivin~ and well-
intentioned prayers should be returned to God.
Glorious princes and kings and chieftains, having the fear of
the Most High before their eyes, did not arrogate to them-
selves either the tranquillity of peace or the triumphs of vic-
tory, but, attributing everything to the grace of the Almighty,
paid worthy thanks and sacred offerings, either for the condi-
tion of peace or for victory accomplished, to the Lord, Who
gives salvation and glory to kings who have confident hope in
Him: Who will grant the wish of those who love Him, and
Who will hear their prayers and cause them to be saved. For
the Lord watches over all who love Him, and will destroy all
sinners; Wisdom also bearing witness to this and saying: 'Ye
that fear the Lord, hope in him, and mercy shall come to you
for your delight.' 139 Hence it is said by the prophet Joel: 'The
Lord shall be the hope of His people, and the strength of the
children of Israel.' 140
It is fitting to wonder at Him and to exalt and honour Him
with exclamations of praise and grateful devotions for the
multitude of His mercies, and for the abundant consolations
and the liberality of the benefits by which, with ineffable
goodness, He cares for the human race; as the psalmist exhorts
us, saying: 'Let the mercies of the Lord give glory to Him: and
His wonderful works to the children of men.' 141 And what is
read in Deuteronomy is consonant with this: ' He is thy praise,
and thy God, that hath done for thee these great and terrible
things, which thine eyes have seen.' 142 Hence also, when the
people of Israel were led by Moses across the Red Sea and the
139 Ecclus 2:9.
140 Joel 3:16.
141 Psalm 107:21.
142 Deut. 10:21.
176 De rectoribus Christianis
pertransito Mari Rubro, submersisque pelago Aegyptiis, can-
ticum exsultationis Domino personuit, quia ejus magnifica in
se beneficia persensit.
Quid autem referam de famosis et sanctis ducibus ac
regibus ejusdem populi, qui quoties• de manibus inimicorum
liberati vel de hostibus fuerunt victoriosi, liberatori et protec-
tori suo tarn hymnicas laudes quam pacificas hostias caet-
eraque vota Domino acceptabilia retribuebant? Inter quos ille
devotus hymnidicus David pro collatis sibi a Domino benefi-
ciis spiritualiter exsultans aiebat: Cantabo Domino qui bona
tribuit mihi, et psallam nomini Domini altissimi. Hine ille populus
per Nahum prophetam admonetur dicentem: Celebra, Juda, fes-
tivitates tuas, et redde vota tua. Quanta vero bona ipsa plebs
Domini per talia votab consequebatur per Joel prophetam bre-
viter ita describitur: Et comedetis vescentes et saturabimini, et
laudabitis nomen' Dei vestri qui Jecit vobiscum mirabilia, et non
confundetur populus meus in aeternum.J
Sed et in Novi Testamenti tempore multi sanctissimi rec-
tores beneficiorum Altissimi non fuerunt immemores sed
quanto caeteris divina largiente gratia fortiores eminebant et
gloriosiores, tanto magis Omnipotenti dignos recompensa-
bant honores; qualis erat magnus et optimus imperator Con-
stantinus, qui insigni pietate decoratus, superna disponente
providentia, potitus est Europa universa atque Libya;c super
has etiam maximam Asiae partem tenens, subjectos habuit
ubique devotos. Sed etiam barbarorum alii quidem sponte
a quoties} quotiens H
b per talia vota] 0111 . M
c uomen] Domini Vulg.
d aeterimm] sempitemum Vulg.
e Europa universa atque Libya) Europam universam atque Libyam H
On Christian Rulers 177
Egyptians were drowned in the sea, they shouted out a song of
exultation to the Lord because they felt His magnificent kind-
nesses in the midst of them. 143
But what shall I say of the famous and holy chieftains and
kings of that same people who, as often as they were delivered
out of the hands of their enemies or triumphed over their foes,
offered up both hymns of praise to their Deliverer and Protec-
tor and peace offerings and other sacrifices acceptable to the
Lord? Among them, David, the devout maker of hymns, exult-
ing in spirit because of the gifts conferred on him by the Lord,
said: 'I will sing to the Lord, who giveth me good things: yea I
will sing to the name of the Lord the Most High.' 144 Thus the
people were admonished by Nahum the prophet, saying: 'O
Judah, keep thy festivals, and pay thy vows.' 145 Moreover,
how many good things the people of the Lord received by
such vows is described briefly by the prophet Joel: 'And you
shall eat in plenty, and shall be filled: and you shall praise the
name of the Lord your God, Who hath done wonders with
you, and my people shall not be confounded for ever.' 146
But in the time of the New Testament also many most holy
rulers were not unmindful of the blessings of the Most High;
rather, the more they stood forth as mightier and more glori-
ous than others by the liberality of divine grace, the more they
repaid worthy honours to the Almighty. Such a one was the
great and best emperor Constantine, who, distinguished by
outstanding godliness, having by the disposition of divine
providence became master of the whole of Europe and Libya,
and holding in addition to these the greatest part of Asia, had
devoted subjects everywhere. But some of the barbarians
served him, indeed, of their own free will, others by conquest.
143 Exod. 15.
144 Psalm 13:6.
145 Nahum 1:15.
146 Joel 2:26.
178 De rectoribus Christianis
serviebant, alii devicti. Ubique triumphi videbantur, et victor
cernebatur in omnibus imperator, qui divinae celsitudinis
potentiam cognoscens atque admirans, et tanta sibi et hu-
mano generi collata per Omnipotentis gratiam beneficia
enumerans, litterasGdivina laude atque honoris gloria refer-
tas in hunc modum descripsit dicens: Sacratissimam custodiens
/idem, veritatis luce participatus sum; luminis veritate xubernatus,
sacram axnoscob/idem. Denique per hoe, c sicuti res ipsa confirmat,
venerabilem relixionem esse conspicio, et doctrinam axnitionis
sanctissimi Dei omnibus offerentem. Hujusd cultum me habere
profiteor, quia hujus Dei virtutem in auxilio habens, inchoans a fini-
bus Oceani, omnem terrarum orbem firmissima~ spe salutis obtinui.
Hunc Deum colo, cujus sixnum Dea dicatus meus exercitus portat in
humeris, et a quo dum justo sermone aliquid poscitur impetratur.
Ex ipsis autem tropaeis insixnibus beneficia repente suscipio. Hunc
itaque Deum immortali memoria me honorare profiteor, eumque
summa puraque mente super omnia esse credo. Hunc inclinatis xeni-
bus invocabo, qui puram tantummodo mentem et immaculatam ani-
mam ab omnibus exixit; virtutis et pietatis actus exquirit,
mansuetudinis et clementiae delectatur operibus, mites amat, habet
odio turbulentos, dili~it fidem, pun it perfidiam, omnemque potentiam
cum fastu despicit, superborum punit asperitatem, ad fastum elevatos
perimit, humilibus autem ac patientibus dixna retribuit. Quibus om-
nibus consideratis, multas Deo refero xratias, quoniam intexra provi-
dentia omne xenus hwnanum colens Lexem divinam, reddita sibi pace
decenter exsultet.
a litteras] divitias M
b ng,wsco) cognosco H
c hoe) haec H
d h11j11s) huiusmodi H
e firmissima) firma M
On Christian Rulers 179
Triumphs seemed to be everywhere, and the emperor was seen
to be a victor in all things; but he, acknowledging and wonder-
ing at the power of the divine Highness, and counting the great
benefits conferred upon him and the human race by the grace of
the Almighty, wrote a letter in the following terms, full of di-
vine praise and the glory of honour, saying: 'Protecting the
most sacred faith, I have participated in the light of truth;
guided by the truth of the Light, I acknowledge the sacred faith.
Indeed, through this, as the thing itself confirms, I perceive this
religion to be worthy of veneration and to offer to all men the
teaching of the knowledge of the Most Holy God. I profess my-
self to hold this worship because, beginning from the ends of
the ocean, having the virtue of this God as my aid, I have occu-
pied the whole orb of the earth with the most firm hope of sal-
vation. I worship this God Whose sign my army, dedicated to
God, bears on its shoulders, and of Whom, for as long as any-
thing is asked with righteous speech, it is obtained; and from
those signs I receive unexpectedly the benefits of victory. Thus I
profess myself to honour this God with immortal memory, and
with a most good and pure mind I believe Him to be above all
things. I will call upon Him on bended knees, Who requires of
all men only a pure mind and a spotless soul. He looks for acts
of virtue and godliness; He delights in works of gentleness and
clemency; He loves the meek; He holds the unruly in despite;
He delights in faith; He punishes faithlessness; He despises all
power and haughtiness; He punishes the sharpness of pride; He
destroys those raised up in haughtiness; and He repays the
humble and patient with fitting rewards. 147 Hence for all these
considerations I return much thanks to God, because, by re-
newed providence, the whole human race, worshipping the
divine law, fittingly rejoices in the peace that has been ren-
dered to it.' 148
147 Cf. Luke 1:50-53.
148 Cassiodorus 3:3 (PL 69:948-949).
180 De rectoribus Christianis
Et haec quidem~ piissimus atque Christianissimus imper-
ator,b dans gloriam Deo pro immensis beneficiis ipsiusc dice-
bat. Quis enimd rector sub Christiani nominis titulo
insignitus, atque ab infantiac tutela matris Ecclesiae ubere
lacte sinu educatus, et in principali dignitatis apice divina
disponente gratia sublimatus, non jugiter Omnipotenti victi-
mas gratiarum offeret, non illius voluntati humiliter atque
ardenter obedire, et sanctis ejus servis placare non magnop-
ere contendet, si rex impius Nabuchodonosor Deum Israel
honorat, si Alexander Magnus, cum esset paganissimus,f il-
lius templum adiit, illius majestati cervicem subdidit, se
genibus provolutisg curvat, ab illo auxilium efflagitat, illi vic-
timas immolat, atque insuper sancti pontificem templi Jad-
dum plurimis honoribus sublimat? Theodosius quoque lux
imperatoriae dignitatis sacratissima, pro beneficiis a Deo sibi
collatis creberrimas gratias referebat, multis honoribus
Christo suo vota compensans, conjugemque suam Eudoxiam
ad Hierosolymam destinavith quaei Christi amore refertai
tarn Hierosolymis ecclesias constitutas quam per singulas
civitates positas multum honoravit, et cum Hierosolymam
pergeret et cum denuo remearet.
Si pax proveniat, seu plaudant ampla tropaea,
Arroget incautus talia nemo sibi;
Nam Deus omnicreans, ingratos atque superbos
Mente sui cordis spemit ubique duces.
a quidem] imperator H
b imperator] 0111. H
c beneficiis ipsius] ipsius beneficiis M
d enim] autem H
e infantia] sub add. H
f paganissimus] reverendum add. H
g provolutis] provolutus M
h conjugemque ... destinavitJ 0111. M
quae] quibus M
referta) refertis M
On Christian Rulers 181
And the most godly and most Christian emperor spoke
these things, giving glory to God for His immense benefits.
For what ruler distinguished by the honour of the name of
Christian and sheltered from infancy in the bosom of Mother
Church, reared on the milk of her breast and lifted up to the
highest apex of dignity by the grace of divine disposition,
will not continuously offer to the Almighty sacrifices of
thanksgiving, and not humbly and ardently obey His will,
and not strive with all his might to please His holy servants,
if the ungodly king Nebuchadnezzar honoured the God of
Israel; 149 if Alexander the Great, though he was a supreme pa-
gan, went into His temple, bowed the neck to His Majesty, cast
himself down upon bended knees, entreated His aid, offered
sacrifices to Him and, moreover, raised up Iaddus, the high
priest of the holy temple, with many honours? 150 Theodosius
[II) also, a most sacred light of the imperial dignity, returned
the most constant thanks for the benefits conferred upon him
by God, making good his vows to Christ with many honours;
and he sent to Jerusalem his wife Eudoxia 151 who, filled with
the love of Christ, greatly honoured the churches established
in Jerusalem as well as those built in other cities, both when
she went to Jerusalem and when she returned again. 152
If peace comes forth, or men applaud glorious trophies,
Let no one, heedless, attribute such things to himself;
For Cod, the Creator of all things, scorns in His mind
Chieftains everywhere who are ungrateful and proud,
149 Dan 3:28-29; 4.
150 Josephus, Antiq11itates (ed. Thackeray) 11:8:5; Cf. S. Hieronymi interpreta-
tio chronicae Eusebii Pamphili PL 27:473--474.
151 More correctly, [Aelia Licinia] Eudocia. The slip is understandable:
Theodosius Il's mother was called Aelia Eudoxia; he and Eudocia had
a daughter called Licinia Eudoxia. See John Malalas, Chronographia (ed.
J. Thum, Ioam1is Malalae Chronographia, Corpus Fontium Historiae
Byzantinae 35 (Berlin, New York: Walter de Gruyter, 2000)), 14.
152 Cassiodorus 12:15 (PL 69:1214).
182 De rectoribus Christianis
Diligit et mites, grates Dominoque ferentes,
Cujus multiplices gratificantur opes.
Nam neque divitiae faciunt neque regna beatos,
Si non celsithrono laus sit honorque Patri.
Ob hoe eximius divino munere princeps
Hymnidicas laudes vota Deoque ferat
Oum pax arridet, tumid us dum stemitur hostis,
Oum pollet terris copia plena bonis,
Oum Deus ex alto regem populumque triumphet
Magnifice plebem glorificando suam.
Absit murmurium populo, cum manna redundet
Tranquillae pads multiplicisque boni.
Cantica laetitiae potius tollantur in astra.
Tantis pro donis organizare decet
Spiritus omnipotens orbis dum climata refert
Oum quoque terrigenis regna supema patent.
XIX
[De privile~iis sanctae matris Ecclesiae a pio rectore conservandis, ac
dignis ecclesiarum praepositis atque ministris.]
Nam quisquis est prudens et sanctus Christiani populi domi-
nator, beneficiorum Domini semper fit memor; ideoque bene-
ficii largitorem honoribus magnificat, a quoa honoratum se
esse cognoscit, piaque affectione de privilegiis et causis sanc-
tae matris Ecclesiae, quae est sponsa Dei vivi, conservandis et
augendis, nee non de honore ac reverentia sacerdotali laud-
abilem sollicitudinem habet. Tune enim se fidelem Dei esse
cultorem ostendit, dum Christiana devotione quidquid ad
honorem et gloriam Christi Sanctaeque ejus Ecclesiae perti-
net, ordinabiliter disponere fideli sermone studet, seque om-
nibus adversitatibus, si necesse fuerit, ob defensionem populi
a a quo] atque M
On Christian Rulers 183
And loves the meek who offer up thanks to the Lord
Whose manifold riches are bestowed on them.
For neither wealth nor kingdoms make them blessed
If there be not praise and honour to the Father high-throned.
Thus let the prince distinguished by divine favour
Offer up hymns of praise and prayers to God
When peace smiles upon him, when a proud foe is scattered,
When he prevails over good lands filled with abundance,
When God exalts the king and people with triumphs,
Magnificently glorifying his people.
Let there be no murmuring by the people when the manna
Of tranquil peace and manifold good things overflows.
Rather let joyous canticles be lifted up to the stars.
It is fitting to make music for such gifts
When the Almighty Spirit restores the lands of the earth
And supernal kingdoms too lie open to earth-born men.
19
Concernin~ the privile~es of Holy Mother Church that are to be pre-
served by a ~odly ruler; and worthy stewards
and ministers of the Church.
Whoever is a prudent and holy lord of a Christian people is
mindful always of the Lord's kindnesses, and so he magnifies
the Giver of such kindnesses with honours and acknowledges
himself to have been honoured by Him; and, with godly af-
fection, he shows laudable care in conserving and augment-
ing the privileges and causes of Holy Mother Church, who is
the bride of the Living God, and for the honour and rever-
ence of the priests. For he who desires that he and his king-
dom should be defended by divine protection shows himself
to be a faithful worshipper of God when, from Christian de-
votion, he strives with faithful fervour to dispose in an or-
derly fashion whatever pertains to the honour and glory of
Christ and His holy Church and, if it should be necessary,
184 De rectoribus Christianis
Dei, tamquam scutum objicit, qui se suumque regnum divina
protectione defendi exoptat. Nee cessat augere honoribus Dei
Ecclesiam, qui vult suum augeri et amplificari imperium, ac
de pace et securitate pia solertia pertractat ecclesiastica, qui
transitoriam et aeternam pacem ac securitatem desiderat
obtinere.
Sit ergo fortis imitator ipsorum principum, qui ante ipsum
juste et pie in voluntate Dei regnaverunt, et Christianum
populum bene rexerunt, Christique Ecclesiam opportuno sola-
tio foverunt, Dei timorem et coelestis remunerationis spem
semper, ante oculos habentes, et omnia quae agebant sive dis-
ponebant, secundum voluntatem ejus perficere festinantes,
non pravorum iniquitatibus consentientes, sed prava in directa
summo studio secundum trutinam justitiae transferentes.
Sciebant enim quia qui emendare potest et negligit, participem
se procul dubio delicti constituit, quomodo in libris Regum
narratur de Heli sacerdote, qui filiis suis in cultu divino delin-
quentibus, et populo oblationes suas Deo offerenti vim facien-
tibus, insuper et cum mulieribus quae observabant ad ostium
tabernaculi dormientibus pepercit,• et non eos auctoritate pa-
terna acriter corripuit. Quanta vindicta super eos venit, et su-
per omnem populum! Quoniam traditi sunt ipsi filii Helib
simul cum area Domini et universus populus in manus Phil-
isthiim, et caesus est Israel plaga magna nimis, ita ut triginta
millia peditum ibi cecidissent etc area Domini capta est. Duo
quoque filii Heli, Ophni et Phinees, mortui sunt,d ipseque
Heli, cum audiretc arcam Dei captam et filios suos mortuos,
cecidit de sella retrorsum, et fractis cervicibus mortuus est;
a pepercit] negligenteradd. H
b Heli) 0111. M
c et] quoad M
d Heli, Ophni et Phinees, mortui sunt] Heli mortui sunt, Ophni et Phi-
nees H
e audiret] audisset H
zni4
On Christian Rulers 185
opposes himself like a shield against all adversities for the
defence of the people of God. Nor does he who wishes his
own empire to be augmented and broadened cease to aug-
ment with honours the Church of God, and he who desires to
obtain both transitory and eternal peace and security occupies
himself with godly resourcefulness for the sake of ecclesiasti-
cal peace and security.
Let him therefore be a steadfast imitator of those princes
before him who ruled justly and piously in accordance with
God's will, and ruled the Christian people well and cherished
the churches of Christ with ready consolation, having the fear
of God and the hope of heavenly reward ever before their
eyes, and who hastened to accomplish everything that they
did or disposed according to His will, not assenting to the in-
iquities of the wicked but with supreme devotion making the
crooked straight according to the scales of justice.153 For they
knew that he who can correct a fault and neglects to do so
makes himself a participant in it, in the manner related in the
Book of Kings of Eli the priest, who spared his sons when they
were delinquent in the divine worship. 154 They used force
against people offering their sacrifices to God and, above all,
lay with the women who waited at the door of the tabernacle,
yet he did not sharply chastise them with paternal authority.
How great was the vengeance that came upon them and upon
all the people! For those sons of Eli and the Ark of the Lord
and all the people together were delivered into the hands of
the Philistines, and Israel was overthrown with an exceedingly
great slaughter, so that thirty thousand foot-soldiers fell and
the Ark of the Lord was taken. And the two sons of Eli, Ho-
phni and Phineas, perished, and Eli himself, when he heard
that the Ark of God was taken and his sons were dead, fell
from his stool backwards, and broke his neck, and died; and so
153 Cf. Isa. 45:2.
154 1 Sam. 2-4.
186 De rectoribus Christianis
sicque sacerdotium ab ejus domo ablatum ad aliam domum
translatum est, nee quisquam de stirpe Heli ultra in temple
Domini ministravit.
Hoe itaque exemplo et aliis similibus quae in Scripturis sac-
ris referuntur consideratis, sacratissimi principes atque rec-
tores non recipiebant personas adulatorum, mel dulcedinis
verborum pravae persuasionis veneno intermiscentium, nee
consentiebant fraudibus iniquorum nequiter blandientium;
quoniam si illis consentiatur in talibus nequitiis, non solum
ipsi peccantes, sed et eis consentientes pariter interibunt. Ac
boni et prudentes reges, quoniam ipsi recte vivunt, pio zelo
praevaricantes disciplinabiliter redarguunt et corrigunt. Unde
sibi duplicem remunerationis a Domino palmam acquirunt
dum male in subjectis redarguere et eosdem ad bona verbo et
exemplis provocare student.
Oportet enim Deo amabilem regnatorem, quern divina ordi-
natio tamquam vicarium suum in regimine Ecclesiae suae esse
voluit, et potestatem ei super utrumque ordinem praelatorum
et subditorum tribuit, ut singulis personis et quae justa sunt de-
cemat, et sub sua dispensatione prior ordo bene docendo et op-
erando praesit et sequens• ordo devote obediendo fideliter
subditus fiat. Et ideo in bono rectore debet laudabilis intentio
esse, etb bono studio illud providere, quatenus praepositi eccle-
siarum Dei suum locum legitime teneant; eisque ad hoe ad-
miniculum regia dementia tribuat ut officium suum secundum
mandata Dei et sacrorum canonum instituta pleniter agere
valeant. Nee eis saeculares potestates impedimento fiant, sed
potius ad fidem Dei servandam et cultum justitiae perficien-
d um faveant. Ideoque, ut in superioribus praediximus, per
a ordo bene ... et sequens] 0111. M
b et] acH
On Christian Rulers 187
the priesthood was taken away from his house and transferred
to another house, nor did anyone of Eli's stock again minister
in the temple of the Lord.
By this example, then, and other similar ones that are re-
ported in the sacred scriptures, it is established that the holiest
princes and rulers did not give countenance to sycophants
mixing the honey of sweet words with the poison of vicious
persuasions, nor did they wickedly consent to the frauds of
unjust flatterers; for if consent is given to such worthless
things, not only will those who sin perish, but also equally
those who consent. Moreover, just and prudent kings, because
they themselves live rightly, with discipline refute and correct
transgressors with godly zeal. Hence for as long as they strive
to refute evils in their subjects and incite the same to good by
word and examples, they obtain for themselves a twofold
palm of reward from the Lord.
For it is fitting that a ruler worthy to be loved of God,
whom the divine ordinance has willed to be as it were His
vicar in the government of His Church and to whom He has
granted power over both orders, of prelates and subjects,
should discern what is just for each person and that, under his
dispensation, the first order should preside over teaching and
ministering well and the second order be faithfully and de-
voutly subject in obeying. And so in the good ruler there must
be a laudable intention to see to it with goodly zeal that those
set over the churches of God may hold their place lawfully;
and let the royal clemency distribute support to them so that
they may be able fully to perform their office according to the
commandments of God and the institutes of the sacred canons.
Nor should the secular powers become an impediment, but,
rather, let them support them in protecting the faith of God
and perfecting the cultivation of justice. And so, as we have
already said above, it is necessary that synods be convened in
188 De rectoribus Christianis
singulos annos synodales fieri conventus necesse est, ubi ec-
clesiastica jura et negotia juste et legitime discutiantur.
ldcirco diligentissime bono et pio rectori providendum est
ut sanctificatio nominis Domini, quae in locis Deo consecratis
manet sine ulla reprehensione, in quantum possibile fuerit
servetur. Et tales rectores atque dispensatores in eis constitu-
antur qui sine inexplebili avaritia atque luxuria res bene trac-
tent divinas, et Dei servis atque famulabus sufficientem
victum atque vestitum tribuant, viduisque et orphanis atque
pauperibus juxta canones provisionem condignam primum
impendant; eta servitutem congruam regi orthodoxo de rebus
quae supersunt exhibeant, ut primo ordine fiat quod ad di-
vinum et in sequenti quod ad humanum pertinet obsequium.
Nam si provida solertia erga carnales milites cura sit ex-
hibenda quatenus eis cuncta necessaria erogentur impendia,b
et qui plus in bellicis tumultibus laborant et ad profectum rei
publicae devotiores et fortiores atque utiliores fiunt plus mer-
cedis et honoris accipiunt, quanto magis providendum estc de
spiritualibus Christi militibus, quorum sanctis laboribus et
orationibus ipsa res publica servatur incolumis et illaesa?
Hostes quoque visibiles et invisibiles superantur, copia rerum
temporalium cum prosperitatis eventu cumulatur; sancti an-
geli in adjutorium populo invitantur; serenitas pads redditur;
imperium amplificatur; postremo regia dignitas et honorifi-
centia diu atque feliciter praestante Dominod extenditur, ac
filii filiorum in apice regni nobilitantur.
Orthodoxus ac beatus ille rector eminet
Qui, Dei timore mactus atque arnore fervid us,
Anteponit ilia sernper aulicis negotiis
Christiana quis ubique crescit alma gloria.
a et) sic add. H
b impendia] stipendia H
c est) om. M
d praestante Domino] potestate M
On Christian Rulers 189
each year, at which ecclesiastical laws and business may be
discussed justly and lawfully.
Therefore let the good and pious ruler provide most dili-
gently that the holiness of the Lord's name, which abides in
the places consecrated to God, is preserved as far as possi-
ble without any reproach. And let such rectors and stewards
be appointed in them who may manage divine affairs well,
without insatiable avarice and luxury, and distribute suffi-
cient food and clothing to the servants and handmaids of
God and, above all, make fitting provision for widows and
orphans and the poor according to the canons. And let them
display service suitable to an orthodox ruler from those
things that remain, so that first in order may be that which
pertains to the divine, and second that which pertains to
human service. For if, with provident skill, care is to be
shown towards carnal soldiers to the extent that everything
necessary to them is paid for, and if those who labour more
in the tumults of war receive all the more of reward and
honour the more they become devoted and steadfast and
useful to the progress of the commonwealth, how much
more should provision be made for the spiritual soldiers of
Christ, by whose sacred labours and prayers the common-
wealth itself is preserved unharmed and inviolate? Enemies
also, visible and invisible, are overcome; an abundance of
temporal things is heaped up as the outcome of prosperity;
holy angels are summoned to the aid of the people; the se-
renity of peace is restored; the empire is enlarged; finally,
royal dignity and honour are extended long and happily by
the Lord's protection, and the sons of sons are ennobled
upon the apex of the kingdom.
That ruler stands out as orthodox and blessed
Who, gifted with the fear of God and fervent in love,
Puts always before the affairs of the royal household
The Christian duties by which bountiful glory everywhere grows;
 z:q
190 De rectoribus Christianis
Qui pio tenore servat omne privilegium
Unde regis candidata sponsa Christi gaudeat;
Qui lupos rapaces arcet aequitate regia,
Christiana ne premantur improbis ovilia.
Ipse zelotes et instat ardens more fulminis,
Emicans [ut] • ultor ensis insequendo reprobos.
Auribus modestis ille verba temnit aurea
Ne mel ore suggerentis det venena toxica.
Nam colax in ore gestat arte verba mellea,
Cordis ac sinu retentat intus felle machinas.
His homunculis resistat Christianus arbiter
Scita legum mos et ordo patriaeque regulae,
Ac Dei colat ministros sanctitate fulgidos,
Qui Deo placere norunt ore, corde, moribus.
His precantibus beatis res beata publica
Omnibus bonis abundat, sicut arva fructibus.
Principis honor thronizat, ac tropaea buccinant;
Laeta pax ubique regnat quieta gaudia.
XX
[Quanta ignominia superbos, qualisque vel quanta gloria hie et in
futuro principes orthodoxos comitatur.]
Has autem paucas de multis, divinas et humanas historias per-
currens, vestrae, domine rex, excellentiae commonitorias obtuli
litteras, vestro amore ad hoe opusculum instigatus, sciens me
debitorem esse vestrae celsitudinis obsequio; utile fore per-
pendens, si quae sparsim in divinis et humanis eloquiis de
quibusdam bonis etb malis regibus sive principibus leguntur,
in unum breviter deflorarem opusculum; unde possit
vestrum delectari ingenium, et nostrae devotionis erga vestrae
a ut] et HM
b bonis et) 0111. M
On Christian Rulers 191
Who with a godly course preserves every privilege
From which Christ's shining white bride may rejoice;
Who with royal justice keeps away the grasping wolves,
Lest Christian sheepfolds be oppressed by the wicked. 155
Like a flaming thunderbolt, that zealous man pursues
The wicked, overtaking them like an avenging sword.
With modest ears he despises golden words
Lest honey from a tempter's mouth produce deadly poisons;
For in his mouth the artful flatterer bears honeyed words,
But in his heart and bosom he keeps fell stratagems.
Let the Christian judge, the statutes of the laws, custom
And the order of the fatherland's rules resist these little men,
And let him cherish God's ministers who, bright with sanctity,
Know how to please God in word, heart and morals.
By the prayers of these blessed ones a blessed commonwealth
Abounds in all good things, like fruitful fields.
The prince's honour is enthroned and victories are trumpeted;
Everywhere reigns a joyous peace and a tranquil joy.
20
How great is the disgrace that accompanies the proud, and of what
kind or how great is the glory of orthodox princes here and in the
world to come.
Reviewing divine and human histories, 0 Lord King, I have
presented these few out of many pages of advice for Your Ex-
cellency, moved to produce this little work by your love,
knowing myself to be a debtor in Your Highness's service, and
supposing that it might be useful if I were to gather into one
short work those things that are in various places read in di-
vine and human discourses concerning certain good and bad
rulers or princes, by which your intellect might be delighted
and a well-intentioned service of our devotion to the clarity of
155 Cf. Matt. 7:15; 10:16; Luke 10:3; John 10:11- 12; Acts 20:29.
192 De rectoribus Christianis
claritudinem intelligentiae manifestari benivolum queat obse-
quium. Sic et apes ex diversis floribus liquidaa mella in utili-
tatem dominorum transitura colligunt, quibus gratissimos
favos artificiosa dispositione componunt.
Hos itaque apices velut enchiridion vestri sagacitas ingenii
saepius transcurrendo perlegat, quatenus facilius animad-
vertere possit quanta mala malis, et quanta bona bonis rectori-
bus supema et divina justitia rependit.b Ut enim reprobis
praesentes offensiones, calamitates, captivitates, filiorum orbi-
tates, amicorum strages, frugum sterilitates, pestilentias intol-
erabiles, breves et infelices dies, diuturnas aegrotationes,
mortes pessimas, et insuper aeterna supplicia retribuit. Ita e
contra justis et sanctis rectoribus multa in praesenti solatia -
divitiarum abundantiam, triumphorum gloriam, pacis tran-
quillitatem, praeclaram sobolis indolem, multos et felices an-
nos - ac perpetuum regnum in futuro donat. Nam sicut impiis
sive prospera sive adversa cuncta in exitiosos fines accidunt,
sic electis Dei omnes adversitates seu felicitatis eventus in bo-
num concurrunt, testante Apostolo, qui ait: Omnia autem con-
curruntc in bonum his qui secundum propositum vocati sunt sancti.
In adversis quidem pro tempore exercitati, sed in prosperis
abundanter a Domino consolati; fastu superborum despecti,
sed coelesti juvamine victoriosi. Quorum meritis et sanctarum
precum intercessionibus hostes superati, principes capti, urbes
munitissimae fractae sunt tamquam tela araneae; maria
fuerunt pervia; fortia quaeque facta sunt infirma, et quae
a liquida) 0111. M
b rependit] rependat M
c co11currunt] cooperantur Vulg.
On Christian Rulers 193
your understanding could be displayed. In this way also the
bees collect from different flowers the flowing honey that is to
be transformed for the benefit of their lords, 156 from which by
skilful arrangement they fashion the most pleasing honey-
combs.
Thus let the wisdom of your intellect, reading through
these things, often peruse them like a handbook, that it may
the more easily observe how many evils supernal and divine
justice metes out to evil rulers and how many good things to
good ones. For to the reprobate it returns sudden accidents,
calamities, captivities, the loss of children, the slaughter of
friends, the barrenness of crops, intolerable pestilences, brief
and unhappy days, prolonged illnesses, the worst of deaths,
and, above all, eternal torments. To just and holy rulers, by
contrast, it gives many consolations in the present - an abun-
dance of riches, the glory of triumphs, the tranquillity of
peace, offspring of noble character, many and happy years -
and, in the future, a perpetual kingdom. 157 For just as all
things, whether favourable or unfavourable, come to destruc-
tive ends for the ungodly, so all events of adversity or good
fortune work together for the good of God's chosen ones, as
the Apostle bears witness, who says: 'All things work together
unto good, to such as, according to His purpose, are called to
be saints.' 158 They are indeed troubled for a time by adversity,
but abundantly consoled by the Lord in prosperity; despised
by the haughtiness of the proud, but victorious by heavenly
help. For by the merits and intercessions of their holy prayers
enemies have been overthrown, princes taken captive and the
strongest towns broken like a spider's web; seas have been
made passable; all the strong have been made weak, while
156 Cf. Aquinas, De reg. princ. 1:3: 'Est etiam apibus unus rex, et in toto
universo unus Deus factor omnium et rector.'
157 See Introduction, pp. 17- 18.
158 Rom. 8:28.
 sq
194 De rectoribus Christianis
infirma existimabantur mox exstiterunt fortia. Aer quoque
saepe ventis nubibus et grandine contra rebelles decertavit;
ultoribus aether ignibus atque tonitruis super hostes intonuit;
aequora violentissimas exercuerunt tempestates; angelica de-
servierunt ministeria; sol luna caeteraque sidera cursum sta-
biliri statuerunt; terra vivos deglutivit ac mortuos ab inferis
eadem evomuit. Omnes enim creaturae eis erant subjectae
quoniam ipsi Creatori corde, verbo et opere subditi perman-
serunt. Quippe quorum erat sanctum studium Deum timere
simul et amare, sacra perscrutari eloquia, noscentes gloriam
regum esse investigare sermonem et Dei scire• sapientiam,
sicut scriptum est: Posside sapientiam, posside prudentiam prin-
cipium sapientiae; arripe illam et exaltabit te, ~loriftcaberis ah ea
cum earn fueris amplexatus; dabit capiti tuo auRmenta vatiarum,
et corona inclyta prote~et te.b Has igitur artes Omnipotenti
beneplacitas studiose didicerunt: juste judicare, humiles ac
benevolos esse erga bonos, superbos vero et invectos in
malos, pauperes alere, ecclesias Dei adjuvare, nee spem in
transitorio et caduco regno ponere, sed in coelesti et perma-
nentis semper regni beatitudine votum ac desiderium collo-
care.
Quorum exempla et insignia gesta, atque felicem transitoriae
vitae cursum, insuper aeternae retributionis gloriam vos semper
amare, cogitare, atque imitari, domine rex, summopere decet.
Sic enim Dominus omnipotens erit custos et defensor vester
contra omnes adversarios vestros, quos magnifica potentia
sua conteret subc pedibus vestris, vel bellico seu pacis jure
a scire) om. M
b Posside sapientiam ... proteget te I Posside sapientiam, posside prudentiam;
ne obliviscaris, neque declines a verbis oris mei. Ne dimittas earn, et cus-
todiet te; dilige earn, et servabit te. Principium sapientiae. Posside sapi-
entiam et in omni possessione tua adquire prudentiam. Arripe illam et
exaltabit te; glorificaberis ab ea cum earn fueris amplexatus. Dabit capiti
tuo augmenta gratiarum, et corona indita proteget te Vulg.
c sub] om. M
On Christian Rulers 195
those things that were esteemed weak have then emerged as
strong. The air also has many times fought against the rebel-
lious with winds, clouds and hail; the sky has pealed above
the enemy with avenging flames and thunders; the oceans
have released the most violent tempests; angelic ministers
have served zealously; the sun, the moon and the other stars
have been halted in their course; 159 the earth has swallowed up
the living and vomited forth the dead from the depths. 160 For
all creatures were made subject to them because they them-
selves remained subject to the Creator in heart, word and
deed. Their holy endeavour, indeed, was to fear God and at
the same time to love Him, and to study the sacred eloquence,
knowing that the glory of kings is to search the word of God
and to know His wisdom, as it is written: 'Get wisdom, get
prudence, the beginning of wisdom. Take hold on her, and she
shall exalt thee: thou shalt be glorified by her, when thou shall
embrace her. She shall give to thy head increase of graces, and
protect thee with a noble crown.' 161 Thus they studiously ac-
quired knowledge of those arts pleasing to the Almighty: to
judge justly, to be humble and kindly towards the good but
lofty and harsh towards the bad, to feed the poor, to aid the
churches of God, and to place no hope in a transitory and per-
ishable kingdom, but always to invest prayer and longing in
the blessedness of a heavenly and enduring kingdom.
It is fitting for you, 0 Lord King, with all your might al-
ways to love, study and imitate their examples and distin-
guished deeds, and their fortunate condition during this
transitory life and, above all, the glory of their eternal reward.
For thus will the Almighty Lord be your guardian and de-
fender against all your adversaries, whom with His excellent
power He will crush beneath your feet, or subdue by war or
159 Cf. Josh. 10:11- 14.
160 N um. 26:9-10.
161 A conflation of Prov. 4:5; 4:7-9.
196 De rectoribus Christianis
subjiciet; et corona gratiae suae vos in omnibus adornabit, dies
vestros cum felicitate et gloria in hoe saeculo extendens, atque
justorum consortio regum qui Deo placuerunt in perpetua fe-
licitate constituens. Et erunt filii tui sicut novellaea olivarum in
circuitu mensae tuae. Sedebunt post vos in solio regni vestri.
Dabitb eis longaevam in hoe mundo aetatem simulc ac felici-
tatem, si in viis Domini ambulaverint atque mandata ipsius
custodierint; insuper vero regnum coelorum, potestate et gra-
tiad Salvatoris et Domini nostri Jesu Christi, cui est perpes
gloria et potestas cum Patre et Spiritu sancto in saecula saecu-
lorum. Amen.
EXPLICIT SEDULIUS
DE RECTORIBUS CHRISTIANIS
a 11ove/lar] novella Vulg.
b dabit) dans H
c simul) scilicet M
d potestate et g ratia] praestante gratia H
On Christian Rulers 197
by the law of peace; and He will adorn you in all things with a
crown of grace, lengthening your days with happiness and
glory in this world and establishing you with everlasting hap-
piness in the company of pious kings who have pleased God.
And 'thy children' shall be 'as olive plants, round about thy
table.' 162 They will sit on the throne of your kingdom after you.
If they have walked in the ways of the Lord and kept His
commandments, He will give them long life together with
happiness in this world and, above all, the kingdom of heaven,
by the power and grace of the Saviour, even our Lord Jesus
Christ, in Whom is everlasting glory and power with the Fa-
ther and the Holy Spirit, world without end. Amen.
HERE ENDS SEDULIUS
ON CHRISTIAN RULERS
162 Psalm 127:3.
 INDEX
(All references to the text are to the pages
of the English translation)
Abraham, patriarch, 69, 83
Acacian schism, 27
Aegea, probable scribal error
for [Publius Septimius] Geta,
97
Aistulf, Lombard king, 33
Alcuin, adviser to Charle-
magne, 36
Alexander the Great, 181
Amalek, defeated by divine
aid, 145
Amaziah, king of Judah, fool-
ish pride of, 41, 169, 171
Ambrose, St, Theodosius I
disciplined by, 39, 121-125,
131
Antiochus IV Epiphanes, Se-
leucid emperor, 97, 101
Antonines, Roman emperors,
105
Antoninus Pius, Roman em-
peror, 131
Apringius, proconsul of Af-
rica, 27
Arian heresy, 25, 99, 115
Augustine of Hippo, St, 20, 26,
27, 28, 29, 30, 36
Augustus Caesar, Roman em-
peror, 105
Bathsheba, 119
Bede, St, 20
Boethius, 20
Boniface VIII, Pope, 42
Boniface, St, archbishop of
Mainz, 33
Caesaropapism, problematical
ideology of, 27, 31, 38
'Carolingian Renaissance,' 16,
36
Cassiodorus , ecclesiastical
historian, 20
Chalcedon, Council of, 27
Charlemagne, king and em-
peror, 34, 36, 37, 38, 105;
coronation of, 35-36
Charles Martel, 32
Charles the Bald, Frankish
king and emperor, 16, 19
Childebert II, Merovingian
king, 31
Childeric III, Merovingian
king, deposition of, 32
200
Claudian, Roman poet,
quoted, 147
Constantine, Roman emperor:
conversion of and its conse-
quences, 23, 25, 26, 41;
example of, 53, 105, 113, 115,
147, 149, 163, 177;
and the First Council of Ni-
caea, 25, 113;
letter of, 179
Cyprian, bishop of Carthage,
St, 24
D' Achery, Dom Luc, 21
Dagobert I, Merovingian king,
32
David, king of Israel, example
of, 42, 53, 55, 57, 73, 77, 119,
133, 171, 177
De duodecim abusionibus sae-
culi, Pseudo-Cyprianic trea-
tise, 18
Donatist schism, North Afri-
can Church and, 26
Doyle, Edward Gerard, 21, 22
Edict of Milan, 23
Egyptians, punished by God,
97, 177
Einhard, Frankish chronicler,
33,34
Eli, priesthood and example
of, 39, 185-187
Ephraim of Syria, St, 149
Esther, 83
INDEX
Eudoxia (more correctly Eu-
docia), wife of Theodosius
II, 181
Eusebius of Caesarea, biogra-
pher of Constantine, 25
Flavius Anastasius, Byzantine
emperor, 30
Gelasius I, Pope, 27, 29, 30
Germanus, St, bishop of Aux-
erre, 149-153
Giles of Rome, papal publi-
cist, 42
Goliath, 143
Gratian, Roman emperor, 25
Gregory I, Pope, 20, 31
Gregory VII, Pope, 42
Hadrian I, Pope, 37
Hadrian, Roman emperor, 21-
22
Hartgar, bishop of Liege, 15,
17
Hellmann, Siegmund, 20, 21
Herod, 97, 101
Hezekiah, king of Judah, 145
Hincmar, archbishop of
Rheims, 19, 40
Hophni and Phineas, sons of
Eli, 185
laddus, high priest, favoured
by Alexander the Great, 181
Innocent III, Pope, 42
INDEX
Isidore of Seville, St, 20
James of Nisibis, St, 149
James of Viterabo, papal
publicist, 42
Jehoash, king of Israel, 169
Jehoshaphat, king of Judah,
145
John I, Pope, 99
Jonas, bishop of Orleans, 19,
40
Jovian, Roman emperor, 115
Julian, 'the Apostate,' Roman
emperor, divine punishment
and death of, 41, 99, 169-171
Leo III, Pope, 34-35
Leonidas, Spartan general, 139
Libri Carolini, 37-38
Licinius, Roman emperor, 23
Lothair II, king of Lotharingia,
19
Louis the Pious, Frankish king
and emperor, 19, 36, 39, 105
Lupus, bishop of Troyes, 149-
151
Maccabeus, Judas, 145-147
Maelsechlainn, Irish king, 16
Marcus Aurelius, Roman
emperor, 85
Merovingian dynasty, weak-
ness and deposition of, 32-
33
Migne, J.-P., 19, 20, 21
201
Moses, 145, 175
Nathan, prophet, David
rebuked by, 121
Nebuchadnezzar, king of
Babylon, 133, 181
Nectarius, archbishop of
Constantinople, 125
Nero, Roman emperor, 22, 97
Nerva, Roman emperor, 107
Nicaea:
First Council of, 25, 113, 115;
Second Council of, 37
Nisibis, city of, miraculous
delivery of, 149
Numantia, city of, concord
and discord in, 167
Orosius, ecclesiastical histo-
rian, 20
Patricius Romanorum, title
conferred on Pepin, 34
Pelagian heresy, 151
Pepin, Frankish king, 32-34,
36
Pharaoh, divine punishment
of, 97, 101
Pilate, Pontius, 97, 101
Placilla, wife of Theodosius I,
exemplary conduct of, 81
Pliny the younger, on the
Christians of Bithynia, 23
Ponti/ex Max imus, imperial
title, 25
202 INDEX
Rufinus, minister of Theodo-
sius I, 123
Sapor, Persian king, 149
Saul, king of Israel:
deposition of, 41, 67
cruelty of, 133
Scipio, Publius, 167
Scriptores historiae Augustae, 20
Sedulius Scottus:
De rectoribus Christianis of:
background and argument
of, 22--42
text and translation of, 19-22
life and times of, 15-19
Smaragdus, abbot of Saint-
Mihiel, 19, 40
Solomon, king of Israel:
example of, 42, 53, 55, 57,
71, 73, 125;
lapse into anger of, 133
Spartans, bellicosity of, 169
Specula principum, literary
form, 17-19, 29
Stephen II/Ill, Pope, 33-34
Symmachus, Patrician, 99
Synods, ruler's duty to con-
vene, 111-115, 187-189
Theodoric I, Ostrogothic king,
legend of, 41, 99
Theodoric IV, Merovingian
king, 32
Theodosii, Roman emperors,
105, 117
Theodosius I, Roman em-
peror, 23, 39, 81, 147;
submission of to St
Ambrose, 121-125, 129-131
Theodosius II, Roman em-
peror, 181
Thessalonica, riot and massa-
cre at, 129-131
'Two powers' problem, ori-
gin and nature of, 22--42
Tyrseus of Numantia, 167
Uriah the Hittite, murder of,
119-121
Valentinian, Roman emperor,
41, 115
Xerxes, king of Persia, 139-
141
Zachary, Pope, 32-33